Critical Thinking

Chapter 2
The Basic Structure of
Argument
Overview of Today’s Lecture

• Recognising components in arguments

• Understanding the process of
“reconstruction”
• The role of questions in arguments
• Diagramming arguments

TEXTBOOK READING : CHAPTER 1

Remember this ..
• A good critical thinker has the cognitive skills and
intellectual dispositions needed to effectively
identify, analyze and evaluate arguments and
truth claims.

• Before that , one must understand components

that are available in arguments such as :
i)Statements
ii) Conclusion
iii) Premises
iv) Supporting statements
Statements / Claims
A statement (or also known as a claim) is defined as a
declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both
simultaneously. Simple statements convey exactly one idea.

In order for a sentence to qualify as a statement, it must satisfy

the following conditions:

1. The sentence must make a declaration.

2. You must be capable of determining whether the statement
is True or False.

NOTE: You may not know the answer to whether the declarative
sentence is true or false, but with some research, you know that
the sentence can be determined to be true or false.
Sentence Truth or Falsity Statement
Radio provides a means of True. Radio is one way to Yes
communication. communicate.
2+1=6 False, since 2 + 1 = 3 Yes
President Theodore “Teddy” Unknown whether it is True or Yes
Roosevelt was the 28th President of False. We can certainly find out
the United States. by going to the library and doing
a little research.
Trey Yuen restaurant serves Peking Unknown whether it is True or Yes
duck. False. We can certainly find out
by going to the restaurant and try
and order it for dinner.
he said it Unknown whether it is True or No
False. We need to know what "it"
is.

Source: www.geocities.com/rharney3/115/old_notes/section6_1.doc
Statements / Claims
But not all sentences are statements.

Shut the door! (command)

What day is it? (question)
Let’s go to Singapore. (proposal)
Hello, teacher! (greeting)
Please send me your latest brochure. (request)
Place the wooded plank on top of the roof. (instruction)
Oh, my goodness! (exclamation)
Statement / Non statement?
1. Can I get you something to drink? No
2. Let’s party! No
3. Capital punishment is wrong.
Yes

4. Please write your name clearly. No. Request.

5. What do you say we have break for lunch?
No. Suggestion
6. Can’t you see that pornography insults women?
As it stands, it is not a statement. BUT, we might rewrite it as
“Pornography insults women”.

We shall learn form of questions that can take on the role of a

premise or a conclusion.
Why is it important to differentiate
between statements and non-statements

By mistakenly treating non-statements as

statements, we can possibly draw a wrong
inference about an argument such as extracting
wrong conclusion(s) or premises.

Remember, sometimes in arguments contain many

noises (such exclamations, command, threats). A
critical thinker should be able to spot noises and
concentrate on the essence of the argument ,
particularly, the main claim (conclusion) and its
premises.
At this Point in BCT 1024, We
Are Most Interested in
Examining Statements to
Figure Out ...
… whether they serve as
conclusions, premises, or
support in an
argument
Understanding the Meaning of
“Argument”

Usually, when we refer to an “argument”,

we are thinking of some sort of dispute
between individuals or groups.

But, an “argument” has a very different meaning

when we’re talking about critical thinking.
What is an argument
• It is not a “quarrel”.
• A claim defended with reasons.
• Composed of a group of statements.
• One or more statements (premises) support
another statement (conclusion).
What is an “Argument”
(in terms of critical thinking)
An argument is a series of statements used to persuade
someone of something.
Greg Bassham’s Definition of
an “Argument”
An argument is a a claim that is defended with reasons.
More precisely, an argument is a set of statements, one
of which (called the conclusion) is intended to be
supported by the others (called the premises).
The idea about which you are
trying to persuade someone
is called the:
CONCLUSION
Or the

MAIN CLAIM
These words or phrases are usually
combined with a CONCLUSION:
• Accordingly … • This shows that …
• As a result … • This means that …
• Consequently … • This would suggest
• Hence … that …
• It follows that … • Thus …
• So … • … in which case …
• That’s why … • The effect was/is …
• Therefore ... • In conclusion ...

Refer to textbook page 63 .

An argument is a series of statements used to persuade
someone of something.

Another type of statement that

must be present for the
collection of statements to be
an “argument” is called the:
Premise
Premises
• Premises are statements that directly
support the conclusion.
• A simple argument has two premises and a
conclusion.
• A more complex argument may contain many
claims, but these can always be divided up
into premises and a conclusion.
• In an argument, the conclusion is only
supported by its premises, but each premise
itself can be supported in a number of ways.
These words or phrases are usually
combined with a PREMISE:
• As indicated by … • As illustrated by …
• As shown by … • On account of …
• Because … • In view of …
• For … • By virtue of …
• Given that … • Due to …
• Inasmuch as … • As long as …
• Since … • A reason is …
• The reason is that … • … premised on ...
A simple argument must have
(i) a “CONCLUSION”
(ii) at least two “PREMISES”

Conclusion

Premise Premise

However, a “complex” argument may contain many more

conclusions and premises linked together
Consider this Argument
Now ask:
What is the main claim about which the
speaker is trying to convince us??
The project to build a bridge from Malaysia to
Indonesia, which is expected to cost billions of ringgit,
should be abandoned because this money would be
better spent on developing the infrastructure of both
countries, and the project is unlikely to result in
economic benefit to either country.
The project to build a bridge from Malaysia to
Indonesia, which is expected to cost billions of ringgit,
should be abandoned because this money would be
better spent on developing the infrastructure of both
countries, and the project is unlikely to result in
economic benefit to either country.

The CONCLUSION is …….

The project should be abandoned

The project to build a bridge from Malaysia to
Indonesia, which is expected to cost billions of ringgit,
should be abandoned because this money would be
better spent on developing the infrastructure of both
countries, and the project is unlikely to result in
economic benefit to either country.

And what are the PREMISES?

P1:
The billions advocated for the
project should be spent on
infrastructure
P2: There will be no economic benefit
But sometimes, it can be very
difficult to logically analyze
someone’s attempts to persuade
you. You might want to examine
the arguments that another
person is making, but it is hard to
figure out exactly what they are.
Why??… Because the arguments
are “buried” in a mass of language
that includes illustrations,
background, personal opinion and
arguments, all mixed together.

And also many times indicator words

are absent.
The ‘mix’ of messages that we
are receiving from the other
person is known as the:

“Raw Material”
And the process of finding the
arguments … and then
dissecting the arguments into
their various parts is known
as:
“Reconstruction”
Reconstruction involves a series of techniques
where you look for “indicator words”.
Example 1: Finding the “Main Idea”:

Donald Norman is a famous

“cognitive psychologist” who
has
studied the most effective
ways to design equipment …
especially computer
equipment.
Example 1: Finding the “Main Idea”:
“Designing well is not easy. The manufacturer
wants something that can be produced
by D. Norman
economically. The store wants something that
will be attractive to its customers. The
purchaser has several demands. In the store,
the purchaser focuses on price and
appearance, and perhaps on prestige value. At
home, the same person will pay more attention
to functionality and usability. The needs of
those concerned are different and often
conflict.” (p. 28)
What is the CONCLUSION
We ask ourselves: about which Dr Norman is
What is the most
important idea? trying to persuade us?
To identify the premises,
ask the key questions ...

Hey, Prof. Donald …

Why do you think that it’s not easy
to design well?
How do you know that it’s not easy
to design well?

What proof do you have that it’s

not easy to design well, sir?

Prove it, buddy!

What do you think his answer will be??
“Designing well is not easy. The manufacturer
wants something that can be produced
economically. The store wants something that by D. Norman
I think it’s The
will be attractive to its customers. not easy to
purchaser
design well because:
has several demands. (1) InThere
the are
store, the
many different needs
purchaser focuses on (2) price and appearance,
The different needs often conflict
and perhaps on prestigewith value. At home, the
each other
same person will pay more attention to
functionality and usability. The needs of those
concerned are different and often conflict.
Nonetheless, the designer may be able to satisfy
everyone.”
What’s the “CONCLUSION” in
the following case?
Ask ourselves: What is the most important idea?
“Rear-end accidents have become a serious
problem in traffic, as indicated by the 40% increase
during the period from 1987 to 1997. Studies of car-
following are central if one is to understand those
factors that generate rear-end accidents. A car-
following situation also involves specific stress
factors, such as the annoyance of being followed
too closely. This stressful situation can have
implications for safety, as well.”
What’s the “CONCLUSION” in
the following case?
Ask ourselves: What is the most important idea?
“Rear-end accidents have become a serious
problem in traffic, as indicated by the 40% increase
during the period from 1987 to 1997. Studies of car-
following are central if one is to understand those
factors that generate rear-end accidents. A car-
following situation also involves specific stress
factors, such as the annoyance of being followed
too closely. This stressful
We shouldsituation canpeople
study why havefollow
implications for safety,
tooas well.”
closely when driving their cars
Studies of Car Crashes
What reason does the author have for saying that it
is important to study why people drive too closely?
P1
“Rear-end accidents have become a serious
problem in traffic, as indicated by the 40% increase
during the period from 1987 to 1997. Studies of
car-following are central if one is to understand
those factors that generate rear-end accidents. A
car-following
P2 situation also involves specific stress
factors, such as the annoyance of being followed
too closely (and) This stressful situation can have
implications for safety, as well.”
Studies of Car Crashes
What reason does the author have for saying that
it is important to study why people drive too closely?

“Rear-end accidents have become a serious

problemIt’s in traffic,toasstudy
important indicated by the
why people 40%
follow too increase
during the period from
closely in 1987 to 1997. Studies of car-
cars because:
following(1)arethere are a lotif of
central onerear-end
is to car crashes
understand those
(2) following
factors too closely
that generate can leadaccidents.
rear-end to stress, which
A car-
in turn, contributes to car accidents
following situation also involves specific stress
factors, such as the annoyance of being followed
too closely. (and) This stressful situation can have
implications for safety, as well.”
Sometimes, when another person is
making an argument, he or she will
“assume” that you can figure out the
argument without having to include
all the premises or even without
having to tell you the conclusion.
When the conclusion is not stated outright – and the
arguer “assumes” that you will know it – we call that
an:

“implicit conclusion”

And, when the premise is not stated outright – and the

arguer “assumes” that you will know it – we call that an:

“implicit premise”
During reconstruction of an
argument, one of the things
you have to do is to figure out
if any of the premises or if the
conclusion are “implicit”.
Let’s practice finding the
implicit conclusion …
More music …
More variety …
(Listen to MIX-FM radio)
“Air Asia is affordable for everyone “
“You’re late again!”
“The boss isn’t going to be happy!”

(Don’t be late
on any more
work-days)
Sometimes, you need to “fill
in” the implicit premise …
“Let me tell you a story …”
O.J. Simpson
O.J. Simpson
O.J. Simpson
O.J. Simpson
O.J. Simpson
O.J. Simpson
O.J. Simpson
(Nicole’s killer wore
these gloves)
(The gloves don’t fit OJ)

“When the
gloves don’t
fit”
“You have to acquit”
O.J. Simpson
Sometimes, you need to “fill
in” both the implicit premise
and the implicit conclusion …
“Let me tell you another
story …”
My Trip to Japan
My Trip to Japan
We visited:
1- Asakusa (akin to Petaling Street in Malaysia)
2- Fuji Television Studio
3- Akihabara (the electronic city – shopping )
4- Tokyo Disneyland
5- Shopping @ Aeon Gunma
6- Sushi House
7- Mombashi shopping mall and South Indian
restaurant)
8- Nagasakiya gunma (another shopping trip )
9- 100 bucks shops (another shopping trip , again?)
10- Kusatsu resort (Now Resort – volcano hot spring
spa, and karoke time , cozy sleeping – COLD!!)
My Trip to Japan
While we were at Asakusa,
my sister , Aisyah said :

“The train’s
coming!!”
(The train won’t
wait for us)
Implicit premise
Implicit conclusion
(My sister tried to persuade us to stop
shopping so that we could catch the train)
Finally, we were in the train excited, exhausted
and sleepy …ZzzZZ
Another example ...
Star Trek

(We’re tougher than

you are)
“Resistance is
futile!”
(Therefore, you should
just give up and let us
take over)
Determining conclusion and premises
from the advertisement

Implicit conclusion: This property website is clearly the best

in Malaysia.

Implicit premise: This website achieved a remarkable

achievement with 12,000 listings within 8 months.
Determining conclusion and premises
from the advertisement

Make this statement

sounds less
significant that it is.
Implicit conclusion: Digi Prepaid SIM pack is clearly the best buy.

Implicit premise: Considering other things is getting expensive,

Digi prepaid SIM pack is still considered cheap.
There is one more aspect of
the reconstruction process that
can be a little difficult.

That has to do with the role

that “questions” play in the raw
material.
Do you remember when we
were discussing “statements”?

And we said that questions

could never be statements
because they can neither be
right nor wrong.
Well, there’s a certain form of
question that can take on the
role of a premise or a
conclusion in an argument.
QUESTIONS

Interrogative Rhetorical
Questions Questions

Questions intended to Questions intended to

solicit some information solicit your agreement
from you or to motivate you to
take some action
Interrogative Questions
 Where were you born?
 Which team won the championship in the
Barclaycard English Premiership League
in 2006?
 What is the square root of 25?
 Do you like “BCT1024”?
 Who is your favourite lecturer?
Interrogative trying to find out
some information
Questions
differ from
trying to encourage
someone to agree
or
Rhetorical
encourage them to Questions
act in some way
Rhetorical Questions
as Conclusions
Rhetorical Questions
as Conclusions

 You were late again!

 The boss is really going to be angry.

 Don’t you think maybe you should make

more of an effort to be on-time?

(I want to persuade you to arrive at work at

the time you should)
Rhetorical Questions
as Conclusions

 I’ve been waiting here for an hour while

you’ve been taking photos
 I’m beginning to get bored and impatient

 Isn’t it time to go yet?

(I want to persuade you to stop taking photos

so we can leave)
Rhetorical Questions
as Conclusions
 Our budget projections are due
tomorrow.
 I’ve noticed that you still haven’t finished
them.

 You’re going to get them in by the

deadline, aren’t you?
(I want to persuade you to get the projections
finished on-time)
Rhetorical Questions
as Premises
Rhetorical Questions as
Premises
 The prosecution found some bloody
gloves at the murder site.

 But, did you hear that the gloves didn’t fit

the person (O.J Simpson) they accused?

 He must not be guilty after all.

It can be written this way:

If a person fit the bloody gloves, the person is guilty

O.J Simpson does not fit the gloves
Therefore, O.J Simpson is not guilty
Rhetorical Questions as
Premises
 Well, you know that all dogs bark, don’t
you?

 And Ralph is a dog, right?

 Therefore, Ralph barks.

It can be written this way:

All dogs bark

Ralph is a dog,
Therefore, Ralph barks
We have another type of
questions called
“Leading Question”
What is a Leading Question?
• It is a question that is worded in a way that will “guide” the person being
questioned in making his or her response.

• In a leading question, the questioner uses language which suggests a

particular answer.
Rhetorical trying to encourage
agreement or action
Questions
differ from
trying to guide someone’s Leading
answer in a certain
direction … trying to get Questions
them to say the things
A special form of
you want them to ‘interrogative’
questions
LEADING QUESTIONS

Instead of asking a witness on the stand ,

“ Where were you on the night of December 20th, 2008”

The questioner would say: “You were driving to Klang on

the night of December 20th, 2008, weren’t you?”

Note that:
Many leading questions are framed as yes or no questions,
in a way which lead to the information that the questioner
wishes to elicit.
A Leading Question
Look at the difference between these questions:
• Is David Beckham a loving husband?
• Wouldn’t you agree that David Beckham
is one of the most loving husbands in
the world today?
A Leading Question
Look at the difference between these questions:
• How did you feel about your retirement
savings when the share prices started
dropping?
• Weren’t you scared that all your retirement
savings would be lost when the share prices
started dropping?
A Leading Question
Look at the difference between these questions:

• Would you like to come and see the new Pirates

of the Caribbean movie with me on Friday?
• How could you even think of refusing to come and
see the new Pirates of the Caribbean movie with
me on Friday?
Interesting reading material about leading
questions :

http://homepage.psy.utexas.edu/homepag
e/faculty/Swann/docu/swegner.pdf
Why Do People Use
‘Rhetorical’ and ‘Leading’
Questions
• More powerful persuasion can be
achieved if you involve the other person
in the exchange of ideas.
• By putting a premise in the form of a
‘rhetorical’ question, you are inviting the
person to be pulled into thinking about the
argument, rather than just listening to it.
Practical Applications of this
Knowledge
• When writing a • When critically
recommendation or analysing the arguments
giving a speech in of others, don’t allow
support of an idea, your own objectivity to
use ‘rhetorical’ or be swayed by the fact
‘leading’ questions to that you were pulled into
capture the attention agreeing with an earlier
of your audience, to premise by a ‘rhetorical’
pull them onto “your or ‘leading’ question.
side”.
“Why are we studying about
this?”
IF you can develop a “habit”, when you
write or speak, of first identifying the idea in which
you want people to believe (main claim) … and then
telling your “reasons” (premises) for agreeing with
the main claim …and then finding ways of helping
people to understand and believe in your premises ...

THEN you will become a better writer/speaker,

capable of explaining and supporting your ideas
clearly !
“Why are we studying about
this?”
… ANDIF you can develop
people who areabetter
“habit”, when you and
at explaining
write or speak,
supporting of firsttend
their ideas identifying
to achievetheaidea in which
greater degree
you want people to believe (main
of success .. claim) … and then
As students:
telling your “reasons” (premises) for Inagreeing
business: with
the main claim …and then finding ways of helping
people to understand and believe in your premises ...

THEN you will become a better writer/speaker,

capable of explaining and supporting your ideas
clearly.
There’s another reasons why
we study about the parts of an
argument ...
When people are able to critically analyse the information
that they’re hearing -- to determine whether they should
believe the claims that others are making by examining the
conclusion, the premises and statements-that-support-the-
premises,
then they tend to make better decisions and to avoid being
misled.

Better decision-makers and people who can avoid being

misled
tend to be more successful also!
Diagramming arguments
Arrow Diagramming:
Five Steps
1. Read through the
argument and circle any 4. Omit any statements that
premise or conclusion don’t function as either
indicators you see. premises or conclusions
2. Bracket and Number the in the argument
statements consecutively 5. Finally, using arrows to
(1, 2, 3, etc) mean “therefore” (or “is
3. Arrange the numbers on a offered as evidence for”),
page with premises placed create a flowchart that
above the conclusions they indicates relationships of
are claimed to support. argumentative support.
1.) Read through the argument and
circle any premise or conclusion
indicators

You should come to Critical Thinking

lectures because we cover a lot of
material, missing classes can get you
barred and the lecturer is cute.
Remember that, okay?

INDICATOR WORD
FOR A PREMISE
2.) Bracket each premise and
conclusion, and number the statements
consecutively as the appear in the
argument
1 [You should come to Critical Thinking
lectures] because 2[we cover a lot of
material], 3[missing classes can get you
barred] and [the4 lecturer is cute].
5 Remember that, okay?
3.) Arrange the numbers on a page
with premises placed above the
conclusion(s) they support

1 [You should come to Critical Thinking

lectures] because 2[we cover a lot of
material], 3[missing classes can get you
barred] and [the4 lecturer is cute].
5 [ Remember that, okay? ]

2 3 4

1
4.) Omit statements that don’t function
as a conclusion or premise within the
argument

1 [You should come to Critical Thinking

lectures] because 2[we cover a lot of
material], 3[missing classes can get you
barred] and [the4 lecturer is cute].
5 [ Remember that, okay? ]

2 3 4

1
5.) Add arrows to show the
relationships of argumentative
support

1 [You should come to Critical Thinking

lectures] because 2[we cover a lot of
material], 3[missing classes can get you
barred] and [the4 lecturer is cute].
5 [ Remember that, okay? ]

2 3 4

1
Sometimes the premises are
“linked”

1 [Nobody who’s taking BCT1024 likes Arsenal].

2 [Philip is taking BCT1024].
Therefore 3 [Philip doesn’t like Arsenal].

1 + 2

3
Sometimes there are
supporting arguments
1 [Don’t go scuba-diving by yourself]. 2 [You need a partner]
because 3 [sometimes accidents can happen] and
4 [you cannot rescue yourself]. 5 [Also, there are regulations
stating that you should only go diving with a partner].

3 + 4

2 5

1
Additional Readings
• Try exercises on pg 388.