CHAPTER 1

The Human Body :

An Orientation

Major Grenchen Faith Divina – Dayao, LPT, RN, MAN

OVERVIEW OF
ANATOMY
AND
PHYSIOLOGY
Anatomy
• Study of the structure and shape of the
body and body parts and their
relationships to one another.

• Greek word:
– Ana = apart
– Tomy = cut
• Systemic anatomy
– Study of body by systems
• Circulatory, nervous, skeletal, muscular

• Regional anatomy
– Study of organization of the body by areas
• Head, abdomen, arm
• Gross anatomy – study of large body
structures such as heart or bones
• Microscopic anatomy – if a microscope
or magnifying instrument is used to see
very small structures in the body, we
are studying …
Cytology
Hystology
Physiology
• Study of how the body and its parts work
or function
– Physio = nature
– Ology = the study of

• Neuro-physiology
– Explains the workings of the nervous system
• Cardiac physiology
– Studies the function of the heart, which acts
as a muscular pump to keep blood flowing
throughout the body
Relationship between Anatomy
and Physiology
• Anatomy and Physiology are always
related. Structure determines what
functions can take place.

– For example, the lungs are not

muscular chambers like the heart and
can not pump blood, but because the
walls of lungs are very thin, they can
exchange gasses and provide oxygen to
the body.
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION

The human body exhibits 6 levels of

structural complexity :
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION

1- Chemical level
the simplest level of structural ladder

At this level atoms combine to form

molecules such as water, sugar, &
proteins
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION

2- Cellular level the smallest units of

living things.

- molecules can combine to form

organelles (small structure that makes
up cell)
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION

3- Tissue level , groups of similar cells

that have a common function (4 basic
types)
– Epithelial Tissue
– Connective tissue
– Muscular tissue
– Nervous tissue
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION

• 4- Organ level, an organ is a structure

composed of 2 or more tissue types
that performs a specific function for
the body
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION

• 5- Organ System - is a group of organs

that work together to accomplish a
common purpose (each organ has its
own job to do)
LEVELS OF STRUCTURAL
ORGANIZATION

• 6- Organismal level, represents the

highest level of structural organization
(total of 11 organ systems)
ORGAN SYSTEM
OVERVIEW
Body systems:
The human body has 11
systems
Organ Systems
1. Integumentary 7. Lymphatic
2. Skeletal 8. Digestive
3. Muscular 9. Respiratory
4. Nervous 10.Urinary
5. Cardiovascular 11.Reproductive
6. Endocrine
1-INTEGUMENTARY
ORGANS
• Skin, hair, sweat glands,
sebaceous glands, nails

FUNCTIONS
• serve to waterproof, cushion, and
protect the deeper tissues
• excrete wastes, and regulate
temperature
• attachment site for sensory receptors
to detect pain, sensation, pressure,
and temperature
• Synthesize vitamin D
• The skin is the largest organ in the body.
– In humans, it accounts for about 12 to 15 percent
of total body weight and covers 1.5-2m2 of surface
area
• The human skin (integument) is composed of
at least two major layers of tissue:
– epidermis
– dermis
2-SKELETAL
ORGANS
• Bones, cartilages, ligaments, joints

FUNCTIONS
• Protects & supports body organs
• Framework for muscles & movement
• Hematopoiesis; store minerals
3- MUSCULAR
ORGANS
• Skeletal muscle (attached to bone)

FUNCTIONS
• Contraction & mobility
(locomotion)
• Facial expression, posture
• Produce body heat
3 TYPES OF MUCLES
• Skeletal muscle:
– A form of striated muscle tissue
that is the only type of muscle in
the body under voluntary control.
– Most skeletal muscle is attached to
bones by tendons, which are
bundles of collagen fibers capable
of withstanding tension.
3 TYPES OF MUCLES
• Cardiac muscle:
– An involuntary, striated muscle type
found in the heart.
– These types of muscle tissue form the
thick middle layer of the heart and
are responsible for coordinated
contractions, allowing blood to be
efficiently pumped out of the atria and
ventricles to the rest of the body.
– The heart is the only muscle in the
body that never stops contracting.
3 TYPES OF MUCLES
• Smooth muscle:
– A form of non-striated muscle tissue,
this is involuntary or not under our
direct control.
– This makes smooth muscle ideal for
places such as the stomach and
intestine as well as the blood vessels.
– Despite being the weakest of all the
muscle tissues, smooth muscles
perform all of the functions the body
needs to maintain automatically
without our direct input.
4- NERVOUS

ORGANS
• Brain, spinal cord, nerves, & sensory
receptors

FUNCTIONS
• Fast-acting central control system
• Responds to external/internal
stimuli via nerve impulses (electrical
messages)
5- ENDOCRINE
ORGANS
• Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids,
adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal,
ovaries, testes…..etc.

FUNCTIONS
• Slow -acting control system
• Glands produce hormones that
regulate growth, reproduction,
metabolism,…. etc.
• Pituitary gland
– tiny organ, the size of a
pea.
– found at the base of the
brain
– master gland because it
produces many
hormones travelling
through the body
directing certain
processes or stimulating
other glands to produce
other hormones
FRONT
• Prolactin
– stimulates breast milk production after childbirth
– sex hormones from ovaries (female) testes (males)
– fertility

• Growth Hormone
– Stimulates in childhood
– important for maintaining a healthy body composition
– important in maintaining muscle mass and bone mass

• Adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)
– Stimulates production of cortisol
• (stress hormone, blood glucose level)
FRONT
• Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH)
– stimulates the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormones,
which regulates body’s metabolism, energy balance,
growth and nervous system

• Luteinizing Hormone (LH)

– stimulates testosterone production in men and egg release
in women (ovulation)

• Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH)

– promotes sperm production in men and stimulates ovaries
to produce estrogen and develops eggs in women.
BACK
• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
– aka vasopressin
– regulates water balance in the body
– conserves water by reducing the amount of water
lost in urine

• Oxytocin
– causes milk flow from the breast in
– also use in the labor process
6- Cardiovascular
ORGANS
• Heart, blood vessels, capillaries &blood

FUNCTIONS
• Carries O2 nutrients, hormones, & other
substances to and from tissue cells
• White blood cells protect against
bacteria, toxins, tumors
7- LYMPHATIC
ORGANS
• Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes,
spleen, tonsils

FUNCTIONS
• Complements circulatory system by
returning leaked fluid back to blood
vessels
• Cleanses the blood; involved in
immunity
The lymphatic system is a network of
tissues and organs. It is made up of
• Lymph - a fluid that contains white blood cells
that defend against germs
• Lymph vessels - vessels that carry lymph
throughout your body. They are different from
blood vessels.
• Lymph nodes - glands found throughout the
lymph vessels.
– Along with your spleen, these nodes are where
white blood cells fight infection.
• Your bone marrow and thymus produce the cells
in lymph. They are part of the system, too.

• The lymphatic system clears away infection and

keeps your body fluids in balance. If it's not
working properly, fluid builds in your tissues and
causes swelling, called lymphedema. Other
lymphatic system problems can include
infections, blockage, and cancer.
• Name few dse/s of the lymphatic system
8- RESPIRATORY
ORGANS
• Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea,
bronchi, & lungs

FUNCTIONS
• Keeps blood supplied with O2 &
removes CO2
• Carries out gas exchanges through air
sacs in lungs
9- DIGESTIVE
ORGANS
• Oral cavity, esophagus, stomach,
small intestine, large intestine,
rectum, anus (liver & pancreas)

FUNCTIONS
• Breaks food down into absorbable
units that enter the blood;
indigestible food eliminated as feces

• NOTE:
– Liver is considered digested organ
because of the bile that digest fats
– Pancrease that deliver digestive
enzyme
10- URINARY (EXCRETORY)
ORGANS
• Kidney, ureter, urinary bladder,
urethra

FUNCTIONS
• Eliminates nitrogenous waste from the
body (urea & uric acid)
• Regulates water, electrolytes, & acid-
base balance of the blood
11- REPRODUCTIVE
ORGANS
• Male
– Seminal vesicles, prostate, penis, vas
deferens, testis, scrotum
• Female
– Ovaries, mammary glands, uterus,
vagina, uterine tube

FUNCTIONS
• Primary function for both sexes is to
produce offspring
• Male – testes produce sperm & male sex
hormones
• Female – ovaries produce eggs & female
sex hormones; mammary glands for
nourishment
Maintaining Life
I-Necessary Life Functions :

• All living organisms carry out certain

vital functional activities necessary for
life, including :
1 - Maintenance of boundaries
 Every living organism must maintain its inside
distinct from outside.
 All the cells are surrounded by a selectively
permeable membrane.
 The body as a whole is enclosed and
protected by the integumentary system (skin)
 protects our internal organs from drying
out
 bacteria
 heat
 sunlight
 chemical substances fr ext environment
2 - Movement:

 It includes the activities promoted by the

muscular system (S)

 Movement also occurs when substances

such as blood, foodstuffs, and urine are
propelled through internal organs (C, D, U)

 On the cellular level, the muscle cell’s ability

to move by shortening is more precisely
called contractility.
3 - Responsiveness or
irritability
 ability to sense changes (stimuli) in the environment
and then respond to them.

 you involuntarily pull your hand away from the

painful stimulus.

 When carbon dioxide in your blood rises to

dangerously high levels, your breathing rate
speeds up – blow off your carbon dioxide

 nervous system is most involved with

responsiveness.
4 -Digestion
• breaking down of ingested foodstuffs to
simple molecules that can be absorbed into
the blood.

• The nutrient-rich blood is then distributed

to all body cells by the cardiovascular
system.

• NOTE:
– In a simple, one-celled organism such as an
amoeba, the cell itself is the “digestion
factory,” but in the multicellular human body,
the digestive system performs this function for
the entire body.
5 - Metabolism
• is a broad term that includes all chemical
reactions that occur within body cells.

• It includes breaking down substances into

their simpler building blocks (catabolism)
• synthesizing more complex cellular
structures from simpler substances
(anabolism)
• using nutrients and oxygen to produce (via
cellular respiration) ATP, that power cellular
activities
• Metabolism depends on the
digestive and respiratory systems to
make nutrients and oxygen available
to be distributed throughout the
body.

• Metabolism is regulated largely by

hormones secreted by endocrine
system glands.
6 - Excretion
• process of removing excreta (ek-skre′tah),
or wastes, from the body.

– The digestive system rids the body of

indigestible food residues in feces.

– The urinary system disposes of nitrogen-

containing metabolic wastes, such as urea, in
urine.

– Carbon dioxide, a by-product of cellular

respiration, is carried in the blood to the
lungs, where it leaves the body in exhaled air.
7 - Reproduction
• is making a whole new person which
is the major task of the reproductive
system.

- When a sperm unites with an egg, a

fertilized egg forms, which then
develops into a baby within the
mother’s body.

• The reproductive system is regulated

by hormones of the endocrine system.
7- Reproduction :

- Because males produce sperm and females

produce eggs (ova), there is a division of labor in
the reproductive process, and the reproductive
organs of males and females are different .

- The female’s reproductive structures provide

the site for fertilization of eggs by sperm, then
protect and nurture the developing fetus until
birth.
8 - Growth
• is an increase in size of a body part or
the organism.
• usually accomplished by increasing the
number of cells.

• NOTE:
– However, individual cells also increase in
size when not dividing.

• For true growth to occur, constructive

activities must occur at a faster rate
than destructive ones
II. Survival Needs

Survival needs include:

1 - Nutrients
• taken in via the diet, contain the chemical
substances used for energy and cell building.
• Carbohydrates are the major energy fuel for
body cells.
• Proteins, and to a lesser extent fats, are
essential for building cell structures.
• Fats also provide a reserve of energy-rich fuel.
• Minerals and vitamins are required for the
chemical reactions that go on in cells and for
oxygen transport in the blood.
• The mineral calcium helps to make bones hard and
is required for blood clotting.
2 - Oxygen
• All the nutrients in the world are
useless unless oxygen is also available.
– Because the chemical reactions that
release energy from foods are oxidative
reactions that require oxygen, human cells
can survive for only a few minutes without
oxygen.
• Approximately 20% of the air we
breathe is oxygen
• It is made available to the blood and
body cells by the cooperative efforts of
the respiratory and cardiovascular
systems.
3 - Water

• accounts for 60–80% of body weight

and is the single most abundant
chemical substance in the body.
It provides the watery environment
necessary for chemical reactions and
the fluid base for body secretions
and excretions.

 Water is obtained chiefly from

ingested foods or liquids and is lost
from the body by evaporation from
the lungs and skin and in body
excretions.
High water content fruits:
• watermelon and strawberries
contain about 92 percent water per
volume.
• grapefruit with 91 percent
• peaches with 88 percent water.
• pineapple, cranberries, orange and
raspberries contains 87 percent
High Water Content Vegetables:

• cucumber and lettuce, consisting of 96

percent water.
• radish and celery are comprised of 95
percent water.
• tomato - 94%
• green cabbage is 93 percent water.
• Vegetables that contain 92 percent water
include cauliflower, eggplant, red cabbage,
peppers and spinach.
• Broccoli is 91 percent water by weight.
4 - Body temperature
• If chemical reactions are to continue at life-
sustaining rates, normal must be maintained
• As body’s core temperature drops below
37°C (98.6°F), metabolic reactions become
slower and slower, and finally stop.
• When body temperature is too high, body
proteins lose their characteristic shape and
stop functioning. (42°C)
• At either extreme, death occurs.
• Most body heat is generated by the activity
of the muscular system.
5 - Atmospheric pressure
• is the force that air exerts on the
surface of the body.
• Breathing and gas exchange in the
lungs depend on appropriate
atmospheric pressure.
– At high altitudes, where atmospheric
pressure is lower and the air is thin, gas
exchange may be inadequate to support
cellular metabolism.
Notice :The mere presence of these
survival factors is not sufficient to
sustain life. They must be present in
appropriate amounts; excesses and
deficits may be equally harmful. For
example, the food we eat must be of
high quality and in proper amounts;
otherwise, nutritional disease,
obesity, or starvation is likely.
Homeostasis
• Describes the body’s ability to maintain
relatively stable internal conditions even
though the outside world is continuously
changing

• The literal translation of homeostasis is

“unchanging,”
– Homeo = the same
– Stasis = standing still which is not true).
• The term does not really mean a static, or
unchanging, state. Rather, it indicates a
dynamic state of equilibrium, or a balance, in
which internal conditions vary, but always
within relatively narrow limits.

• In general, the body is in homeostasis when

its needs are adequately met and it is
functioning smoothly.
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Communication within the body is essential
for homeostasis.
• Communication is accomplished chiefly by the
nervous and endocrine systems, which use
neural electrical impulses or blood borne
hormones, respectively, as information
carriers.
• Regardless of the factor being regulated (the
variable) all homeostatic control mechanisms
have at least three interdependent
components.
1. Receptor
• type of sensor that monitors the environment
and responds to changes, called stimuli, by
sending information (input) along the afferent
pathways to the second component…
2. Control center
• Input flows from the receptor to the control
center along the so-called afferent pathway.

• The control center, analyzes the input it

receives and then determines the appropriate
response or course of action.
3. Effector center
• The third component, the effector, provides
the means of response (output) to the
stimulus.
• The results of the response then feed back to
influence the stimulus, either depressing it
(negative feedback) so that the whole control
mechanism is shut off or enhancing it
(positive feedback) so that the reaction
continues at an even faster rate.
2 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

• Negative feedback mechanisms

• Most common homeostatic feedback
mechanism

• the net effect of the response to the stimulus

is the shut off of the original stimulus or to
reduce its intensity
–E.g. – body temp, blood pressure
• A good example of a nonbiological negative
feedback system is a home heating system
connected to a temperature-sensing
thermostat . If the thermostat is set at 20°C
(68°F), the heating system (effector) is
triggered ON when the house temperature
drops below that setting. As the furnace
produces heat and warms the air, the
temperature rises, and when it reaches 20°C
or slightly higher, the thermostat triggers the
furnace OFF.
• This process results in a cycling of “furnace-
ON” and “furnace-OFF” so that the
temperature in the house stays very near the
desired temperature of 20°C. Your body
“thermostat,” located in a part of your brain
called the hypothalamus, operates in a similar
fashion.
2 Homeostatic Control Mechanisms

• Positive feedback mechanisms

• Rare homeostatic feedback mechanism
• tend to increase the original disturbance
(stimulus) and push the variable farther from
its original value
–E.g. – childbirth
• Positive Feedback Mechanisms
In positive feedback mechanisms, the result or
response enhances the original stimulus so
that the activity (output) is accelerated. This
feedback mechanism is “positive” because the
change that occurs proceeds in the same
direction as the initial disturbance, causing the
variable to deviate further and further from its
original value or range.
Homeostatic Imbalance
• Homeostasis is so important that most disease
can be regarded as a result of its disturbance, a
condition called homeostatic imbalance. As we
age, our body’s control systems become less
efficient, and our internal environment becomes
less and less stable. These events increase our
risk for illness and produce the changes we
associate with aging.
– Examples of homeostatic imbalance are provided
throughout this course to enhance understanding of
normal physiological mechanisms