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Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment at Secondary

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Preface

I take this opportunity to praise the Almighty for his leading Hitherto.

This Curriculum, Pedagogy and Assessment at Secondary Level book

description and analysis of the subject is the Indian context. It covers the syllabi of
Tamil Nadu Teachers Education University on this subject in simple and lucid
language drawing examples from our society and Indian educational system. It is a
compulsory subject for [Link]., II year students.

Curriculum design and model is a complex but systematic process. This unit
describes a variety of models of curriculum design and theories in order to make this
complex activity understandable and manageable. It is important for you as a teacher
to understand how the curriculum you are using in your school was designed.
It is my great privilege to express my gratitude to my college president Thiru.
[Link] and secretary [Link] providing me the
opportunity to work in the esteemed institution [Link] College of
Education, Thoothukudi.

I extend my grateful thanks to my principal, colleagues and students for

enthusiastic inspiration, encouragement and favor to complete this book.

I am always indebted to my husband, sons, parents and my relatives for their

kind co-operation, prayer, encouragement and support in carrying out this book
publication.

As this book is meant both for the [Link]., students and their developement in
the field of education. The author has left no stones unturned to make it lucid, clear,
analytic and up to date. It is an ideal textbook for the university students and a
reference work for the researchers. Suggestion for improvement, however, will be
gratefully acknowledged.

Last but not least I am thankful to publisher and the printer who helped in
publishing my work.

Thanking you

By,
Author

[Link]
Curriculum Pedagogy and Assessment at Secondary Level

UNIT
1
NATURE OF
CURRICULUM

1.1. CURRICULUM – CONCEPT

In the past, the term ‘curriculum’ signified a course of studies
followed by a pupil in a teaching institution. In the English-speaking
tradition it was used as equivalent to the French concept programme
d’études. Today, it means in general terms, the contract between society,
the state and educational professionals with regard to the educational
activities that learners should undergo during a certain phase of their
lives to learn something desirable.
Standard dictionaries define curriculum as a course of study offered
by an academic institution. According to Ronald Doll, curriculum is the
formal and informal content and process by which learners gain
knowledge and understanding, develop skills, and alter attitudes,
appreciations, and values under the auspices of an academic institution.
In other words, curriculum can be defined as the total experience. From
this view point, Curriculum is not only the content selected and
delivered, but also the planned and unplanned activities in which
individuals’ participate as students.

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Traditional Concept of Curriculum

The traditional curriculum was subject-centered while the modern
curriculum is child and life-centered. In the early years of 20th century,
the traditional concepts held of the “curriculum is that it is a body of
subjects or subject matter prepared by the teachers for the students to
learn.” It was synonymous to the “course of study” and “syllabus”.
Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as “permanent studies”, where
the rules of grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for
basic education are emphasized. Basic Education should emphasize the
3Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal education.
Arthur Bestor, an essentialist, believes that the mission of the school
should be intellectual training. Curriculum should focus on the
fundamental intellectual discipline of grammar, literature and writing. It
should also include mathematics, science, history and foreign language.
Joseph Schwab’s view of curriculum is that discipline is the sole source
of curriculum. He said that curriculum should consist only of knowledge
which comes from discipline which is the sole source.
In our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of
knowledge we call subject areas in the basic education such as English,
Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and others. In college, discipline
may include humanities, sciences, languages and many more. Most of the
traditional ideas view curriculum as written documents or a plan of
action in accomplishing goals.
Modern Concept of Curriculum
Modern education is the combination of two dynamic processes. The
one is the process of individual development and the other is the process
of socialization, which is commonly known as adjustment with the social
environment. Curriculum is defined as the total learning experiences of
the individual. This definition is anchored on John Dewey’s definition of
experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means
that unifies curricular. Thought is not derived from action but tested by
application.
Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as “all experiences
children have under the guidance of teachers”. Marsh and Willis view
curriculum as all the “experiences in the classroom which are planned
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and entered by the teacher, and also learned by the students.” Smith,
Stanley and Shores defined curriculum as a “sequence of potential
experiences set up in schools for the purpose of disciplining children and
youth in group ways of thinking and acting.”
Curriculum is a dynamic process. Development connotes changes
which are systematic. A change for the better means any alteration,
modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive
changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive.
This is how curriculum evolves.
1.2. MEANING OF CURRICULUM
The term curriculum has been derived from a Latin word ‘Currere’
which means a ‘race course’ or a runway on which one runs to reach a
goal. Accordingly, a curriculum is the instructional and the educative
programme by following which the pupils achieve their goals, ideals and
aspirations of life. It is curriculum through which the general aims of a
school education receive concrete expression. Curriculum is a document
which describes a structured series of learning objectives and outcomes
for a given subject matter area. It includes a specification of what should
be learned, how it should be taught, and the plan for implementing or
assessing the learning.
A curriculum is prescriptive, and is based on a more general syllabus
which merely specifies what topics must be understood and what level to
achieve a particular grade or standard. Curriculum has numerous
definitions, which can be slightly confusing. In its broadest sense a
curriculum may refer to all courses offered at a school. This is
particularly true of schools at the university level, where the diversity of
a curriculum might be an attractive point to a potential student.
A curriculum may also refer to a defined and prescribed course of
studies, which students must fulfil in order to pass a certain level of
education. For example, an elementary school might discuss how its
curriculum, or its entire sum of lessons and teachings, is designed to
improve national testing scores or help students learn the basics. An
individual teacher might also refer to his or her curriculum, meaning all
the subjects that will be taught during a school year.

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On the other hand, a high school might refer to a curriculum as the

courses required in order receiving one’s diploma. They might also refer
to curriculum in exactly the same way as the elementary school, and use
curriculum to mean both individual courses needed to pass, and the
overall offering of courses, which help prepare a student for life after
high school.
1.3. DEFINITION OF CURRICULUM
The term curriculum has been defined by different writers in
different ways:
1. Cunningham - “Curriculum is a tool in the hands of the artist
(teacher) to mould his material (pupils) according to his ideas (aims and
objectives) in his studio (school)”.
2. Morroe - “Curriculum includes all those activities which are utilized
by the school to attain the aims of education”.
3. Froebel - “Curriculum should be conceived as an epitome of the
rounded whole of the knowledge and experience of the human race.”
4. Crow and Crow – “The curriculum includes all the learners’
experience in or outside school that are included in a programme which
has been devised to help him developmentally, emotionally, socially,
spiritually and morally”.
5. T.P. Nunn - “The curriculum should be viewed as various forms of
activities that are grand expressions of human spirit and that are of the
greatest and most permanent significance to the wide world”.
There are essentially four curriculums at work in most educational
settings: the explicit, implicit, null, and extra-, or co-curriculum. We are
familiar with the notions of explicit curriculum and extracurricular
activities. The real intrigue of curriculum debate and design comes into
play with the implicit and null curriculum.
1.4. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CURRICULUM AND SYLLABUS
When curriculum comes to education, the two concepts which pop
up in our mind which are commonly misconstrued are syllabus and
curriculum. Syllabus connotes the subjects as well as the topics covered
in the course of study. On the other hand, curriculum implies the chapters

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and academic content taught in school or college. It alludes to the

knowledge, skills and competencies students should learn during study.
The fundamental difference between syllabus and curriculum is that the
former is focused towards a particular subject. Unlike, the latter, which is
related to the all-round development of a student. Similarly, there are
other differences between these two that are discussed below.
Comparison Chart

BASIS FOR
CURRICULUM SYLLABUS
COMPARISON

Meaning Curriculum is the overall Syllabus is the

content, taught in an document that contains
educational system or a all the portion of the
course. concepts covered in a
subject.

Origin Curriculum is a Latin Syllabus is a Greek

term. term.

Set for A course A subject

Nature Prescriptive Descriptive

Scope Wide Narrow

Set out by Government or the Exam board

administration of school,
college or institute.

Term Till the course lasts. For a fixed term,

normally a year.

Uniformity Same for all teachers. Varies from teacher to

teacher.
Definition of Syllabus
The syllabus is defined as the documents that consist of topics or
portion covered in a particular subject. It is determined by the
examination board and created by the professors. The professors are
responsible for the quality of the course. It is made available to the
students by the teachers, either in hard copy or electronic form to bring
their attention towards the subject and take their study seriously.
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A syllabus is considered as a guide to the in charge as well as to the

students. It helps the students to know about the subject in detail, why it
is a part of their course of study, what are the expectations from students,
consequences of failure, etc. It contains general rules, policies,
instructions, topics covered, assignments, projects, test dates, and so on.
Definition of Curriculum
The curriculum is defined as the guideline of the chapters and
academic content covered by an educational system while undergoing a
particular course or program. In a theoretical sense, curriculum refers to
what is offered by the school or college. However, practically it has a
wider scope which covers the knowledge, attitude, behaviour, manner,
performance and skills that are imparted or inculcated in a student. It
contains the teaching methods, lessons, assignments, physical and mental
exercises, activities, projects, study material, tutorials, presentations,
assessments, test series, learning objectives, and so on.
The curriculum is well planned, guided and designed by the
government or the educational institution. It is aimed at both physical
and mental development of a student. It is the overall learning experience
that a student goes through during the particular course of study.
Key Differences between Syllabus and Curriculum
The basic differences between syllabus and curriculum are explained
in the point given below:
1. The syllabus is described as the summary of the topics covered or
units to be taught in the particular subject. Curriculum refers to the
overall content, taught in an educational system or a course.
2. Syllabus varies from teacher to teacher while the curriculum is same
for all teachers.
3. The term syllabus is a Greek origin, whereas the term curriculum is a
Latin origin.
4. The curriculum has a wider scope than the syllabus.
5. The syllabus is provided to the students by the teachers so that they
can take an interest in the subject. On the other hand, normally the
curriculum is not made available to the students unless specifically
asked for.
6. Syllabus is descriptive in nature, but the curriculum is prescriptive.

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7. Syllabus is set for a particular subject. Unlike curriculum, this covers

a particular course of study or a program.
8. Syllabus is prepared by teachers. Conversely, a curriculum is
decided by the government or the school or college administration.
9. The duration of a syllabus is for a year only, but curriculum lasts till
the completion of the course.
Curriculum and Syllabus are the terms of education, imparted to the
students by teachers. It means the knowledge, skills or qualifications that
are passed on from one generation to another. A subject syllabus is a unit
of the curriculum. The two terms differ in a sense that curriculum is a
combination of some factors which helps in the planning of an
educational program; whereas a syllabus covers the portion of what
topics should be taught in a particular subject.
1.5. CURRICULUM APPROACHES
According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1993) the main curriculum
approaches are the following;
1. Behavioural
2. Managerial
3. System
4. Academic
5. Re-conceptualist
6. Humanist
An expository discussion of those approaches follows:
1.5.1. Behavioural Approach
In 1879, Wilhelm Wundt established the first laboratory in Germany
dedicated to the scientific study of human thought processes which is
often used as the beginning of modern psychology. His approach to using
experiments to studying the human mind moved psychology from the
domain of philosophy to the laboratory. Through introspection, Wundt
and his colleagues tried to get their subjects to reflect on their thought
processes. By the turn of the century, the behaviourist school emerged as
a reaction to the method of introspection used by Wundt. Proponents of
behaviourism argued that the introspection method was too subjective
and felt that scientific study of psychology must be restricted to the study
of behaviours that can be observed and the stimulus that brings about the
behaviour. The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced
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to the philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. They

argued that behaviour can be conditioned by altering the environment. In
other words, by manipulating and giving a certain stimulus, a certain
response can be produced. Motivation to learn was assumed to be driven
by drives such as hunger, rewards and punishment.
Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
The famous Russian physiologist, Ivan Pavlov introduced the theory
of classical conditioning through a series experiments with dogs. Based
on the Law of Association proposed by Greek philosophers such
Aristotle, he showed that an organism can associate a particular stimulus
(S) with a particular response (R). Learning is the result of an association
formed between a stimulus (such as food) and a response (the animal
salivating). Later, one could substitute ‘food’ with the sound of a bell (a
neutral stimulus) and yet the animal salivates. Such associations or
"habits" become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency
of the S-R pairings. For example, when the organism realises that the
sound of the bell does not result in food, the animal stops salivating and
the behaviour is said to be extinct.
Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)
Thorndike also worked with animals and defined learning as habit
formation. In his experiments, a hungry cat was placed in a box and
could escape and eat the food by pressing a lever inside the box. After
much trial and error behaviour, the cat learned to associate pressing the
lever (Stimulus) with opening the door (Response). This S-R connection
when established resulted in a satisfying state of affairs (escape from the
box). Each time the animal was put in the box, it took lesser time to
press the lever and escape because the animal has learned. Based on
these experiments, Thorndike proposed three laws which he called:
 Law of Effect – If a response (eg. doing a mathematics problem)
is followed by a pleasurable or rewarding experience (eg.
student gets the right answer and is praised by the teacher), the
response will be strengthened and become habitual.
 Law of Exercise – Connections between stimulus (eg. getting the
right answer) and response (eg. doing a mathematics problem) is
strengthened with practice and weakened when practice is
discontinued.
 Law of Readiness – Certain behaviours are more likely to be
learned than others because the nervous system of the organism
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is ready to make the connection leading to a satisfying state of

affairs. It is preparation for action.
The task of the teacher is to arrange the classroom and learning
activities so as to enhance connection between a stimulus and response.
Frederick Skinner (1900-1980)
He worked with rats and pigeons. The theory of Skinner is based
upon the idea that learning is a function of change in overt behaviour. He
introduced the term ‘operant’ which means to act upon. He put a hungry
rat in a box and each time the rat pressed the lever, a food pellet would
be given. This resulted in the rat pressing the lever each time it wanted
food. The change in behaviour or learning by the rat is the result of the
animal’s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. For
example, a child will do her homework because she knows that she will
be allowed to watch her favourite TV programme. When a particular
response or behaviour is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is
conditioned to respond.
Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A
reinforcer could be anything. It could a parent saying ‘good work’ or the
child obtaining an ‘A’ in history which gives the child a feeling of
accomplishment and satisfaction. These are examples of positive
reinforcement. However, there are also negative reinforces which are any
stimuli that give rise to a response when it is withdrawn. For example,
the rat will press the lever to stop the electric shock given. A mother will
pick up her child who is crying because she cannot bear to hear him cry.
Similarly, when we enter a car, we put on the safety belt to avoid the
irritating sound of the buzzer. In other words, the behaviour of ‘picking
the baby’ and ‘putting on the safety belt’ is performed to avoid
unpleasantness. On the other hand, punishment is administered when we
want to reduce the occurrence of a particular behaviour. For example, a
boy who does not help his mother is not allowed to go out to play
football. In other words, the mother is depriving the boy the pleasure of
playing football. Based on a schedule of rewards and punishment, the
behaviour of an organism can be modified.
The difference between classical conditioning and operant
conditioning, In classical conditioning, the organism is not able to
change the environment. For example, in Pavlov’s experiments, the dog
had no choice whether to salivate or not when given food or the sound of
the bell. In operant conditioning, the organism has the choice to act or
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not to act because its response is determined by the stimulus or the food
given. Operant conditioning has been widely applied in behaviour
modification, classroom management and instructional design.
Programmed instruction based on Skinner’s ideas was widely adopted in
the 1960s and still used today (with modifications). For example, in
programmed instruction students are presented with manageable chunks
of information in gradual steps and feedback is immediately provided to
reinforce understanding. Good performance is provided with reinforces
such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. Remember the gold or
silver star we would get next to our name in primary school for good
behaviour or good grades. Behaviour that is positively reinforced will be
repeated and information presented in small amounts can reinforce and
shape the formation of the behaviour desired.
Walter Bandura (1925 – present)
The social learning theory of Bandura emphasised the importance of
observing and modelling the behaviours, attitudes and emotional
reactions of others. According to Bandura learning would be a slow
process if people had to rely solely on the own efforts to do anything.
Fortunately, a substantial amount of human behaviour is learned by
observing others. For the student to learn he or she must watch and pay
attention to the model and the behaviour being modeled. The
information observed must be retained in some form in memory. Next,
the student must have the necessary motor and cognitive skills to
reproduce the modeled behaviour. The motivation to observe and
reproduce the modeled behaviour depends on whether the student will
derive satisfaction from reproducing the behaviour observed.
Among the most common and pervasive examples of social learning
situations are television advertisements. Advertisements suggest that
drinking a certain beverage or using a particular hair shampoo will make
us popular and win the admiration of attractive people. Depending upon
the component processes involved (such as attention or motivation), we
may model the behaviour shown in the advert and buy the product being
advertised. Individuals are more likely to model behaviours that result in
something that is valued or if the model is similar to the observer and has
admired status.
Behaviourism in the Classroom
The following is a list of behaviourist principles applied in teaching
and learning;
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 Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and

learning.
 When learning factual material provide immediate and frequent
feedback for complex and difficult concepts.
 Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery
of facts.
 Break down complex task into smaller and manageable sub
skills.
 Sequence material to enhance understanding example; teach
simple concepts first before proceeding to more difficult and
abstract concept.
 Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat
demonstrations when necessary.
 Reinforce when students demonstrate the modelled behavior.
 State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both
teachers and students.
 Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and
what rewards will be given.
1.5.2. Managerial Approach
Managerial Approach became dominant in the 1950’s and 1960’s.
The Principal is equal to Curriculum Leader is equal to Instructional
Leader is equal to General Manager.
General Manager is sets the policies and priorities, establishes the
direction of change and innovation and planning and organizing
curriculum and instruction. School Administration is less concerned
about the content than about organization and implementation; less
concerned about subject matter, methods and materials than improving
the curriculum. Curriculum managers look at the curriculum changes and
innovations as they administer the resources and restructure the schools.
Roles of the Curriculum Supervisors (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004);
1. Help develop the school’s educational goals.
2. Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other
stakeholders.
3. Design programs of study by grade levels.
4. Plan or schedule classes or school calendar.

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5. Prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or

subject area.
6. Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks.
7. Observe teachers.
8. Assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum.
9. Encourage curriculum innovation and change.
10. Develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation.
The managerial approach entails consideration of the school as a
social system, based on organizational theory, in which the constituent
members (example; students, teachers, curriculum specialists, and
administrators) interact in harmony with certain norms and behaviours.
In this context the managerial approach focuses on programmes,
schedules, space, resources and equipment, as well as personnel,
requiring cooperation among teachers, students and those who are
responsible for curriculum supervision outside of school. Ornstein and
Hunkins (1993) noted that consideration is given to committee and group
processes, human relations, leadership styles and methods and decision
making. That is to say, the managerial approach gives more emphasis on
the supervisory and administrative aspects of curriculum, focusing
mainly on the organizational and implementation aspects of the process.
The managerial approach has to do with change and innovation,
exploring how curriculum specialists, supervisors and administrators can
facilitate these processes. Under this viewpoint, the curriculum specialist
or supervisor is regarded as a facilitator, a resource person (person who is
available to help teachers or colleagues to achieve curriculum goals), and
an agent of change.
1.5.3. System Approach
System approach is a rational, problem-solving method of analysing
the educational process and making it more effective. System is the
process taken as a whole incorporating all its aspects and the parts,
namely pupils, teachers, curriculum content, instructional materials,
instructional strategy, physical environment and the evaluation of
instructional objectives. Hence it may be seen that the purpose of the
systems analysis is to get the best equipment in the best for the best
people at the best time and at the best price. The system approach in the
instruction is integrated, personnel whose components are structured as a
single unit with a schedule of time and sequential phasing.

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Definition of a System
A line of thought in the management field which stresses the
interactive nature and interdependence of external and internal factors in
an organization. A systems approach is commonly used to evaluate
market elements which affect the profitability of a business.
A system is a group of objects related or interacting so as to form a
unity. It’s also defines a system as organised established procedure, or a
methodically arranged set of ideas, principles, methods of procedure.
Components of an Instructional System
1. Aims and Goals

Before implementing any program or plan, it is very important to

first decide what the goal to be achieved is. There is a difference between
aims and goals. Aims are very broad, while goals can be easily achieved
during that stage. Goal identification means to decide the behavioural
changes that are expected to take place in the students due to the
implementation of an instructional system. Immediate goals are achieved
step-wise. One cannot proceed towards the next step till the expected
goals are fulfilled. The desired goal can be achieved by the complete
evaluation and additional changes that are necessary in the system.
Specific goals are achieved through the fulfillment of the short term
goals. By fulfilling the specific goal one can proceed towards achieving
the aim.

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2. Course and Syllabus

The course and syllabus are helpful in the achievement of the goals
decided at the beginning of the educational process. After the syllabus
has been finalized contents are the next step that helps in achieving the
goals therein. The course has elements and sub-elements which are
arranged in an ascending order.
3. Instructional Tools, Methods and Educational Environment
It is important to create a conducive environment for the
achievement of the desired goals. Nevertheless, the main crux of the
instructional systems is in this step. The creation of tools used, teaching
methods and an environment is essential for achieving the expected goal
of the two stages mentioned before, namely, goals and syllabus. For this,
it is essential to co-ordinate the human component, surrounding
component, instructional techniques, study material and instructional
system properly. In instructional system, at this stage, actual action is
taken to achieve the expected goals.
4. Evaluation
This is the last stage of an instructional system. In this stage, it is
seen how far the expected goals have been achieved. This means that the
estimate of the fulfillment of the goal helps in updating. At the end of the
year evaluation is done at the school level. By conducting unit test
continuously throughout the year, it can be seen how far the expected
behavioural changes have occurred.
System Approach in Education
The systems approach to the design and analysis of teaching or
learning situations is the basis of the great majority of modern
educational technology related developments. However, the terms
‘system’ and ‘systems approach’ are themselves jargon terms that can
have a variety of interpretations. Let us therefore take a look at these
terms in order to define the way in which we are to use them.
In general systems theory, a ‘system’ is any collection of interrelated
parts that together constitute a larger whole. These component parts, or
‘elements’ of the system are intimately linked with one another, either
directly or indirectly, and any change in one or more elements may affect
the overall performance of the system, either beneficially or adversely. A
simple system is illustrated schematically in the figure A typical system.

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In the above figure, the system consists of four distinct elements A,

B, C, D, which are related to or dependent upon each other as indicated.
Note that some interrelationships may be two-way, while others may be
one-way only. These elements may themselves be capable of further
breakdown into other smaller components, and may thus be regarded as
sub-systems of the overall system.
The processes of teaching and learning can be considered to be very
complex systems indeed. The input to a given teaching or learning
system consists of people, resources and information, and the output
consists of people whose performance or ideas have (it is to be hoped)
improved in some desired way. A schematic representation of systems of
this type is shown in the figure.

Figure. The 'systems' model of the educational process

In such a system, the teaching or learning process may be so
complex that it can only be considered as a 'black box' whose
mechanisms are not fully understood. However, research into the nature
of the learning process has thrown some light on what happens inside the
'black box'. This has enabled educational technologists to structure the
input to systems of this type in such a way as to try to improve the output
through increasing the efficiency and effectiveness of the learning
process, thus leading to a systems approach to course and curriculum
design based on current knowledge of how people learn. Such a systems
approach attempts to mould the input to a course in such a way as to
enable the optimal assimilation of knowledge and skills to take place
during the learning process and hence maximize the quality of the output.

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Procedural steps in the system approach

The procedural steps in the system approach in education follow as:

1. Defining instructional goals, behavioural objectives and standing
them in operational and measurable terms.
2. Determining functions related to the achievements of those goals
by proper aids like films, recordings, video-tapes, etc.
3. Defining learner characteristics and requirements.
4. Choosing appropriate methods suitable for effective learning of
the topics.
5. Selecting appropriate learning experiences from many
alternatives available.
6. Selecting appropriate materials, facilities, equipment, resources,
environment, tools required for student experience.
7. Defining and assigning appropriate personal roles teachers team
teaching members- supporting personnel students.
8. Implementing the programme try with a few pupils in typical
and appropriate condition.
9. Testing and evaluating the outcome in terms of original
objectives measured in student performance.
10. Refining and revising if necessary to improve student learning.
Advantages of System Approach
1. It provides a conceptual framework on which to build plans for
implementing changes for education.
2. It helps to identify the suitability or otherwise of the resource
material to achieve the specific goal.
3. It helps the resource needs, their sources and facilities in relation
to quantities, time and other factors.

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4. Technological advance could be used to provide integration of

machines, media and people for attaining the defined goals.
5. It permits an orderly introduction of components demonstrated
to be required for system success in terms of student learning.
6. Rigidity in plan of action is avoided as continuous evaluation
affords desired beneficial changes to be made.
1.5.4. Academic Approach
The academic approach attempts to analyze and synthesize major
positions, trends and concepts of curriculum (Ornstein and
Hunkins1993:6). It tends to be grounded on historical and philosophical
curriculum developments and to a lesser extent on social conditions. This
approach is concerned with comprehensive domains of schooling,
including the study of education. It is usually scholastic and theoretical,
hence, also referred to as traditional, encyclopedic, synoptic, intellectual,
or knowledge-oriented approach (Ornstein and Hunkins 1993:6). Hewitt
(2006:162) suggests that the academic approach is linked to the purposes
of the famous Philadelphia Academy created in 1749 by Benjamin
Franklin.
The academy curriculum included the traditional study of English,
reading and writing, with attention to grammatical construction,
pronunciation, writing style and correct speech. History was included as
the vehicle for learning morality and new subjects included geography,
philosophy, oratory (forensics and debate), politics and human affairs.
What was innovative, even radical, was the inclusion of new, practical
subjects for study. These curriculum additions proposed by Franklin
were agriculture, technology, science and inventions.
The Academic approach is reflected in the design of the
Mozambican new curriculum as the pursuit of three main objectives,
namely delivery of (1) basic literacy and numeracy; (2) basic
technological skills in the domain of practical activities and arts; and (3)
patriotic education expressed in the three comprehensive curricular areas
defined in the Penang Convention and Exhibition Bureau (PCEB) as:
i. communication skills and social sciences;
ii. mathematics and natural sciences; and
iii. practical and technological arts

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1.5.5. Re-conceptualist Approach

This approach reflects an existentialist orientation. Proponents argue
that the aim of education is not to control instruction in order to preserve
existing orders. Instead, the purpose of education is to emancipate
society from traditional, outmoded orders through individual free choice.
The focus of the curriculum is community, national and world
problem that need to be addressed through an interdisciplinary approach.
Reconceptualist approach is more concerned with change and reform. It
stretches its curriculum to include ideological issues while investigating
and influencing social, economic and political issues. Theory is more
important than practical applications. School is considered an extension
of society and should be capable of changing society's future.
Reconceptualists believe that a standard child development approach
to child-centeredness is limited, partly because the theory underlying this
approach developed only in the West and primarily before 80’s. In their
view, knowledge should continually be reconstructed across a variety of
individuals, cultures and contexts.
The re-conceptualists represent an approach to curriculum design
without a model to guide the design (or to deal with technical matters),
tending rather to focus on larger ideological and moral issues relating to
education (not only curriculum) and economic and political institutions
of society (not only of schools) (Ornstein and Hunkins 1993). This
approach is rooted in philosophy as well as social and political contexts.
According to Jackson (1992), it is based on three main
characteristics:―(1) dissatisfaction with the Tyler Rationale, (2) the
employment of eclectic traditions to explore curriculum, such as
psychoanalytic theory, phenomenology, existentialism and (3) Marxist
and neo-Marxist trends. In the same vein, Pinar (1991) noted earlier that:
Re-conceptualization is an umbrella term to referring to a diverse
group whose common bond was opposition to the Tyler rationale, to
behaviourism in curriculum conceptualization (including behavioural or
performance objectives, quantitative evaluation, mastery learning, time
on task), and to a historical and a theoretical character of the field.
Again, Marsh and Stafford (1988:30) pointed out that the re-
conceptualists represent a visible and concerted social movement in the
1980s. This was the period, in particular, when personal rights and other
social concerns such as freedom, democracy, equality and how to live
together were predominant in society.

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A basic premise of re-conceptualism is rooted in the principle that

the more students understand themselves, the more they will understand
their world. Thus, curriculum development is politically connected with
the historical, economic and contemporary social frame of reference in a
national and international context. Hameyer (1991) emphasizes that the
re-conceptualists criticize schooling and curricula in view of normative
assumptions, side effects, and hidden mechanisms that reduce
educational quality. The new basic education curriculum in Mozambique
reflects this approach in chapter two of the Curriculum Framework of
Basic Education (PCEB, 2003) in which the political, economic, socio-
cultural and educative contexts are represented. Chapter three of the
same document presents the general policy pursued by the new
curriculum, focusing especially on basic education learner outcomes in
personnel, socioeconomic, cultural and knowledge development
domains. Previously, the Education Sector Strategic Program (ESSP)
(1992-2003) stated that:
Improving the quality of education that Mozambican citizens receive
and providing them with the knowledge and skills that they will need to
compete in the global economy is urgently important if they are to keep
up with their regional neighbours and ensure sustainable livelihoods for
themselves and their children.
As noted by Glatthorn, Boschee and Whitehead (2006:79) the re-
conceptualists are value-oriented theorists primarily engaged in what he
termed educational consciousness-raising, attempting to sensitize
educators to the values issues that lie at the hearts of both the hidden and
the stated curricula.
1.5.6. Humanistic Approach
The humanistic approach to learning refers to a wide variety of ideas
and techniques. While there may be many interpretations, they all
advocate humanising teaching and learning. The learner is a person who
has feelings, attitudes and emotions. Emotions such as self-efficacy, self-
assurance, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation determine how a student
approaches learning. However, not all emotions facilitate learning. Stress
and constant fear have a profound effect on learners’ ability to think and
learn effectively. Past experience such as grades and failures have a
major impact on a student’s current ability to learn. Three noteworthy
personalities who have had an impact on the emergence of humanistic
psychology are Abraham Maslow, Carl Rogers and Arthur Coombs.

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According to Ornstein and Hunkins (1993), the humanistic approach

is underpinned by child psychology with a view to coping with the needs
and interests of children and by humanistic psychology with emphasis on
valuing, ego identity, psychological health, freedom to learn and personal
fulfilment. The teacher therefore serves as facilitator and resource person
for students. The curriculum mainly focuses on active interaction among
students and teachers, on problem solving, and on inquiry. These
procedures are included in the framework of the new curriculum (PCEB).
Abraham Maslow
Abraham Maslow observed that humans are constantly striving to
control their behaviour and seeking to gratify themselves. He proposed
his well-know theory called ‘Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs’ (1943).
According to this theory, individuals satisfy their needs as follows:
a) Survival needs: food, water, air and rest
b) Safety needs: to be safe and avoid danger
c) Belongingness and love needs: gain affection of people and need
to belong to a group
d) Esteem needs: to be recognised and feeling worthwhile
e) Knowing and understanding needs: a desire to know, learn and
understand things
f) Self-actualisation needs: to develop one’s full potential and to
fulfil one’s aesthetic needs
Everything possible should be done to ensure that the lower-level
needs of students are satisfied, so that they are more likely to function at
the higher levels. Parents and society play a significant role in ensuring
that the physiological, safety, love, belonging and esteem needs of
children are satisfied. While schools cannot control all the influence that
impinges on a learner, they can create an atmosphere of trust, warmth
and care. Schools need to create a non-threatening environment where
students feel safe and comfortable.
Carl Rogers
Carl Rogers was a psychotherapist who believed that the client was
the most important person and developed what he called client-centred
therapy. The therapist was not to tell the client what to do but rather the
client should learn how to control his or her own behaviour. He
established a warm, positive and acceptant atmosphere in which he was
able to empathise with his clients and sense their thought and feelings.
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When applied to education, he proposed that classrooms become learner-

centred and teachers should facilitate learning. The teacher helps students
explore new ideas about their lives, their school work, their relations with
others, and their interaction with society. Letting students talk about their
feelings and finding ways to vent their emotions productively can help
them to learn.
Arthur Combs
Arthur Combs believed that how a person perceives himself or
herself is most important and that the basic purpose of teaching is to help
each student develop a positive self-concept. The role of the teacher is
that of facilitator, encourager, helper, colleague and friend of his or her
students. Combs elaborated on these points by listing six characteristics
of good teachers: 1) they are well-informed about their subject; 2) they
are sensitive to the feelings of students and colleagues; 3) they believe
that students can learn; 4) they have a positive self-concept; 5) they
believe in helping all students do their best; 6) and they use many
different methods of instruction.
Humanism in the Classroom
The following are some humanistic techniques in the classroom:
 Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening
learning environment in which learner’s self-concept and self-
esteem are considered essentials factors in learning.
 When it seems appropriate, function as a facilitator where he or
she works and shares ideas with students.
 When the teacher is comfortable, the teacher may occasionally
show his or her “real person” by telling students how he or she
feels.
 Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development
of habits and attitudes that teachers want to foster.
 Teachers should be role models and set good examples.
 Students and teachers plan together the experiences and
activities of the curriculum.
 Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with
responsibilities); the extent of choices and freedom is related to
the maturity level and age of students.

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 Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and

experimenting.
Humanistic school and group structures include:
a. On a school level
– open classrooms, class meetings and finding alternative ways of
assessments.
b. On a class level
– students exercise choice and control over activities; curriculum focuses
on what the children are concerned about; focus on life skills (thinking
skills combined with social skills); self-evaluation and self-monitoring;
teacher becomes a facilitator.
Common Emphasis on Humanistic Approach to Education
1. Affect
– emphasis on thinking and feeling
2. Self-concept
– positive, disinvited students
3. Communication
– positive and honest
4. Personal values
– facilitate the development of positive values; must know themselves,
express themselves, self-identity and actualize themselves
Role of the Teacher in this Approach
-S/he is the facilitator.
-S/he encourages self-reflection.
-S/he does not dominate the class.
-S/he promotes cooperative learning, independent learning, small-group
learning, and social activities instead of competitive, large-group
learning.
Role of the Learner in this Approach
-S/he is an independent and cooperative learner.
-S/he has considerable input in the curriculum and shares responsibility
with parents, teachers, and -curriculum specialists in planning classroom
instruction.

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-S/he is invited into curriculum meetings to express their views on

contents and experiences thanks to bottom up curriculum committees.
Humanistic Approach advances strong arguments that it is the total
person- the cognitive, the affective, and even the spiritual self- who is
involved in gaining knowledge and working toward wisdom. The
students’ self-concept and self-esteem are essential factors in this
process.
1.6. STRUCTURE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL CURRICULUM IN
TAMIL NADU
Tamil Nadu is one of the most literate states in India. The state's
literacy rate is 80.33% in 2011, which is above the national average. A
survey conducted by the Industry body Assocham ranks Tamil Nadu top
among Indian states with about 100% Gross Enrollment Ratio (GER) in
primary and upper primary education.
Education Administration or Authority
 Tamil Nadu Government
• Tamil Nadu Higher Education Department
• Tamil Nadu School Education Department
 Union Government
• University Grants Commission (India)
• All India Council for Technical Education
School Education
The structure of education in the state is based on the national level
pattern with 12 years of schooling and 3 years of college (10+2+3), 12
years consisting of eight years of elementary education, that is, five years
of primary and three years of middle school education for the age groups
of 6-11 and 11–14 years, respectively, followed by secondary and higher
secondary education of two years. The entry age in class 1 is 5+. Pre-
primary classes from age group 3 to 4. The higher secondary school
certificate enables pupils to pursue studies either in universities or in
colleges for higher education three years in general academic streams
and in technical and professional courses.
Enrollment
There were a total of 12855485 children enrolled across the state as
of 2010, with the split up of 9797264 students in primary, 1873989 in
secondary and 1184232 in higher secondary classes.

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Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education

Tamil Nadu Board of Secondary Education, established in 1910, is
under the purview of the Department of Education, Government of Tamil
Nadu, India. The Tamil Nadu State Board of School Examination
evaluates students' progress by conducting two board examinations-one
at the end of class 10 and the others at the end of class 12. The scores
from the class 12 board examinations are used by universities to
determine eligibility and as a cut-off for admissions into their
programmes.
Medium of Instruction
Tamil and English - are Common Medium Languages. Most private
schools medium of instruction is English while the government run
schools are primarily Tamil medium.
Development of Curriculum for School Education – Tamil Nadu
Curricular Framework 2017 (TNCF 2017)
Constant changes in social, economic, demographic spheres,
urbanization and technology spread have become the order of the day.
Also, there have been incredible changes happening across the globe
which impact the lives of people, especially the youngsters.
Globalization has come to stay and the society needs to adapt to the
emerging trends in all spheres of life. Since the implementation of
National Curriculum Framework of 2005, many changes have also taken
place in our society and in the world around us. The young learners need
to cope with the challenges of the 21st century. This necessitated
appropriate reconstruction in the curriculum of school education in the
state.
In this context, the Government of Tamil Nadu has taken a decision
to completely revamp the curriculum of school education. In order to
implement this, the Government has issued orders constituting
Committees or Sub-committees exclusively for curriculum, syllabus and
textbook development.
The Tamil sage Poet Thiruvalluvar says that Education has two facts;
the one is learning thoroughly and the other is living in accordance with
what one has learnt. Amartya Sen rightly points out that, “Education
makes human beings more articulate. It transforms people. You can think
differently about the world. It makes it possible for you to get jobs. It
makes a dramatic difference. It generates a social equity that we need.”
Hence, education occupies an important place in the lives of people and
it necessitates planning for a futuristic education. Such a plan has to
fulfill the twin aspects educating the children and defining the goals for
their future life.

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The annals of history show that Tamil Nadu has a well-knit

educational structure for long. The School Education Department has
taken initiatives in developing the Curriculum, Syllabus and Textbooks
to meet the challenges of the present day. The Curriculum and the
Position Papers on various subjects have set clear goals and strategies for
an equitable and affordable education for the children of the state.
The comprehensive Position Paper relating to the Curriculum of
Tamil Nadu spells out the Education Policy of the State. It contains the
content and methodology of teaching and learning of various subjects
and languages. It lays emphasis on the two-language formula, the Mother
Tongue and English, giving importance to learning through the Mother
Tongue. The Position Paper for each subject reflects on the formulation
of the Syllabus and the Curricular areas which will be part of the
textbooks.
The Curriculum aims at developing and nurturing the children to
face the challenges of their future life, understanding the socio-cultural
aspects of the society through education. It spans through the Primary,
Upper Primary, Secondary and Higher Secondary levels. A student
passing out of the school after twelve years of education, completing the
Higher Secondary Course in a science stream may pursue her or his
Higher Education in any subject i.e., Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry,
Zoology and Biology. The option is open for the students at the higher
secondary level to choose either the Science Subjects or the Subjects
under Humanities. There are Vocational Subjects also to enable the
students select an appropriate course to equip their work skills and seek a
better job. Thus, one may become an architect of the Socio-Economic
Development of the Society in future.
The Position Papers on the languages and subjects explain the aims
and objectives of teaching each of them in the schools. The teaching of
Tamil stands for the inculcation of the culture and heritage of the State
apart from the teaching of the language itself. The Position Paper on
teaching Tamil encompasses the objectives, language competencies,
methods and approaches. The Position Paper on teaching English says
that the learners will be engaged in meaningful experiences of the
language by exploring and doing. It also explains the scope of using
technology appropriately in learning the language.
The Position Paper on Mathematics Curriculum envisions that the
central goal of mathematics is to mathematize thought in the learning
child. It aims to provide plenty of opportunities for the child to train the
mind to think logically, abstractly, critically and creatively. The Position
Paper on Science Curriculum asserts that the central goal of science
education is to provide not only a factual and conceptual understanding
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of natural phenomena, but also a fluency in working with the material

world. The Position Paper on Social Science says that the society has
enormous faith on this subject as it has the potential to nurture values and
form attitudes in the children.
In secondary school, mathematics emerges as a discipline, and
fluency in the language of mathematics becomes essential for
understanding, as all concepts are articulated in the language of algebra.
Number, shape and indeed every concept, is represented in a way that
one can go back and forth between these representations. The best
example of this is in coordinate geometry: a curve, expressed in algebraic
form, is plotted on graph paper using numbers, to generate a shape. A
change in the shape then leads to a new equation, arrived at using
numerical coordinates again. This stage involves a transition from
additive to multiplicative reasoning and from inductive to deductive
reasoning.
Science is a way of looking at the world. Children have a natural
curiosity in them, a need to make sense of phenomena, and an ability to
observe patterns and generalize from them. The overarching goal of
science education is to nurture this need and ability, and channelise it
towards not only coherent materialistic explanations of phenomena but
also towards an ability to predict and realise such phenomena in
controlled environments.
The development of the curriculum resonate the rich cultural, social,
economic and political history of Tamil Nadu. It lays emphasis on
celebrating the cultural diversity and helping the child understand the
secular character of early Tamil Society, which will lead the child to
understand the cultural heritage of the State and the social issues of the
present day. It advocates equitable education for all, to realise the
aspirations of Poet Bharathi, who has said that “If we maintain parity
among men and women, the world will cherish with knowledge
enriched.” This enables all the stakeholders to formulate the ways to
establish the society of equals as envisioned in the Preamble of the
Constitution of India “Constitute India into a Sovereign, Socialist,
Secular, Democratic, Republic and to secure to its entire citizen: Justice,
Social, Economic and Political”.
Improbably and yet persistently, curriculum theory development, as
opposed to the design of specific curriculums, has been hampered by the
way in which schools are organised to deliver the curriculum. Over
occasional lamentations, curricula are planned and staged in teaching
subjects, fixed in time modules of uniform length, and prescribed in
ritualistic fashion. The curricula have been embedded in the school's

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organization and are unrecognizable apart from the organization and the
subjects which dictate their order.
Recall that in recent memory the manner of revising the curricula
and rendering more flexible the alternatives for student learning was to
recognize curriculum delivery: team teaching, flexible scheduling,
differentiated staffing and open spaces. The working hypothesis was that
if time, staffing patterns, and organizational structure in general could be
more adaptable and responsive to change in learning styles, then learning
as an expression of understanding the curriculum could be accelerated.
Inconclusive and disjointed evidence resulted in further
disillusionment, especially with the methodology controlling for the
influence of the school as an organization and its changes. Thus, rather
than acting as a liberating agent, the curriculum has become a constraint.
Once instituted as a plan, it becomes a part of the organizational structure
of how learning is presumed to occur. Since so much has gone into the
design, it cannot bear deviation without pain or anger from the logic of
its order. The order of the design presumes and implies the sequence and
the timing of what is to be learned.

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UNIT 2
CURRICULUM
THEORY

2.1. THEORETICAL PERCEPTIVES OF CURRICULUM

 The challenge of bringing into focus visions of the future and
then skillfully initiating actions that assure attainment of these
visions is not small.
 Curriculum is a complex phenomenon existing within ever
expanding social and political dynamics.
 Perhaps we can be more receptive to theory if we realize that
theorizing is a process that engages us in imagining the how and
why of certain phenomena.
 It challenges us to analyze why we think a curriculum should be
developed in a certain way for particular students and focused on
certain content.
 Theory can also suggest ways in which we can teach what we
think is important.
2.2. REALMS OF KNOWLEDGE
There are Three Different Realms of Knowledge. This concept is
important to learn if one wants to start a new life. It will make them look
at things in a different light so to speak. To start with, people in general
are reluctant learners. We are afraid and anxious to learn new things

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because we don’t like to find ourselves in uncompromising situations.

Simply put, most people are satisfied with what they know.
The first realm is the realm of the things that one consciously knows.
From the simple, physical things that one knows how to do everyday
such as doing stuff on our job, maybe using the computer, tying our
shoelaces all that stuff. These are our acquired, basic knowledge that one
collect as one progress along in life.
The second realm of knowledge is to call the realm of things that one
knows one don’t know. We can’t learn everything in this world. One
doesn’t know how to speak English, fly a plane or break par on the golf
course. These are some of the things; however, they forward to knowing
how to do someday. When we make decisions in our lives, we typically
make those decisions based on what we know and what we don’t know.
This produces a very limiting life.
The third realm of knowledge consists of what we don’t know that
we don’t know, and this is where the difference is made. To access this
realm, one must keep an open mind, be curious and be open to new
experiences and reserve our opinions and judgments until after the
experience. Embrace the unknown, and don’t be quick to think one
“already know.” Keep an open mind, be curious and start a new life with
enthusiasm.

We all grow up in a society where we are sent to schools and

colleges for education to gain knowledge so as to make us better aware
of the world around us so that we can act more responsibly in the society.
The corridors of knowledge teach us about our current understanding of
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the way the world we see around us works. This understanding has led to
the modern day marvels. Such marvels, indeed, seem to have affixed a
stamp of approval on our interpretation of the working of Mother Nature.
These mind boggling inventions which no one could have dreamt of
a few hundred years ago, have also brought the current generation to
logger heads with ancient knowledge sources and their methodology of
knowledge dissemination. Intelligentsia the world over are questioning
the veracity of ancient knowledge storehouses as they do not conform to
current world outlook and simply do not stand up to the test of the latest
methodology of knowledge acquisition. Firstly, we need to understand
that the knowledge about the world we see around us and the spiritual
world belongs to two different realms. The cardinal mistake of applying
methodology, processes and techniques of one realm to a different realm
can lead us to misleading conclusions. While the current techniques of
direct perception and estimation may give us fairly accurate
understanding of the world, to assume that they will work with the
spiritual world also, would be unfair, to say the least. Current knowledge
is assimilation methodology, techniques, processes and systems capable
of revealing or uncovering information about the non manifest spiritual
world.
Secondly, we need to recognize that current techniques and
processes may not be the only way to gain knowledge. For example, the
laws of physics have discovered various formulae. There are formulas to
also calculate the velocity at which it will be travelling at any given point
of time. With these formulae, we can predict where a ball will land and
with what velocity when it is hit by a batsman. At the same time, an
illiterate child playing cricket in the field, will judge exactly where the
ball will be at the right height for him to catch it the moment it leaves the
bat while also figuring out the force with which the ball has to be
opposed in order to bring its velocity to zero when it lands in his hand.
The child's brain does all the accurate calculations required within split
seconds. While the same result can be predicted with a computer
engaging all the formulae of physics, the child's brain does it in some
other way which is entirely different from the way the computer is doing
it. So both the computer and the child's brain arrive at the same
conclusion through two entirely different processes - the former through
the laws of physics, and the latter we do not know how. Current
knowledge is assimilation methodology, techniques, processes and
systems the only way to reveal or uncover information about the world
around us and the spiritual world.

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Since spiritual knowledge belongs to a different realm, we need a

different methodology to access it, unlike material knowledge which is
accessible to some extent - though not full-through direct perception and
estimation. The process for this is that of the descending process -
gaining knowledge from a higher authority. The only way to assimilate
knowledge of the realm of spirit, which is inaccessible to the normal
methodology adopted due to its subtle nature. Thus the two realms of
knowledge can coexist in peace and respect each other for their
contributions to enhancing and enriching human lives in their respective
spheres, without having to contradict or interpret each other.
2.3. INDIAN AND WESTERN THEORIES OF KNOWLEDGE
The philosophy of education is a significant area of study both for
Western and Indian philosophers. Philosophy of education was not
systematically set forth before the twentieth century. In the west only
Plato produced a notable philosophy of education (in his “Republic") in
pre-twentieth century. He was the first systematic philosopher to work in
this field. Plato along with John Dewey believes that philosophy of
education occupied a central place in philosophical thought. Dewey, in
fact, once suggested that “philosophy may even be defined as the general
theory of education.”
2.3.1. Indian Theories
Educational foundations in India are also found in the metaphysical,
epistemological and axiological outlook of the philosophers. The Indian
philosophy of education is distinct about aims, curriculum, methodology
and other aspects of education. It is not so inarticulate form to the
application of the speculative view. But the exercise of philosophy of
education as a systematic study plays a role of restrictive paradigm for
the growth of the field. The analytical movement also seems to have had
little or no influence on this area of study. In all aspects, as a subject of
academic study, as an area of scholarly research and as a perspective for
intellectual dialogue and debate, philosophy of education has suffered
neglect in Indian philosophy.
1. Vedic period
In ancient India knowledge of sacred Veda is recognized as the
second birth and the father of the birth is the teacher who imparted
knowledge of Vedas. So teacher is respected as pivot of whole
educational system. The ancient philosophy of education is especially
spiritual or idealistic in nature. The basic aim of Vedic education is to
attain liberation or Moksa. Upanishadic aim of ‘philosophy of education’
is therefore not one sided. It emphasized all round development of a
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person. Its methods are discussion method, questioning, induction and

deduction. It is also well known to commentaries, illustrations,
descriptions, narratives and practical demonstrations. In Vedic
philosophy the four purusharthas or aims of life have a determining
influence on the human individual. But in this philosophy of education
the method of gaining knowledge is theoretical.
2. Buddhism
Theory of knowledge in Buddhism unlike the materialist theory
admits the validity of inference in addition to perception. However, there
is a difference between the Buddhist theory of inference and the
Naiyayika’s. The Buddhist maintains that conations could be established
between causes and effects, while the Naiyayika admits other forms of
invariable coincidence as well. According to Buddhist philosophy,
though inductive generalisations based on inseparability may not be
always valid, they are valid with regard to causal successions. Buddhist
theory of knowledge also includes inference to fire from smoke is
concerned, it cannot be denied, for denying it, it is impossible to live.
Regarding establishing causal relations between two phenomena, the
early Buddhist theory of knowledge says that if A precedes B, and the
disappearance of A means the disappearance of B, other things remaining
the same, then A is the cause of B. This is the method of difference.
Later Buddhists developed this doctrine by emphasising the immediate
antecedents of the cause. They also insist that one should be careful that
no other circumstances are altered. So they state the full doctrine of
causal inference in five steps, hence it is called Panchakarani. Firstly, in
the stage of perceiving neither the cause nor the effect, in the second
stage the cause appears, in the third stage the effect appears, in the fourth
stage the cause disappears and finally in the last and fifth stage the effect
disappears. According to the Buddhist theory of knowledge, relations of
co-existence such as those of genus and species can also be established,
though in a different manner.
Lord Buddha says that he has nothing to do with theories. His system
is not a Darshana, or a philosophy, but a vehicle, a practical method
leading to liberation. Buddha analyses experience, discerns its true
nature. Since they adopt the method of analysis, the Buddhists are
sometimes called as analytic thinkers or Vibhajyavadins. Buddha does
not like the idea of basing the reality of Vedic authority. Buddhist
philosophy states that there is nothing beyond experience. The real and
the experienced are identical. The relative is the absolute. A true
metaphysic must be a theory of experience, and not a guess work as to
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what is at the back of it hiding itself under a veil. Some believers of

Buddhism tried to round off Buddha`s deliverances on the nature of this
world by their own schemes of metaphysics.
3. Jainism
According to Jainism consciousness or awareness is the essential
quality of each individual soul. By itself a soul does not require any
external means to gain knowledge because knowledge is inherent in its
essential nature and by that it has omniscience or the all knowing
awareness without the need to depend upon perception or cognition.
Knowledge does not arise because of perception or mental activity. It
exists in itself, whether we know or not and whether we perceive things
or not. In other words the world is real, not an illusion.
However, in a state of bondage such knowledge becomes covered by
the impurity of karma and remains inaccessible to the souls. Thereby the
souls lose their omniscience temporarily and rely upon limited means
and intermediate sources such as the mind and the senses to gain
knowledge and make sense of their experiences and existence.
In this condition beings gain the knowledge of the world sequentially
first through perceptions and then through intelligence. Perceptions help
them to acquire the generalities of the objects perceived, while
intelligence helps then to gain specific details of each of them. These
methods are not foolproof since they are prone to errors. In beings this
process of knowing happens in five different ways. Of them the first
three are imperfect and prone to error, while the last two are perfect and
convey the truth without error. These five means or instruments of
knowledge are explained below.
Means of Knowledge
1. Mati: Mati is mind. Mati jnana is the knowledge of the mind, usually
gained through our senses, memory, remembrance, cognition, and
deductive reasoning. It is something which we know with the help of our
mind and its various faculties. From a soul's perspective, this is indirect
knowledge derived through the agency of the mind and its faculties
(senses).
2. Sruthi: When we learn something from other sources, other people or
beings, through our observation of signs, symbols or words, we call it
sruthignana or the knowledge of sruthi or hearing. This type of
knowledge is gained through association (labdhi), attention (bhavana),
understanding (upayoga) and naya or varied interpretations of the
meaning of things (naya). This is indirect knowledge obtained through
description, authority, study, hearing and listening.
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3. Avadhi: We gain this type of knowledge not through physical means

such as the senses or the mind, but through our psychic abilities, or
through clairvoyance and intuitive awareness, by overcoming the
limitations of time and space. It is beyond the boundaries of our ordinary
awareness and faculties and not generally available to everyone. This is
direct knowledge.
4. Mahaparyaya: This knowledge is gained by reading the minds and
thoughts of others. It is also direct knowledge obtained from others
through extra sensory perception such as telepathy or mind reading.
Mahaprayaya is facilitated when an individual attains or nears the state of
perfection. In that state his own ego becomes silent and dormant.
Thereby he is able to enter into any consciousness at will and experience
oneness with it.
5. Kevala: It is the highest knowledge gained when we transcend our
ordinary self and attain perfection or aloneness (kaivalya). Hence only a
Jina or Kevalin has access to it, and through him others may learn it as
shruti. By itself this knowledge does not require any outward agency for
its transmission because it is always there, in the consciousness of the
soul which flowers full in an enlightened Jina, unattached, unlimited and
without any constraint of time and space, duality and objectivity. Since it
is transcendental, it cannot be conveyed or expressed adequately to the
satisfaction of others. However, it can be obtained omnisciently in a state
of perfection, when the soul becomes liberated from the bondage to the
cycle of births and deaths.
Direct and indirect knowledge
As we stated already, the first two are indirect means of knowledge
(paroksha) since we have to depend upon an external and intermediate
source such as the senses or the mind to know it, while the other three are
direct, where we do not have to depend upon an external or intermediate
source in the field of objectivity to know it. We gain it directly
(pratyaksha) and immediately by coming into contact with it and hence
more reliable and useful in liberation. The knowledge gained through the
senses is also considered in some classifications as direct (pratyaksha).
However, the senses are vulnerable to desires and delusion; we cannot
entirely depend upon it. Perceptual knowledge also arises in four
different ways, through visual sensations, non-visual sensations, extra-
sensory perception and through unified perception without duality by
becoming absorbed in the knowledge itself.
Of the three, the first three are not considered valid knowledge
because they are prone to errors and create doubt (samsaya), confusion
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and delusion, while the last two are valid and error free. Their source is
from the higher realms inhabited by perfect beings that personify wisdom
and can never be wrong. Invalid knowledge arising from the first three is
also prone to faulty logic, mistaken notions (viparayana) and wrong
knowledge (anadhyavasaya) arising from carelessness or indifference.
During the Muslim ruling period in Indian history it was the mixed
educational system of Vedic and Islamic education. The Islamic
education flowed in India for a period of about five hundred years. This
period continued till the advent of British in India who started the
modem education. In this period the aim of philosophy of education was
derived from the aim of the religion.
4. Modern Period
In India modern education started under the British rule. As the
Indian people educated in Hindu and Muslims institutions were not
useful for working of the British Government, therefore Lord Macaulay
drew up a plan of Western oriented education in India. On February 8,
1835, Macaulay presented his historical ‘minits’, making a bitter attack
upon Indian literature and culture. He laid stress on what he called
religious objectivity which meant the duty of England to teach Indians
what was good for their health. The policy developed on the basis of
Macaulay’s educational views gave primacy to the propagation of
European literature and science, suspension of scholarships for students,
neglect of publication of Eastern literature and encouragement to
propagation of English literature. This policy was accepted by Lord
Bentinck. English education in India was useful and professional and
vocational institutions started to provide education in medicine,
engineering law and other specialized areas. The aim of British education
was mainly creation of cogs for the British machinery in India. However,
along with the study of Western language and literature, the study of
oriental literature was also given a place in the curriculum. Both English
and Indian languages were accepted as the medium of instruction.
2.3.2. WESTERN THEORIES
The western philosophy of education is divided based on the origin
of reality. The origin of reality to the idealistic philosopher is quite
different from the realistic or the pragmatic philosophers. Therefore the
perspective towards the life for the idealistic philosopher is also different
from the other philosophers. Depending on the perspective towards the
life, the aim of education is also different for the different philosophers.
Therefore the division of western philosophy based on the theory of
reality is tried to be observed in the following discussion.
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The branch of philosophy that studies the nature, source and limits of
knowledge is known as epistemology. It is the theory of knowledge. The
basic questions of epistemology can be put down in the following
manner:
Origin and Sources of Knowledge
There are many ways that one might come to know something or
acquire knowledge. We acquire our knowledge of empirical facts about
physical world through perception, that is, by using our senses. Science
is the best example of empirical knowledge with its collection of data.
Our everyday knowledge also mostly comes from the senses, as we look,
listen, smell, touch, and tastes the various objects in our environments.
But knowledge is not simply made up of sensations. All knowledge
requires some amount of reasoning. Data collected by scientists must be
analyzed before knowledge is yielded, and we draw inferences based on
what is given to us by our senses. In case of knowledge of abstract or
non-empirical facts one has to rely exclusively upon reasoning.
Some philosophers regard memory also as a source of knowledge. In
memory we come to know something which we knew in the past but
which is no longer present to our senses now. Knowledge can also be
acquired through testimony, that is, from the words of some trusted
person or books that can be believed to be true.
Theories of Knowledge
There are four main theories of origin of knowledge.
1. Rationalism: It is a theory that regards reason as the chief source
of knowledge. Descartes, Spinoza and Leibniz are advocates of
Rationalism.
2. Empiricism: It is a theory that regards experience as the source
of knowledge. Locke and Hume are the chief exponents of this
theory.
3. Criticism: It is also called the Critical theory of knowledge. It is
advocated by Kant. He advocated the view that both experience
and reason together yield knowledge.
4. Intuitionism: It regards intuition as the source of knowledge.
Henry Bergson is an advocate of this theory.
1. Rationalism
Rationalism is the theory of knowledge according to which reason or
intellect is the main source of knowledge. Rationalism rejects all
knowledge derived from sense experience. Socrates and Plato are the
earliest rationalist philosophers. According to them, true knowledge
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originates from reason. The Rationalism that was advocated by these two
philosophers became articulate in the philosophy of Descartes, Spinoza
and Leibniz. However, the rationalist philosophers differ among
themselves regarding how much importance should be given to
experience in yielding knowledge. Some rationalists regard experience as
wholly misleading while others attach some values to it. They say that
the knowledge given by experience is confused knowledge. But inspite
of their differences they all agree that reason alone can give us certain
and perfect knowledge. Rationalism is also called a priori theory of
knowledge as according to this theory, knowledge is prior or independent
of experience.
2. Empiricism
Empiricism is a theory according to which experience is the source
of true knowledge. It is a reaction against rationalism. In direct
opposition to rationalism, empiricism holds that knowledge is derived
from sense experience. The empiricists hold that the so-called a priori
rational principles are actually derived from experience. As contrasted
with rationalism, empiricism is called a posteriori theory of knowledge
because according to this theory, knowledge is posterior or dependent
3. Criticism
The doctrine of criticism is synthesis of rationalism and empiricism.
As we see neither rationalism nor empiricism is a satisfactory theory of
knowledge. By denying the role of experience rationalism has become
one sided. Empiricism also is one sided as it denies the role of reason in
knowledge.
4. Intuitionism
Intuitionism is the philosophical theory that basic truths are known
intuitively. Basically, our intuition knows something because it is true.
Universally, objectively, true. When you're a philosopher, looking for the
fundamental sources of morality, that's a pretty major claim to make.
But, intuition is not supposed to guide our every action. According to
intuitionism, our intuition helps us discover fundamental morals, but we
still have to decide how to put those into action on a daily basis and make
the best choice for any given situation. Now, there are many branches of
intuitionism, but in its simplest form, this theory rests on three beliefs.
First, objective moral truths do exist. There is such a thing as right and
wrong, and your personality, society, or culture does not change those.
Second, fundamental truths cannot be broken down into simpler
components and the third belief of intuitionism is that human beings are
able to know these truths through intuition.
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However, rationalism rightly emphasizes the universality or

necessity of knowledge. But it is wrong in accepting innate ideas. If we
accept innate ideas then we also will have to accept that there is no
progress in knowledge as knowledge consists simply in analytical
deduction of innate principles. Therefore, empiricists are right in
emphasizing that knowledge is acquired through experience. But the
problem with empiricism is that it denies universal and necessary
knowledge as experience gives us only contingent truths. However, true
knowledge should be universal and at the same time it should be novel.
Immanuel Kant tries to reconcile rationalism and empiricism in criticism
and give a satisfactory view of knowledge that is both universal and
contains novelty.
Idealistic View
The idealists believe that the soul is immortal, the world of ideas is
the real world and this world of ideas is not the world of senses. Mind
possesses the important power of thought. Idealist defines man in terms
of mental activity, who must recognize a mode of knowing other than
experiences. H. H. Horne insisted that the mind goes beyond experience
in many instances. For example, when the mind studies or examines the
conditions of experience itself, it is going beyond experience. Only due
to mental consciousness does one know that he is experiencing
something. Therefore reasoning, intuition etc. are modes of knowing for
the idealists. Self-realization is the ultimate aim of idealistic philosophy
of education.
Plato, also looks to the whole man and makes him realize his true
nature. Again, the Idealistic philosophy of education defends the inherent
worth of the individual and care for the dignity and value of human life.
Idealism believes that man realizes the spiritual nature of Divine Being,
therefore, the educational aim is ‘man making’ in its highest capacity.
Again Plato asserts that man’s will is free. Recognition of the freedom of
the will shows man’s responsibility for his actions and the attendant
reward or punishment for good and bad behaviour.
Need of curriculum is another great factor for Horne. He suggested
that the criteria for selection of curricular content should be the abilities
and needs of the learner and secondly the requirements of society and
thirdly the nature of the universe in which we live. Meeting the student’s
needs calls for work in the science (knowing), arts (feeling) and the
practical arts (doing or willing), Physics, chemistry, biology, sociology,
and similar courses give the student the knowledge of the external world.
Appreciation of music, drama, literature and the like assist man to make
proper emotional adjustment to the world around him.
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Naturalistic View
The naturalistic philosophy of education is as old as idealistic
philosophy of education as it lays emphasis upon nature in every field of
education. The naturalistic philosophers of education derive the aims and
ideals, the means the methods of teaching and the principles of
curriculum and school management from the nature. The ancient
atomistic naturalism was presented by Democritus. Democritus
explained the composition of universe in terms of innumerable,
indivisible and indestructible atoms. This materialistic explanation of the
world was the ground of naturalism in education. Rousseau and Herbert
Spencer contributed a lot in the field of philosophy of education. Their
main emphasis was on the methodology and educational setting based on
naturalism.
Realistic view
Realism is an outcome of scientific development. This theory is
against spiritualism and opposed to idealism. The realistic philosophers
of education give importance to scientific process and say that after
scientific analysis of natural interests of the child and society, it is
necessary to know which interest is common to both and is equally
beneficial. Realistic view is directly related to life and society. It tries to
bring all joys and happiness in society with the analysis of the real
problem of the society. The supporters of realism are - Johann Friedrich
Herbart and Herbert Spencer. Johann Friedrich Herbart has tried to make
the aim of education to much realistic.
Pragmatic View
In pragmatism, no importance is attached to the impracticable and to
things which cannot fulfill some purpose. The pragmatic philosophers of
education give attention to the practical and useful things. Practical and
useful does not simply mean theoretical, but induces to do useful and
practical work. The education based on this ideology makes the child
worthy and independent of the society. Pragmatic philosophers of
education consider the aim, nature, organization and order of education
should be such that it may do maximum good of man. John Dewey
argued that the mind body (spirit matter) dualism of classical philosophy
is responsible for the unnatural cleavages in society and education such
as labour-leisure, practical-intellectual, man-nature, culture-vocation,
subject matter- method, ends-means and others.
Existentialist View
Existentialist philosophers of education approach towards the
humanistic aim of truth. The aim of education is the realization of inner
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truth. Education provides the knowledge of self-existence and self-

realization. The student has their own facilities and immense
possibilities. The teacher helps the student to become what they want and
for himself but in doing that the teacher should not impose on the
student, it should be general and permissive in character, so that the
freedom of the student is not hampered.
Existentialistic educators appreciated the Socratic Method as the
humanistic approach to philosophy of education. Socrates neither
established any school nor delivered lectures for the purpose of education
or examination. His method of teaching was confined to asking questions
and developing the issue till the conclusion is reached. He himself
pleaded ignorance and sought enlightenment from those with whom he
conversed. Existential philosophy seems to advocate Socratic Method as
a model.
2.4. CATEGORIES OF KNOWLEDGE
Knowledge is information that is meaningful in cognitive forms such
as understanding, awareness and ability. It is typically acquired by
experience, information consumption, experimentation and thought
processes such as imagination and critical thinking. Knowledge comes in
several varieties and types:
1. A Posteriori
A posteriori, literally "from the latter", is a classical term for
knowledge that extends from experience or empirical evidence.
2. A Priori
A priori is knowledge that can be deduced from first principles. For
example, we can prove a theory with math.
3. Dispersed Knowledge
Dispersed knowledge is when information about a topic is
fragmented with no single source of truth. It is common in fast moving
situations such as financial markets.
4. Domain Knowledge
Domain knowledge describes the knowledge, skills and abilities of
experts in a particular field.
5. Empirical Knowledge
Knowledge that stems from quantitative and qualitative observations,
measurements and experiments.
6. Encoded Knowledge
Knowledge that is represented as data such a document, database,
distributed database or artificial neural network.
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7. Explicit Knowledge
Knowledge that can be articulated in a natural language such as
French or Japanese.
8. Known Unknowns
Knowing that we don't know is a form of knowledge that is useful to
decision making.
9. Meta Knowledge
Meta-knowledge is knowledge about knowledge such as
bibliographic data.
10. Procedural Knowledge
Knowing how to do something such as riding a bike. Procedural
knowledge is often difficult to encode or make explicit.
11. Propositional Knowledge
Statements of fact that can be represented in natural language or the
language of a system of logic.
12. Situated Knowledge
Highly specific knowledge such as knowing that the soil conditions
on the west side of a mountain are perfect for planting tulips in
September.
13. Tacit Knowledge
A general term for knowledge that is difficult to explain, articulate or
acquire such as mastering chess or the piano. Also associated with a
sense of innate ability or unique set of experiences that allows a select
few individuals to achieve mastery of a particular skill.
Philosophers typically divide knowledge into three categories:
personal, procedural and propositional. It is the last of these,
propositional knowledge, that primarily concerns philosophers. However,
understanding the connections between the three types of knowledge can
be helpful in clearly understanding what is and what is not being
analysed by the various theories of knowledge.
1. Personal Knowledge
The first kind of knowledge is personal knowledge, or knowledge by
acquaintance. This is the kind of knowledge that we are claiming to have
when we say things like “I know Classical music.”
2. Procedural Knowledge
The second kind of knowledge is procedural knowledge, or
knowledge how to do something. People, who claim to know how to
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juggle, or how to drive, are not simply claiming that they understand the
theory involved in those activities. Rather, they are claiming that actually
possess the skills involved, that they are able to do these things.
3. Propositional Knowledge
The third kind of knowledge, the kind that philosophers care about
most, is propositional knowledge, or knowledge of facts. When we say
things like “I know that the internal angles of a triangle add up to 180
degrees” or “I know that it was you that ate my sandwich”, we are
claiming to have propositional knowledge.
George Beauchamp (1975, 1981) notes that all theories are derived
from three broad categories of knowledge:
Humanities: philosophy, music, theology, art and literature;
Natural Sciences: chemistry, physics, botany, zoology, geology and
other similar disciplines;
Social Sciences: history, sociology, psychology, anthropology and
economics among others of this nature.
Thus, curriculum theory may be regarded as the heart or foundation
of education theory. It draws on psychology, sociology and philosophy.
The curriculum uses information from various disciplines and sets up
rules and procedures for using the knowledge in the realm of humanities,
natural sciences and social sciences.
2.5. CURRICULUM THEORIES
Curriculum Theory (CT) is an academic discipline devoted to
examining and shaping educational curricula. There are many
interpretations of CT, being as narrow as the dynamics of the learning
process of one child in a classroom to the lifelong learning path an
individual takes. Curriculum Theory can be approached from the
educational, philosophical, psychological and sociological disciplines.
James MacDonald states “one central concern of theorists is identifying
the fundamental unit of curriculum with which to build conceptual
systems. Whether this is rational decisions, action processes, language
patterns, or any other potential unit has not been agreed upon by the
theorists.”
Curriculum theory is fundamentally concerned with values, the
historical analysis of curriculum, ways of viewing current educational
curriculum and policy decisions, and theorizing about the curricula of the

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future. Pinar defines the contemporary field of curriculum theory as “the

effort to understand curriculum as symbolic representation”.
The first mention of the word “curriculum” in university records was
in 1582, at the University of Leiden, Holland: “having completed the
curriculum of his studies”. However, curriculum theory as a field of
study is thought to have been initiated with the publication of The Yale
Report on the Defense of the Classics in 1828, which promoted the study
of a classical curriculum, including Latin and Greek, by rote
memorization.
The challenge to curricularists is to make sense out of the complexity
of the field of curriculum and to determine whether they should create
their own curriculum theory or theories, borrow theories from other
disciplines such as psychology, sociology, anthropology and philosophy
or do both. To create a single curriculum theory that would describe and
more importantly explain, curriculum is perhaps an unrealistic goal;
curriculum covers too many aspects of education.
In a presentation to the American educational research association, it
was stated that theory construction is essential to all inquiry. Theory is
characterized as being practical and consists of either related
generalizations or related hypotheses which are testable. Four types of
theory are classified as (1) formal theory, (2) event theory,
(3) volitional theory, and (4) praxiological theory. Formal theory is
speculation with respect to structure and is non-volitional. Volitional
theory is speculation as to worthiness while praxiological theory is
speculation about appropriate means to obtain what is believed to be
valuable. The 4 types of theory are described in specific relation to
curriculum theory and curriculum policy.
Consequently, Maccias’ organized theory as formal theory, event
theory, valuational theory and praxiological theory.
1. Formal theory
This theory deals with speculation about the structure of the
disciplines that comprise the curriculum. The mathematics and logic as
comprising formal theory. But formal theory should not be confined
within the bounds set by the 17th century rationalistic temper and
maintained today by scientific empiricism and logical empiricism. There
are structures other than those of science. Logic and mathematics, in the

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main, are about structures of science. Consider the fact that logic as
developed has little to do with ordinary language. Formal theory,
moreover, is non-volitional. It does not set forth structures as valuable.
The use of 'epistemological' rather than ‘formal’ to characterize theory of
structures might conduce to breadth of speculation, but it might conduce
also to speculation about the valuableness of structures. Logic and
mathematics need not necessarily be norms. That is a matter in need of
more than formal speculation. ‘Epistemology', then, should be rejected as
a designation for a non-volitional type of theory.
2. Event theory
Event theory, very similar to what we have been discussing as
scientific theory, refers to speculation about occurrences. It attempts to
predict what will occur given certain circumstances. It is speculation with
respect to occurrences. An example would be physical science. In fact,
physical science is made by many the paradigm of adequate event theory.
In this manner, event theory becomes equated with scientific theory. In
facts experience itself comes to be restricted within scientific bounds.
'Empirical' and 'scientific' become equivalent terms. Such equating and
restricting now take to be errors, since non-scientific event theory, such
as history, does exist and some of it is adequate.
3. Volitional theory
Volitional theory involves speculation about the appropriate means
to attain the objectives most desired and to include the content judged to
be the best. It is not the case that event theory is volitional due to the
event status of valuing behavior. Because something is valued does not
make it valuable. What is valued may not have value. Volitional theory is
speculation as to worth whileness. Philosophy abounds with examples of
such theorizing. Plato's Republic is an excellent illustration of
considerations with respect to the human life worthy of living and the
human society worthy of formation. There is no intention therein to
speculate about occurrences which are or whichever will be. Although
philosophy is usually identified with the humanities, 'volitional' is
preferred to 'humanistic'. Non-theoretical and non-volitional theoretical
components within the humanities would have to be ignored. In other
words, the humanities would be characterized inadequately.

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4. Praxiological theory
Praxiological theory refers to speculation about appropriate means to
attain what is considered valuable. It is about practices. The final kind of
theory to be explicated is praxiological theory. Praxiological theory is
speculation about appropriate means to attain what is taken to be
valuable. It is theory about practices. It is not theory about what is to be
taken as valuable. What is valuable is assumed not established.
Nevertheless, it is not mere applied science or, more correctly, applied
theory of events. If it were simply applied theory of events, mode of
action and technical base would be unimportant. However, man orders
the events in a different way and even constructs new events (substances
and instruments) in order to bring about what is taken to be valuable.
From what has been said with respect to the technical base, it must be
obvious that technological is not enact characterization of theory of
practices.

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UNIT 3
MODELS OF CURRICULUM
THEORY

3.1. MODELS OF CURRICULUM THEORY

A curriculum theory provides a way of ordering an educational
program designed to accomplish certain educational goals. It uses
specific educational means to accomplish these goals (Joyce and Weil,
1972). The value of a curriculum theory is that it helps to classify issues
that are primarily concerned with the status of knowledge within the
disciplines and the society's goals for school (Ausubel, et al., 1968).
3.2. JOHNSON’S MODEL
Johnson’s definition of curriculum – an intended series of learning
outcomes they should realize the usefulness of distinguishing between
theorizing about curriculum as a plan and theorizing about the means by
which such plans are generated. This curriculum model is drawn from
the work of Johnson (“Definitions and Models in Curriculum Theory" in
Educational Theory, 1967). Key points regarding Johnson's model are:
1) Curriculum decisions can be, to some extent, separated from
instruction decisions;
2) His model stresses selecting knowledge from the total body of
knowledge available within the discipline;
3) The model is consistent with how educators build a curriculum;

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4) Given the explosive growth of new knowledge in all fields, there

is clearly a need for more careful analysis of what knowledge
may be of most worth and what relationships may exist between
disciplines and sub-disciplines. The curriculum development
system works because of planning and curriculum decisions
made about content;
5) The selection and structuring of knowledge generate conceptual
hierarchies of frameworks that guide the curriculum.
In the schema, Mauritz Johnson provides one of the most elegant and
powerful models for classifying information relative to both curriculum
and instruction. His Schema for Curriculum was first presented in an
article entitled "Definitions and Models in Curriculum Theory" in
Educational Theory, 17th April, 1967, Pg. No. 127-140. It is still perhaps
one of the best taxonomies for classification of curriculum items. In a
sense, it goes beyond curriculum and delves boldly into areas that are
concerned with instruction, evaluation, and values. Anybody pursuing a
doctoral degree, especially in the area of curriculum, this framework can
be a valuable tool for deriving meaning from other sources.
The Schema
1. A curriculum is a structured series of intended learning outcomes.
Curriculum does not consist of planned learning experiences. Curriculum
is not a system but the output of one system and an input into another.
Learning outcomes consist of three classes:
i. Knowledge
Facts: items of verifiable information. Concepts: mental constructs
epitomizing facts about particular referents. Generalizations: (including
laws, principles, rules) statements of relationship among two or more
concepts.
ii. Techniques (processes, skills, abilities)
Cognitive: methods of operating on knowledge intellectually.
Psycho-motor: methods of manipulating the body and material things
effectively with respect to purposes.
iii. Values (affects)
Norms: societal prescriptions and preferences regarding belief and
conduct.
Predilections: individual preferential dispositions (attitudes, interests,
appreciations, aversions).

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Whenever a curriculum is used in instruction, the intention (to

achieve the outcomes) is implicit regardless of the curriculum's origin or
sanction.
2. Selection is an essential aspect of curriculum formulation.
2.1. The source from which curriculum is selected is the available
culture. Societal problems and the needs and interests of children are not
sources of curriculum.
2.2. Modern communication makes available cultural content that is not
indigenous to the society in which the curriculum is formulated.
2.3. Some indigenous cultural content may be unavailable due to the
secrecy of those in possession of it.
2.4. Cultural content available for curriculum is of two types:
disciplinary and non-disciplinary.
2.5. The content embodied in organized disciplines is derived from
systematic inquiry conducted within a framework of assumptions and
procedures accepted by scholars competent to conduct such inquiry.
2.6. Non-disciplinary content is derived empirically from experience
other than deliberate inquiry.
2.7. Various criteria may govern the selection of curriculum from
available cultural content.
2.8. The only necessary, albeit insufficient, criterion for curriculum
selection is that the content be teachable.
2.9. Teachability implies learnability, but the converse does not
necessarily hold.
2.10. Cultural content is teachable if the learning of it by one person can
be facilitated by direct or remote interaction with another person.
2.11. Teaching is the process by which one person interacts with another
with the intention of influencing his learning.
2.12. There can be teaching where there is no learning.
2.13. There can be learning without teaching.
2.14. Learning is the process by which an individual invests cultural
content with meaning, thereby becoming capable of acting differently
toward that item, or another item, of cultural content. Learning does not
necessarily change behavior, but it changes the potential for behavior.
2.15. Learning can be detected only by contriving a situation in which a
change in behavior can be manifested.
2.16. Learning is independent of any demonstration of its occurrence.
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2.17. Cultural content is learnable if meaning can be perceived in it.

2.18. Cultural content has meaning for an individual to the extent that he
recognizes appropriate rules by which his actions toward it may be
governed.
2.19. Meanings may be symbolic, empiric, esthetic, ethic, synoetic, or
synoptic. (Phenix, 1964.)
2.20. Ideology determines what additional criteria are imposed in
curriculum selection.
2.21. A given society may demand that curriculum be selected in
conformity with a specified set of political, social, economic, or moral
values.
2.22. Curriculum content may be selected with regard to its utility in the
social order or in the present or anticipated life situations of learners.
2.23. Curriculum content may be selected with regard to its significance
in the structure of intellectual disciplines.
2.24. The basis of curriculum selection differs for training and for
education.
2.25. Training is the process of preparing an individual to perform
defined functions in a predictable situation.
2.26. Education is the process of equipping an individual to perform
undefined functions in unpredictable situations.
2.27. The selection of curriculum content for training is based on an
analysis of the specific functions to be performed and the specific
situation in which they are to be performed.
2.28. The selection of curriculum content for education is based on its
having the widest possible significance and greatest possible explanatory
power.
2.29. The selection of some curriculum items necessitates the selection of
related items.
2.30. A set of closely related items is a curriculum cluster.
2.31. A curriculum cluster may consist of one type or mixed types of
curriculum items.
3. Structure is an essential characteristic of curriculum.
3.1. Curriculum structure reveals orderings that are mandatory for
instruction.
3.2 The ordering of some curriculum items is indifferent.

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3.3. The ordering of some curriculum clusters determines the gross

ordering of constituent items, but not their internal order.
3.4. Some curriculum clusters are ordered internally.
3.5. Curriculum ordering disregards instructional temporal spacing
(grade or age placement).
3.6. Curriculum structure reveals taxonomic (hierarchical) relationships,
whether or not order of items is significant.
4. Curriculum guides instruction.
4.1. Instruction is the interaction between a teaching agent and one or
more individuals intending to learn.
4.2. Instruction engages intended learners in activities with cultural
content.
4.3. The teaching agent influences the activities of those intending to
learn.
4.4. The range of appropriate instructional activities is limited by the type
of curriculum item.
4.5. Instructional content includes both curricular and instrumental
content.
4.6. Curricular content is that cultural content explicitly intended to be
learned.
4.7. Instrumental content is optional cultural content introduced into the
instructional situation, not to be learned but to facilitate the intended
learning.
4.8. Instructional planning consists of the selection and ordering of
instructional activities and instrumental content on the basis of
curriculum.
4.9. A learning experience is the subjective concomitant of activities with
instructional content on the part of an individual engaging in them.
4.10. Instruction is episodic.
4.11. An instructional episode consists of a series of teaching cycles
relevant to one or more curriculum items.
4.12. A teaching cycle involves perception, diagnosis, and action or
reaction by a teaching agent and intended learners.
4.13. Teaching cycles are initiated by structuring or soliciting moves.
4.14. Teaching cycles include reflexive response or reaction movers.
4.15. Actions and reactions in teaching cycles are linguistic,
performative, or expressive.
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4.16. Several instructional episodes may relate to the same curriculum

item, just as a given instructional episode may relate to a number of
curriculum items.
5. Curriculum evaluation involves validation of both selection and
structure.
5.1. Empirical evidence based on instruction can identify structural errors
and omissions in selection.
5.2. Judgmental and consensual methods are required to validate
priorities and identify superfluities in selection.
6. Curriculum is the criterion for instructional evaluation.
6.1. The effectiveness of instruction is represented by the extent to which
actual outcomes correspond with intended outcomes.
6.2. Comparisons among instructional plans and among instructors using
the same instructional plan can be made only in terms of a given
curriculum.
3.3. MCDONALD’S MODELS
James Macdonald (1925-1983) was one of the most important U.S.
curriculum theorists of the 20th century. He taught initially at the
University of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, and subsequently at the University
of North Carolina Greensboro, until his death. Macdonald never
published a book, but his work can be found in disparate places,
including numerous monographs, booklets, and out-of-the-way journals
(such as the Journal of Vocational Education). After his death,
Macdonald's son Bradley J. Macdonald published Theory as a Prayerful
Act: The Collected Essays of James B. Macdonald, a gathering of some
of Macdonald's most seminal works. His work may also be found in
William Pinar's Curriculum Theorizing: The Reconceptualists and
Contemporary Curriculum Discourses.
James B. MacDonald pointed out major components of schooling:
curriculum, instruction, teaching and learning and the interactions of
these components. Later opposed the behavioristic approach to
curriculum.
James B. McDonald (1975) has perhaps stated the Logjam and
impasse as well as anyone. "Curriculum theory and theorizing may be
characterized as being in a rather formative condition for essentially
there are no generally accepted and clear-cut criteria to distinguish
curriculum theory and theorizing from other forms of writing in
education.

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Macdonald defines curriculum as the social system that actually

produces a plan for instruction, which he in turn defines as another social
system within which formal teaching and learning take place. Teaching is
different from instruction and is defined as a personality system–the
teacher–acting in a particular manner to facilitate learning. Learning is
defined as a personality system too; the student becomes involved in
specialized task-related behaviors.
McDonald’s model depicts curriculum as one of our interacting
systems involving other systems such as teaching, learning and
instruction. Teaching depicts a personality system involving a teacher
performing his professional roles, learning as another personality system
wherein the students perform task-related activities or behaviours which
produce learning while instruction is the social system in which formal
teaching and learning processes occur which involves principally, the
teacher and the learner while the curriculum is regarded as the social
system which culminates in a plan for instruction.

The curriculum goals are operative in the instructional setting

through the agency of effective teaching activity as evidenced by the
changed behavior or learning of students. This model brings to light the
relationship between teaching or learning, instruction and curriculum as
an individual system.
The McDonald's Management Development Curriculum takes new
recruits from trainee manager to Restaurant Manager. This consists of
on-the-job training and open learning development modules, supported
by courses and seminars at the Company's National and Regional
Training Centres. The Management Development Curriculum is aimed at
persons aged 21 or over, either graduates or individuals with some
previous management experience. It offers a direct route into restaurant
management, through an intensive structured training programme.
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The Management Development Curriculum is divided into four key

programmes:
Shift Management - developing trainee managers in the skills and
techniques required to become effective in all aspects of running a shift.
Systems Management - targeting second assistant and newly promoted
first assistant managers. This programme covers all areas of McDonald's
systems, increasing the manager's business knowledge. It also develops
individual techniques.
Restaurant Leadership - introducing managers to the key skills needed
to become effective restaurant leaders. e.g. team-building,
communication, decision-making.
Business Leadership - focusing restaurant/general managers on the need
to develop a business strategy that encompasses both internal and
external factors.
Most departments in the regional offices offer restaurant managers
opportunities to be seconded to work in the regional office. This gives an
experienced manager the opportunity to develop and learn new skills, to
see a different side of the business and to experience how each
department's strategies have a role in achieving the company's goals.
Management is at the heart of business and its impact spreads in all
directions. It provides the link between the employees at the coalface and
the directors driving the business. If this level of the business is
neglected, the effects will be widespread. Poor management will prevent
a business from moving forward and will instead cause it to stutter and
stagnate regardless of any hard work put in above or below. This model
help to introduce management training courses and workshops that
prepare managers to face the wide array of challenges involved in
supervising people and managing systems and projects.
3.3. WILSON’S OPEN ACCESS CURRICULUM MODEL
Recent trends in education have sought to emphasize the holism and
interactive nature of the educational or living process. However,
curriculum theory and management have suffered in this endeavor
because most of our thought and conceptual work is of straight line,
boxed-in, uni-dimensional design. A recent book, The Open Access
Curriculum, by [Link] Wilson, began to come to grips with the
interactive nature of the areas of curriculum, namely, the organized
disciplines of knowledge, the human processes, and the unique attitudes
and values an individual acquires toward and about himself, his reference
groups, and his society.
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There are and will be many versions of the open access curriculum.
Perhaps the best delineation of this concept can be found in the writings
of Wilson. However, at Pope John only certain salient aspects of an open
access curriculum are being incorporated into its educational program.
Aims
Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to
educational action. Aims are usually written in amorphous terms using
words like: learn, know, understand, appreciate, and these are not
directly measurable. Aims may serve as organizing principles of
educational direction for more than one grade. Indeed these organizing
principles may encompass the continuum of educational direction for
entire programs, subject areas or the district.
Goals
Goals are statements of educational intention which are more
specific than aims. Goals too may encompass an entire program, subject
area, or multiple grade levels. They may be in either amorphous language
or in more specific behavioral terms.
Objectives
Objectives are usually specific statements of educational intention
which delineate either general or specific outcomes. There are
advantages and disadvantages to different types of objectives.
 Behavioral objectives
 Holistic objectives
 Non-behavioral objectives
 Problem solving objectives
 Expressive activities that lead to expressive outcomes.
All of the above are legitimate ways to write curriculum and lesson
plans. However, currently, most objectives are written in behavioral
terms. Behavioral objectives usually employ observable verbiage and can
be divided into specific domains — cognitive (head), affective (heart),
and physical (hand).
Characteristics of Open Access curriculum
First, the open access curriculum will not-
1. Leave curriculum content scattered and fragmentized to be
served up cafeteria-style by guidance counselors.
2. Track anybody on the basis of some presumed occupational
future.
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3. Group students in the schools master schedule.

4. Sequence anybody of content beyond what s absolutely essential
for further study.
5. Equate information with knowledge.
6. Schedule teachers or students of more than 50 percent of their
time in formal teaching (information imparting) situations.
7. Make the assumption that decoding must always precede
academic exploration and application.
8. Permit more than one-fourth of the curriculum to be defined as a
core of common learning.
9. Relegate any legitimate body of knowledge in the adult world to
a secondary (frill or enrichment) status in the controlled school
environment.
10. Permit newer bodies of knowledge to be crowded out by older
taxonomies.
11. Zero in on behavioural change in students or teachers as an
exclusive measure of program effectiveness.
12. Use the same time and resource allocations for every major
subject.
13. Sanction only a few teaching or learning styles, ignoring the
incongruity or similarity of teacher and student life styles.
14. House school programs in building that are inflexible in space
allocations or supportive of only one mood or psychological
environment.
15. Aim for intellectual closure (and testable conformity as a
primary teaching method.
16. Restrict what the student learns to what the teacher knows.
17. Require teachers to work alone, unsupported by related
specialists or unchallenged by competing disciplines or
philosophies.
18. Assign any career professional to a technical role devoid of a
right to influence purpose, content selection, and evaluative
criteria.
19. Shelter any discipline from non-local sources of influence in the
name of local (community) autonomy.

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Instead, the open access curriculum will-

1. Create large clusters of content, such as the sciences, the arts,
and the humanities, a substitute for proliferation of autonomous
lesser courses.
2. Broaden the definition of selected large content, clusters to
roughly approximate the areas in which an arts and sciences
student could elect to major in college.
3. Define each content area to include three types of knowledge
and learning processes.
4. Define and sanction at least three logical clusters of content
appropriate for the elementary school curriculum, the middle
school, and the high school; note common threads connecting
the three levels but strive for maximum autonomy in
programming on each level.
5. Define multiple entry points to each large body of content,
beginning in several cases with the outer (exploratory) area and
proceeding toward the more certain knowledge at the center.
Think of knowledge as being more analogous to a bunch of
grapes than a string of beads.
6. Establish guidelines for study that permit students to commit
themselves to fully personalized projects, to pursue them as far
as their interests dictate and their success warrants.
7. Expect students to be in direct change of their own education for
at least half of their scheduled time; such responsibility to be
carried out is either individuals or groups, backstopped by
teacher counselors.
8. Emphasize saturation, in-depth learning in most fields,
distinguishing carefully between this form of learning and the
kind that is best handled in repetitive, sequential, short-term
exposures.
9. Compute as part of the teacher’s normal load the functions of a
counseling, clinical, technological, and professional planning
nature; concurrently remove from the teacher functions related
to clerical services, security of the school plant and resources,
and general record keeping.
10. Cluster teaching services to correspond to consolidated
academic areas, large center-type allocations, and decentralized
library resources; assign large groups of students (120-150) to

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each teaching team for large enough blocks of time to permit

discretionary grouping and scheduling.
11. Differentiate teacher roles in such a way that each teacher on a
given team has a unique, no duplicating task to perform
consider, in the process, teacher life styles (e.g., values,
preferences, and interpersonal relations patterns) along with
academic specialties. Build into each such team a capability for
planning and self-supervision rather than imposing such controls
from above.
12. Orient all learning toward curiosity and/or a search for the new
consensus, minimize, correspondingly, evaluative measures that
implicitly assume or demand academic closure.

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UNIT 4
MODELS OF CURRICULUM
DESIGN

4.1. CURRICULUM DESIGN MODELS

The term “model” as discussed by Oliva (1982) rates with scenario
as one of the most abused words in current English usage. While a
scenario may turn out to be any plan or series of events, a model may be
a tried or untried scheme. It may be a programmed solution to specific
problems or it may be a microscopic pattern proposed for replication or a
grander scale.
Some of the models are simple, others are very complex. Within a
given area of specialization (administration, instruction, supervision, or
curriculum development), models may differ but bear great similarities.
The individual models are often refinements or revisions, frequently
major, often minor, of already existing models.
The educational consumer, i.e., the practitioners to whom the model
is directed has the heavy responsibility of selecting one model in their
particular field. If the practitioners are not disposed to apply models they
discovered, they may as well design their own or, as the case may be, to
put all together and come out with a working model as guide in
curriculum planning.
By examining models for curriculum development, we can analyze
the phases the originators or authors conceived as essential to the process
of curriculum development. A model must show phases or components,

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not people. The specification of curriculum goals must chart a

progression of steps from departmental committee to school faculty
curriculum committee or extended school committee, to principal, to
district curriculum committee, to superintendent and to school board
(Oliva, 1982).
4.2. TYLER’S MODEL (1949)
Ralph W. Tyler’s (1902–1994) illustrious career in education
resulted in major contributions to the policy and practice of American
schooling. His influence was especially felt in the field of testing, where
he transformed the idea of measurement into a grander concept that he
called evaluation; in the field of curriculum, where he designed a
rationale for curriculum planning in the realm of educational policy.
Tyler’s reputation as an education expert grew with the publication
of Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction. Because of the value
Tyler placed on linking objectives to experience (instruction) and
evaluation, he became known as the father of behavioural objectives.
Often called the grandfather of curriculum design, Ralph W. Tyler was
heavily influenced by Edward Thorndike, John Dewey, and the
Progressive Education movement of the 1920s. Thorndike turned
curriculum inquiry away from the relative values of different subjects to
empirical studies of contemporary life. Dewey promoted the idea of
incorporating student interests when designing learning objectives and
activities. Tyler targeted the student’s emotions, feelings and beliefs as
well as the intellect.
Tyler also exercised enormous influence as an educational adviser.
Tyler also started his career as an education adviser in the White House.
In 1952 he offered U.S. President Harry Truman advice on reforming the
curriculum at the service academies. Under Eisenhower, he chaired the
President’s Conference on Children and Youth. President Lyndon B.
Johnson’s administration used Tyler to help shape its education bills,
most notably the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, in
which he was given the responsibility of writing the section on the
development of regional educational research laboratories. In the late
1960s Tyler took on the job of designing the assessment measures for the
National Assessment of Education Progress (NAEP), which are federally
mandated criterion-reference tests used to gauge national achievement in
various disciplines and skill domains. He formally retired in 1967, taking
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on the position of director emeritus and trustee to the centre and itinerant
educational consultant. Tyler also played a significant role in the
Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development (ASCD) and
its “Fundamental Curriculum Decisions.” (1983).
The curriculum rationale
Ralph Tyler’s most useful works is Basic Principles of Curriculum
and Instruction, a course syllabus used by generations of college students
as a basic reference for curriculum and instruction development.
Tyler stated his curriculum rationale in terms of four questions
published in 1949. Tyler his curriculum rationale in terms of four
questions that, he argued, must be answered in developing any
curriculum plan of instruction.
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that will likely
attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively
organized?
4. How can we determine whether the purposes are being attained?
These questions may be reformulated into a four-step process:
stating objectives, selecting learning experiences, organizing learning
experiences, and evaluating the curriculum. The Tyler rationale is
essentially an explication of these steps.
The rationale also highlighted an important set of factors to be
weighed against the questions. Tyler believed that the structure of the
school curriculum also had to be responsive to three central factors that
represent the main elements of an educative experience:
(1) the nature of the learner (developmental factors, learner interests
and needs, life experiences, etc.);
(2) the values and aims of society (democratizing principles, values
and attitudes); and
(3) knowledge of subject matter (what is believed to be worthy and
usable knowledge).
In answering the four questions and in designing school experience
for children, curriculum developers had to screen their judgments
through the three factors.

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This reasoning reveals the cryptic distinction between learning

specific bits and pieces of information and understanding the unifying
concepts that underlie the information. Tyler asserted that this is the
process through which meaningful education occurs, his caveat being
that one should not confuse “being educated” with simply “knowing
facts. Indeed, learning involves not just talking about subjects but a
demonstration of what one can do with those subjects. A truly educated
person, Tyler seems to say, has not only acquired certain factual
information but has also modified his/her behaviour patterns as a result.
These behaviour patterns enable the educated person to adequately cope
with many situations, not just those under which the learning took place.
Tyler’s rationale has been criticized for being overtly managerial and
linear in its position on the school curriculum. Some critics have
characterized it as outdated and a theoretical, suitable only to
administrators keen on controlling the school curriculum in ways that are
unresponsive to teachers and learners. The most well-known criticism of
the rationale makes the argument that the rationale is historically wedded
to social efficiency traditions.
Tylor’s Curriculum Development Model
Ralph W. Tyler’s Behavioural Model Probably the most frequently
quoted theoretical formulation in the field of curriculum has been that
published by Ralph Tyler in 1949. Tyler model is deductive; it proceed
from the general (e.g., examining the needs of society) to the specific
(e.g., specifying instructional objectives). Furthermore, the model is
linear; it involves a certain order or sequence of steps from beginning to
end. Linear models need not be immutable sequences of steps.
Curriculum makers can exercise judgment as to entry points and
interrelationships of components of the model. Moreover, the model is
prescriptive; it suggest what ought to be done and what is done by many
curriculum developers.
It is also unlike the curriculum of social reconstruction, it is more
“society centered.” This model positioned the school curriculum as a tool
for improving community life. Therefore, the needs and problems of the
social-issue is the source of the main curriculum. Tyler (1990) holds that
there are three forms of resources that can be used to formulate the
purpose of education, i.e. individuals (children as students),
contemporary life, and expert consideration of field of study.
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This development curriculum model means more of how to design a

curriculum in accordance with the goals and the mission of an
educational institution. According to Taylor (1990) there are four
fundamental things that are considered to develop a curriculum, which is
the purpose of education who wants to be achieved, learning experience
to achieve the goals, organization of instruction, learning and evaluation.

i. Defining Goals or Objectives

Tyler remarks, “The progressive emphasizes the importance of
studying the child to find out what kinds of interests he has, what
problems he encounters, what purposes he has in mind. The progressive
sees this information as providing the basic source for selecting goals”.
Tyler was interested in how learning related to the issues of society, and
believed studies of contemporary life provided information for learning
goals. He defines the learning goals in terms of knowledge,
communication skills, social and ethical perspective, quantitative and
analytical skills, and cognitive/taxonomy. He proposes that educational
goals originate from three sources: studies of society, studies of learners,
and subject-matter specialists. These data systematically collected and
analyzed form the basis of initial goals to be tested for their attainability
and their efforts in real curriculum situations. The tentative goals from
the three sources are filtered through two screens: the school’s
educational philosophy and knowledge of the psychology of learning,
which results in a final set of educational goals.

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ii. Organizing of Instruction

“Organization is seen as an important problem in curriculum
development because it greatly influences the efficiency of instruction
and the degree to which major educational changes are brought about in
the learners,” asserts Tyler. He believes three major criteria are required
in building organized learning experiences: Continuity, sequence, and
integration. Students need concrete experiences to which the readings are
meaningfully connected. The principle of continuity means that the
learning experience given should have continuity and it is needed to
learning experience in advance.
Principles of content sequence means that the learning experience
provided to students should pay attention to the level of student’s
development. Learning experience given in class five should be different
with learning experiences in the next class. The principle of integration
means that the learning experience provided to students must have a
function and useful to obtain learning experience in other sectors. For
example, learning experience in Arabic language must be able to get help
learning experience in the field of other studies.
iii. Defining learning experience
Once the first step of stating and refining goals is accomplished, the
rationale proceeds through the steps of instruction and organization of
learning experiences as the means for achieving outcomes, and, finally,
evaluating in terms of those learning outcomes. The term “learning
experience” refers to the interaction between the learner and the external
conditions in the environment to which he can react. Tyler argues that the
term “learning experience” is not the same as the content with a course
which deals nor activities performed by the teacher. Learning takes place
through the active behaviour of the student; it is what he does that he
learns not what the teacher does. So, the learning experience of students
refers to activities in the learning process. What should be asked in this
experience is “what will be done and have been done by the students” not
“what will be done and have been done by teachers.”
Tyler recognizes a problem in connection with the selection of
learning experiences by a teacher. The problem is that by definition a
learning experience is the interaction between a student and her
environment. That is, a learning experience is to some degree a function
of the perceptions, interests, and previous experiences of the student.
Thus, a learning experience is not totally within the power of the teacher
to select. Nevertheless, Tyler maintains that the teacher can control the
learning experience through the manipulation of the environment,
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resulting in stimulating situations sufficient to evoke the desired kind of

learning outcomes.
There are several principles in determining student learning
experiences, which are: (a) students experience must be appropriate to
the goals we want to achieve, (b) each learning experience must satisfy
the students, (c) each design of student learning experience should
involve students, and (d) in one learning experience, students can reach
different objectives.
The most difficult problem is setting up learning experiences to try
to make interesting a type of activity which has become boring or
distasteful to the student. Tyler stresses, “Students learn through
exploration”. Tyler’s mentor, John Dewey, also advocated that teachers
should encourage children to become actively engaged in discovering
what the world is like. “No single learning experience has a very
profound influence upon the learner,” remarks Tyler.
iv. Evaluation and Assessment of the Learning Experiences
Evaluation is the process of determining to what extent the
educational goals are being realized by the curriculum. Stated another
way, the statement of objectives not only serves as the basis for selecting
instruction and organizing the learning experiences, but also serves as a
standard against which the program of curriculum and instruction is
appraised. Thus, according to Tyler, curriculum evaluation is the process
of matching initial expectations in the form of behavioural objectives
with outcomes achieved by the learner.
There are two functions of evaluation. First, the evaluation used to
obtain data on the educational goals achievement by the students (called
the summative function). Second, the evaluation used to measure the
effectiveness of the learning process (called the formative function).
The process of assessment is critical to Tyler’s Model and begins
with the objectives of the educational program. . Curriculum evaluation
is the process of matching initial expectations in the form of behavioural
objectives with outcomes achieved by the learner. There are two aspects
that need to be concerned with evaluation, namely: the evaluation should
assess whether there have been changes in student behaviour in
accordance with the goals of education which have been formulated, and
evaluation ideally use more than one assessment tool in a certain time.
Tyler asserts, “The process of evaluation is essentially the process of
determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually being
realized by the program of curriculum and instruction”. Furthermore, he

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states, “Curriculum planning is a continuous process and that as materials

and procedures are developed they are tried out, their results are
appraised, their inadequacies identified, and suggested improvements
indicated”. With his emphasis on the individual student Tyler believes
that all evaluation must be guided by a purpose and be sensitive to the
uniqueness of the individual being assessed.
Tyler largely determines what he attends to, and frequently what he
does. Tyler states, “Education is a process of changing the behaviour
patterns of people”. He values the individual learner.
Limitation of Tyler’s Model
1. Ignores process and
2. Not useful for diagnosis of reasons why a curriculum has failed.
4.2. THE TABA’S MODEL
Hilda Taba
Hilda Taba (7 December, 1902 – 6 July, 1967) was an architect, a
curriculum theorist, a curriculum reformer, and a teacher educator. Taba
was born in a small village in southeastern village of Kooraste, Estonia.
Taba was introduced to Progressive education ideas at Tartu University
by her philosophy professors. Taba was a student of John Dewey; she
wrote a book entitled Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice
(1962). Taba believed that there has to be a definite order in creating a
curriculum.
Some of Taba’s philosophical ideas on curriculum development
social processes, including the socialization of human beings, are not
linear, and they cannot be modeled through linear planning. In other
words, learning and development of personality cannot be considered as
one-way processes of establishing educational aims and deriving specific
objectives from an ideal of education proclaimed or imagined by some
authority. The reconstruction of curricula and programmes is not a short-
term effort but a long process, lasting for years.
Social institutions, among them school curricula and programmes,
are more likely to be effectively rearranged if, instead of the common
way of administrative reorganization from top to bottom a well-founded
and co-ordinated system of development from bottom to top can be used.
The development of new curricula and programmes is more effective if it
is based on the principles of democratic guidance and on the well-
founded distribution of work. The emphasis is on the partnership based
on competence, and not on administration.

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She advocated that teachers take an inductive approach to curriculum

development which meant starting with the specifics and building toward
a general design, rather than the traditional deductive approach (starts
with the general design and work towards the specifics) which was
rooted in Tyler's model. Hilda Taba followed the grass-roots approach in
developing curriculum. For her, it should be the teachers who should
design the curriculum rather than the higher authorities (Oliva, 1992).
More specifically stated, the Taba approach believes in allowing the
curriculum to be developed and/or authored by the users (teachers).
Under the Taba Model teachers are expected to begin each curriculum by
creating specific teaching-learning units and building to a general design.
Taba’s model:
Taba’s model is inductive approach and teacher approach. Taba
believe that teachers are aware of the students needs hence they should
be the one to develop the curriculum. Taba’s model is the grass-root
approach. The main idea to this approach is that the needs of the students
are at the forefront to the curriculum.
Taba advocated an inductive approach to curriculum development.
In the inductive approach, curriculum workers start with the specifics and
build up to a general design as opposed to the more traditional deductive
approach of starting with the general design and working down to the
specifics.
This model is most commonly used. Taba (1962) argues that
curriculum should be designed by the teachers rather than handed down
by higher authority. In this regard she postulates that the teachers should
start the process by creating trial teaching-learning units in their schools
rather than engaging from outset in creating a general curriculum design.
Unlike the traditional approach which proceeds from the general to the
particular, the approach in this case is inductive. It consists of five
consecutive steps.
Steps in Taba’s model:
Inductive approach to curriculum development, starting with
specifics and building up to general design and working down to
specifics.
Taba’s five steps sequence for accomplishing curriculum change;
1. Production by teachers of pilot teaching-learning units
representative of the grade level or subject area.
a. Diagnosis of needs.
b. Formulation of objectives.
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c. Selection of content.
d. Organization of content.
e. Selection of learning experiences.
f. Organization of learning activities.
g. Determination of what to evaluate and the ways and
means of doing it.
h. Checking for balance and sequence.
2. Testing experimental units.
3. Revising and consolidating.
4. Developing a framework.
5. Installing and disseminating new units.
She presented seven major steps to her model where teachers could
have major input.
1. Producing pilot units
This stage proceeds in eight steps:

a. Diagnosis of learners needs:

Diagnosis of needs consisting in a clear identification of the
students’ needs with due allowance for gaps, deficiencies and variations
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in students backgrounds. According to Taba (1962), diagnosis, then, is an

important first step in determining what the curriculum should be for a
given population. Diagnose of achievement, Diagnosis of students as
learner and Diagnosis of curriculum problems.
Systematic diagnosis process:
1. Problem identification
2. Problem analysis
3. Formulating hypothesis and gathering data.
4. Experimenting with action.
b. Formulation of learning objectives.
Formulation of objectives or goals to be targeted in the light of
diagnosis. Taba (1962:12) avers that: In large part the objectives
determine what content is important and how it should be organized. For
example, if the goal of studying world history is to produce intelligent
judgement about the current world scene, certain parts of history are
bound to be more important than others. If the goal is to create a common
perception of the past, then other aspects of world history and other ways
of learning it become important. If reflective thinking is an important
goal, a thorough study of fewer topics and greater opportunities to relate
ideas would be more important than a complete coverage of facts.
Main objectives of education are:
 To add to knowledge they posses.
 To enable them to perform skills which otherwise they would
not perform.
 To develop certain understanding, insights and appreciations.
 Development of healthy personality.
 Analysis of particular culture and society which educational
program serves.
Function of educational objectives:
 Transmit culture.
 Reconstruct society.
 Fullest development of individual.
 To guide on curriculum decision on; What to cover? What to
emphasize? What content to select? Which learning experiences
to stress?
Principle of formulation of objectives:
 Objective should useful, cleared and concreteness.
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 Objective should describe both kind of behavior i.e. expected

and content.
 Objective should be realistic.
 Scope of objective should be broad.
c. Selection of learning content:
Selection of contents by determining appropriate subject matters or
topics aimed at defined objectives. This process must take account of
different levels of learners capacity to grasp the content with due
attention to level of introduction as well as continuity or sequencing.
 Content should be rational base.
 Validity and significance of content.
d. Organization of learning content:
 Organization of content deciding at what levels, how deep and in
what sequences the subject matter will be dealt with or covered.
 Consistency with social realities
 Appropriateness to the need and interest of students
 Making proper distinctions between the various levels of
content.
e. Selection of the learning experiences:
Selection of learning experiences adopting methodologies or
strategies as well as learning activities. Taba (1962) asserts that the
planning of learning experiences becomes a part of a major strategy of
curriculum building instead of being relegated to incidental decisions
made by the teacher at the moment of teaching.
 This involves more than applying principles of learning.
 Have you used a variety of teaching methods?
 When using lecture will make that active with questions and
discussion?
f. Organization of the learning activities:
 Organization of learning activities deciding how to engage
learners’ interest in and commitment to content, and
combinations and sequences to be followed, given the
characteristics and general background of targeted students.
 Are there opportunities for students to learn from one another?
 Are there opportunities for students to apply what they are
learning through solving real problems or developing projects
that could be used in a real work setting?
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g. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it:

 Determining what and how to evaluate with the aid of appropriate
techniques whether and to what extent defined objectives are being
or have been achieved.
 Plans need to be made for evaluation.
 How should the quality of learning be evaluated to assure that the
ends of education are being achieved?
 How does one make sure that there is consistency between the aims
and objectives and what is actually achieved by students?
 Does the curriculum organization provide experiences which offer
optimum opportunities for all varieties of learners to attain
independent goals?
h. Checking for balance and sequence:
Checking for balance and sequence observing consistency among the
various parts of the teacher-learning units, with a view to securing
adequate flow of learning experiences and a balanced combination of
learning types and forms of expression; in brief, ensuring effective
interdiscipilinarity.
2. Testing experimental units
This phase consists in evaluating the validity; teach-ability and
adequacy of designed learning units.
3. Revising and consolidating
After testing the experimental units, they are modified to ensure that
they keep pace and are well adapted to variations in students’ needs and
abilities, available resources and different styles of teaching.
4. Developing a framework
In light of the overall activity undertaken in the first three-step sequence,
curriculum specialists make a draft of a rationale for the curriculum
planned.
5. Installing and disseminating new units
At this stage an appropriate network for in-service training is
established so that the teachers can implement pilot teaching-learning
units in their classes.
Taba believed that:
"To evolve a theory of curriculum development and a method of
thinking about it, one needs to ask what demands and requirements of
culture and society both are, both for the present and the future.
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Curriculum is a way of preparing young people to participate in our

culture."
Application of the Taba’s model
Taba’s model is currently used in most curriculum designs.
i. Identifying the needs of the students.
ii. Developing objectives
iii. Selecting instructional method
iv. Organizing learning experiences
v. Evaluating
Strengths of Taba’s model:
i. Gives teachers a greater role by not just making them
implementers of the curriculum but also developers
ii. Uses the inductive method
iii. Teacher approach is used
iv. Notes that teachers are aware of the students’ needs therefore
they are the ones that should develop the curriculum
v. Sees curriculum as a “plan for learning”
vi. Gives importance to objectives in order to establish a sense of
purpose for deciding what to include, exclude and emphasize in
a curriculum.
Taba took what it is known as grassroots approach to curriculum
development. She believed that the curriculum must be designed by
teachers rather than handed down by higher authority. She felt that
teachers should begin the process by creating specific teaching-learning
units for their students rather than creating a curriculum design.
4.3. WHEELER’S MODEL
Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon
Tyler’s model. Instead of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical
model. Evaluation in Wheeler’s model is not terminal. Findings from the
evaluation are fed back into the objectives and the goals, which influence
other stages. This model illustrates the dynamic nature of the process of
curriculum development. It goes on as the needs and interests of society
change and the objectives also change.
The Wheeler model of curriculum development (1967), or cyclic
model, asserts that curriculum should be a continuous cycle which is
responsive to changes in the education sector and makes appropriate
adjustments to account for these changes. It focuses on situational
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analysis: the context in which the curriculum decisions are taken is

considered important, as this is believed to help make the most effective
decisions.
Wheeler’s Model
This model is comprised of five interconnected stages:
1. Aims, goals and objectives
2. Selection of learning experiences
3. Selection of content
4. Organisation and integration of experiences
5. Evaluation
Wheeler (1967) described the curriculum as a process which consists
of five phases which are interested. The phase one is that of the selection
of aims goals and objectives. Here, Wheeler categorized goals into
ultimate, mediate and proximate goals. He also recognized general and
specific objectives. The phase two is that of the selection of learning
experiences. The author locates learning experiences in the attainment of
aims, goals and objectives. He cited play and field trips as examples of
learning experiences. He categorized learning experiences into three
categories: physical, mental and emotional experiences. The phase three
is that of the selection of the content. That selection involves the
selection of the subject matter which must be the reflect of the content.
The content, explicit or implicit is established with respect to the subject
matter. The phase four is that of the organization and integration of
learning experiences and content. This phase is done depending on the
design of the curriculum chosen. That is either whether it subject
curriculum and broad field, activity or core curriculum. The last phase is
the phase five entitled evaluation. This phase is that of the evaluation of
the effectiveness of phases 2, 3 and 4 in attaining what is set out in phase
Once the cycle has been followed once, it begins again at step one
and continues onward to continuously improve the curriculum in the face
of any changes that may have been imposed or come about naturally. It is
different from other models in that ‘selection of learning experiences’
comes before ‘selection of content’: it specifically gears the content in
the curriculum to learners, where most models follow the opposite
structure. Wheeler (1976) viewed evaluation as particularly important,
stating that ‘[e]valuation enables us to compare the actual outcomes with
the expected outcomes […] [without it] it is impossible to know whether
objectives have been realized, and if they have, to what extent’. While
Wheeler’s approach, like other cyclical models, has been popular in
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teaching practice for its flexibility and relevance to learners in particular

situations, it is not always practical to use because of time constraints.
Undertaking a detailed situational analysis that Wheeler advocates is a
time-consuming process that can be difficult to put into practice in the
hectic conditions in modern educational practice.
Explanation of Wheeler’s phases of the curriculum process
When we analyze the Wheeler’s model of the curriculum process,
we observe that the first way that he presents is the section relative to
aims, goals and objectives. Here, it is question to give the main ideas
which compose the syllabus and it shows how, before evaluation it is
important to define, in theirs generality, particularity, ultimately,
immediately and proximately, objectives which will guide or construct
syllabus. After this stage, we can go to the selection of learning
experiences. Here, it is necessary to include physical, mental and
emotional experiences in the process. The selection of content, as we said
previously, involves that we select the subject matter which will
constitutes the syllabus. The organization and integration of experiences
bring us to choose the area or domain of activities in which we can
realize the subject curriculum. The last one, evaluation shows if student
have acquired the knowledge.
Wheeler’s model does not gives us the specificity of the beginning or
the execution that curriculum takes place. Therefore, we can say that, this
model is deductive; this means that it gives us the main idea which is
important to construct or establish syllabus and its contents. In other
words, it goes from the general to the particular and prescriptive. Thus, in
guise of summarize, we can say that this model is deductive and
prescriptive but non linear.
In addition, according to Wheeler, these phases are interrelated to
one another. He thinks that curriculum development should be
continuous that is why he puts them in a circle form, it is deductive and
prescriptive not in linear form like Tyler’s model. Curriculum to him is a
process which is cyclical. It is circular because for him, when we
evaluate, we do not end; he puts evaluation at the end of the curriculum
development process whereas other models put evaluation at the middle
of the process like the ADDIE (Analysis, Design, Development,
Implementation and Evaluation) model.
Advantages of Wheeler’s Model
1. Continuing activity.
2. Incorporates new information into the curriculum.

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3. Views curriculum elements as interrelated and interdependent.

4. Has feedback mechanism.
5. Emphasize on the situational analysis.
6. Evaluate at a stage where its findings are feedback into the
objectives.
Disadvantages of Wheeler’s Model
Wheeler model has received criticisms.
1. It is time consuming.
2. It is difficult to locate.
3. It is not different from objective model.
4. It seems to lack of procedure between organizing and integrating
learning experiences, content and evaluation.
Finally, we can say that Wheeler’s model is one based on five phases
according to which: aims, goals and objectives; learning experiences;
content; organization and integration; and evaluation. Wheeler
developed a cyclical model in which evaluation is not terminal. Because,
finding from the evaluation are feedback into the objectives and the goals
which influence other stages. That model differs from that of Tyler
which is linear.
4.4. FREIRE’S MODEL
Paulo Reglus Neves Freire (September 19, 1921 – May 2, 1997) was
a Brazilian educator and philosopher who was a leading advocate of
critical pedagogy. He is best known for his influential work, Pedagogy of
the Oppressed, considered to be one of the foundational texts of the
critical pedagogy movement.
Freire’s Critical Pedagogy
Freire’s childhood experience dates back when he had to live among
poor children and later when he grew up he had to work among the
deprived laborers. These experiences motivated him that ignorance;
illiteracy and silence culture are the outcomes of economic conditions,
social and political trends that have been prevalent in the society. From
Freire’s perspective, educational system is one of the main instruments of
maintaining silence culture. His new look at the concept of learning,
introduces him as a pioneer in critical education and as a humanitarian
coach to the world. As a spokesperson, he tried to prove this fact that “it
is possible to free people from silence culture and the trap of ignorance
only through education and awareness (Nayestani, 2009)”.

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From his perspective, the basic purpose of education is to achieve

critical awareness which enables individuals to pave the ground for their
progress. In such a progress, concepts such as gender, age, race, and
social and political limitations are not taken into account. Indeed, in
contrary to those people, who grew up in a silence culture and assume
that social, political, and economic structures are sustainable and fixed
and he/she cannot overcome them, such person can rely on his/her own
capabilities and overcome his/her surrounding structures. Freire stresses
on the belief that individuals should not see their surrounding structures
as a fixed reality where there is no hope to escape from it. But, they
should know that there is always a possibility of change to their
conditions. In fact, he tries to outline a relationship based on dialogue
among individuals that can foster a critical and active atmosphere. This
will help education to be a stimulant and progressive process.
The focus of Freire’s critical pedagogy on critical thinking is based
on the objective realities in the individual’s life. Unlike other methods,
the posed-problem method has been introduced by Freire requires
exchange of thoughts and beliefs through dialogue in which both
teachers and students have critical cooperation in research. As a result,
they will be motivated to think critically about their life. Finally, the
process results in Praxis which is the final purpose of education from
Freire’s perspective. He believes that consciousness is the sign of
progress and development. Such a progress and development is the main
outcome of good critical education plan. Such a plan is consist with
historical, cultural, and political conditions of the society. Development
of critical consciousness can be done through a process in which the
learners start with mere obedient and finally achieve critical
consciousness.
Monologue-based education separates teacher and students and
provides rare opportunities for creating meaningful dialogue among
them. In such a method, students have not sufficient opportunities for
asking questions and thinking about their learned contents. Indeed, their
singular function is to memorize contents. Monologue-based education
prevents students from any thinking, exploring, and self-actualizing
opportunities. Indeed, following monologue method damages teaching-
learning process in the educational system and also prevent from social
progress and critical thinking among students. Freire imagines the
negative image of such educational system as following:
i. Teacher educates students and then they are educated.
ii. Teacher knows anything and students do not known nothing.
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iii. Teacher thinks and students memorize contents.

iv. Teacher speaks and students listen modestly.
v. Teacher develops rules and students command them.
vi. Teacher selects educational contents and imposes his/her
selected contents and students command them.
vii. Teacher act and students copy his/her actions.
viii. Teacher selects educational contents and students adapt
themselves with these contents.
Curriculum planning from Freire’s perspective
From Freire’s perspective, curriculum planning is a fully people-
oriented process in which starting point is people and their expectations
and wants. He believes that curriculum planning is an ongoing process
which can be done through mutual participation if teachers and students.
Based on this perspective, curriculum planning is not upward-down
process and all of the people who are involved in the education and
learning process should play their role in educational plan in the best
manner.
In this perspective, both teachers and students have different roles.
Bartlett (2005) believes that in Freire’s perspective teacher and students
able to exchange their roles with each other. But this does not means that
teacher and students are at same level. This means that students are
considered as teachers are important in curriculum planning. In Freire’s
curriculum planning perspective, teaching is an instrument for increasing
people’s critical consciousness that their mental progress is prevented
because of political and social conditions of the society. In this regard,
conferment of critical consciousness is considered as starting point of
curriculum planning process in Freire’s perspective. It is possible to
achieve such a consciousness through reviewing important principles of
curriculum planning.
Fundamental principles of curriculum planning
1. Attention to traditional and indigenous context of society
Freire (1984) indicates that it is necessary to concentrate rural reality
in order adapt education with realities of country. Indeed, he has
attempted to focus educational planning on this fact that any curriculum
planning should be based on existing realities of the low classes of
society. It is observed in many cases that educational plan is regulated
based on the needs and wants of higher classes of society. It is the main
effective factor on developing gap between social classes. This is why

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that Freire (1989) believes common educational plans, which are not
based local conditions, cannot result in deep condition. In addition, when
designers of educational contents consider minorities’ values in their
plans, the educational plans will not equivalent for all social classes.
2. Coaches and students’ mutual participation in educational plan
development
Based on Freire’s curriculum planning, elites and senior managers
are not the singular officers of educational plan development, but
curriculum planning is a participative process in which all educational
officers and managers are involved in it. Since Freire curriculum plan
derived from learners’ experiences and their life realities, educational
plans should be developed based on the help of professors, experts,
parents, teachers, local groups, and needs and realities of social life. In
this regard, Freire (2007) focuses on the role of parents and students
councils in schools decisions and develops a democratic climate in
educational system. He was head of educational assistance of Saopaolo
and created many diversities in educational plan and attempted to
organize workgroups through movement to reorient the curriculum. He
attempted to decentralize central authority and reinforce schools
autonomous in developing curriculum and educational plans based on the
social-critical issues.
3. Attention to the political position of education in curriculum
planning
It is a widely-accepted rule that the most important characteristic of
Freire in educational area is his attention on the political aspect of
education. He believes that education is a political activity that its
mission is to analyze the social relations. Such analysis results in
political selection. In other words, actual education develops people’s
political consciousness. According to Freire’s perspective, such questions
“what”, “why”, “how”, “for whom”, and “for what purpose” have critical
role in any educational effort. This is why that in critical education,
coach has to ask such questions and then attempt to answer it along with
students. According to Freire, education may either act as an instrument
for maintaining present condition or acts as an instrument for freedom
practice. If it plays the first role, its function is to adapt young generation
with existing system. But in the second role, the function of education is
to criticize the differences between male and female. For this reason,

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Freire considers political aspects as a big discovery in his A Pedagogy

for Liberation book.
4. The role of cultural segments in curriculum planning
As Gyro (2005) indicates, in critical pedagogy perspective, literacy
is considered as the main principle for a set of cultural efforts that its
purpose is to achieve freedom. Indeed, cultural segments play an
important role in teaching-learning process. In cultural segments,
students change educational method and curriculum contents radically.
Hooley (2009) refers to indigenous learning and Paolo performance in
creating a new educational structure. He also believes that Freire has
attempted to recognize important issues of daily life by which examine
and analyze educational contents.
5. Direct relationship between curriculum planning and economic
production process
Based on Freire’s curriculum planning, process of knowledge
expansion and development is done with practical participation in work
and economic effort simultaneously. In other words, when educational
quantitative and qualitative development based on the critical
consciousness can be effective in comprehensive development and
expansion of individual and collective life that educational planners
correlate school and educational plans to job and economic production
process. In modern Freire education, primary school, high school, and
university should not be separated from factory, workshop, or chap. Even
when education is done outside the factory or champ, it is should not be
considered better than practical efforts. In this regard, Freire attempts to
clarify the important role of education in making economic purposes
more tangible.
6. The importance of adults’ education
Freire indicates that if the poor people cannot be emancipated from
silence culture, there will not any path to emancipate them from social
and political slavery. In this regard, he focused on adults’ education
seriously and introduced many comprehensive literacy plans for
informing this class which has a considerable effect on development of
adults’ public consciousness in developing countries such as Brazil.
Based on Freire adults’ education, literacy is not valuable unless it results
in critical perception in social areas. In addition, such an education is a
favorable form of education for authorities. It is very important in the

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adults’ education that learners understand and make their understanding

deeper in critical analysis.
7. Attention to oppressed people education
Essentially, Freire’s education is focused on this purpose that it is
necessary to attempt to educate oppressed people. He believes that
oppressed people have not any critical thinking power because of
different reasons. This is why that he attempted to encourage them
toward critical thinking through different methods. On the other hand,
maintenance of existing conditions by dominated system implies that any
effort to emancipation should be eliminated. For this purpose, their
existing condition is a part of their natural life. Freire suggested different
measures for society in which silence culture is dominated and oppressed
people are prevented from their rights. Knowledge of these measures is
necessary for curriculum planning.
The following approaches refer to the dialogues in Freire critical
pedagogy:
i. Education starts with social issues and students’ life conditions.
ii. Education attempts to emancipate students from unfavorable life
and social conditions.
iii. Students are the main core of education and education cannot be
done without their participation.
iv. The role of teacher in dialogue-based education is to involve
students in social issues.
v. Facing situation, recognizing problem seriously, developing
hypotheses for solving problem, and finding a solution for
emancipating students from problems are the most important
educational approaches in emancipative dialogue.
It can be said that classroom dialogue in emancipative approach
includes challenging questions and its purpose is exploring problems
which should be tested. A dialogue which is done in educational areas
usually effective on development of people’s awareness of social
inequities and challenges. Indeed, social dialogues focus on especial
problems or crisis which is common among social and political groups.
The purpose of such a dialogue is to discuss about different reasons and
perspectives so much that recognition of rational perspectives and causes
is possible.
Curriculum planning is one of the main necessities of development
and revolution of educational systems in every country for maintaining

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dynamic and efficiency. This is why that knowledge of different

approaches of curriculum planning can be effective on the development
and improvement of curriculum planning area. In this regard, the authors
of this study were determined to review some aspects of curriculum
planning based on the emancipative education of Freire. From both
theoretical and practical perspectives, Freire is one of the most famous
and effective authors in terms of critical education. He rejects traditional
methods education and introduces a revolutionary method in changing
educational structure and system and thereby curriculum planning. Based
on his perspective to curriculum planning, student is considered as the
main core of education and has active participation in selecting
educational contents.
Freire curriculum planning is a horizontal process in which all of the
participants in educational planning (such teachers, students, and even
parents) are involved in curriculum planning. The main purpose of Freire
is emancipative, as his curriculum planning should has correspondence
with traditional and cultural context. Based on his perspective to
curriculum planning, school cannot be separated from economy and
productive institutes. In this perspective, two groups of adults and
oppressed people are focused more than others. However, main
principles of different types of educational planning are somewhat
similar and their main difference is in educational methods. All in all, the
considerable effect of Freire on the curriculum planning can be found in
creation of appropriate context for students, parents, and others’
participation in educational issues. In this regard, curriculum planning
has a horizontal aspect in which all people have to participate in
curriculum planning process. Although social conditions of Freire’s life
are different from today’s conditions, but his focus on adults education is
attended in the present macro educational planning. This approach can be
effective for developing countries in which formal education is focused
on young generation rather than adults.
4.5. BRUNER’S MODEL
Jerome Bruner was one of the most important psychologists of the
20th century, though it is in the field of education that his influence has
been most keenly felt. Two of his books, The Process of Education and
Towards a Theory of Instruction, have come to be recognized as
landmark works and reveal Bruner’s particular view of the educational
theory known as constructivism.

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The Spiral Curriculum

In the 1960s, Jerome Bruner put forward a theory of cognitive
growth which looked to the influence of environmental and experiential
factors in a child’s education, and which suggested that each child’s
intellectual ability develops in stages through changes in how the mind is
used. Bruner’s position was that young children need to teach the
underlying principals of different concepts the structure of ideas rather
than to simply memorize their related facts and data. He championed
learning through inquiry, and believed that the teaching and learning of
any subject at an early age should have as its goal the child’s intuitive
grasping of its basic ideas. As children grow then, Bruner believed,
curriculum should revisit earlier learned ideas, expanding upon them
until a child reaches a more complete understanding of individual ideas
and how they relate to one another. Bruner referred to this as the “spiral
curriculum”, wherein ideas are presented in repeated learning
opportunities over time, and are organized from the simple to the
complex, from the general to the specific, and are examined in relation to
one another. Engaging information in a spiral fashion, Bruner wrote,
helps children to organize knowledge into a structure that makes it both
increasingly accessible and usable in areas beyond the immediate
learning situation.
The Spiral Curriculum is predicated on cognitive theory advanced by
Jerome Bruner (1960), who wrote, “We begin with the hypothesis that
any subject can be taught in some intellectually honest form to any child
at any stage of development”. In other words, even the most complex
material, if properly structured and presented, can be understood by very
young children.
Bruner hypothesized that human cognition occurred in three
relatively discreet stages: Enactive, or actually manipulating and
interacting with objects; Iconic, or manipulating images of the objects or
phenomena; or Symbolic, or the manipulation of representations of the
actual objects or phenomena. The picture shows how these stages would
look if used to teach students about finding books in the library, and
provides an example of a rudimentary “spiral curriculum.”
Key features of the spiral curriculum based on Bruner’s work are:
i. The student revisits a topic, theme or subject several times
throughout their school career.
ii. The complexity of the topic or theme increases with each revisit.

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iii. New learning has a relationship with old learning and is put in
context with the old information.

Process and Structure

In The Process of Education, Bruner wrote of children as being
active problem solvers, ready to explore complex subjects and ideas. In
addressing the role of education within this view of young learners,
Bruner identified four themes to be considered:
i) The role of structure in learning and teaching
Bruner proposed introducing knowledge areas in a way which helps
young children see the basic organizing principles within complex
concepts, and to realize the more general nature of a concept before
learning its particular information. The teaching and learning of
structure, rather than the simple mastery of facts and techniques, is at the
center of the problem of transfer (of knowledge). If earlier learning is to
render later learning easier, it must do so by providing a general picture
in terms of which the relations between things encountered earlier and
later are made as clear as possible.
ii) Readiness for learning
Bruner believed that the teaching of important areas of knowledge is
often postponed because they are thought to be too difficult for young
children. Certainly teachers should watch for children’s readiness to
interact with different ideas. But it is also true, Bruner wrote, that “any
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subject can be taught effectively in some intellectually honest form to

any child at any stage of development.” This thought is at the foundation
of the “spiral curriculum”. Teachers need not just wait for each child’s
readiness to encounter a new idea, Bruner wrote, but can also foster, or
scaffold, that readiness by “deepening the child’s powers where we find
him here and now.”
iii) Intuitive thinking
Bruner believed that children can and should be encouraged to think
intuitively and not just analytically. In helping children to understand
underlying principles in conceptual thought, he wrote, they begin to deal
with problems on an intuitive level, looking not simply for the
analytically “correct” answer but rather at broadly applied conceptual
connections which help them learn to be problem solvers. It seems likely
that effective intuitive thinking is fostered by the development of self-
confidence and courage in the student. Such thinking, therefore, requires
a willingness to make honest mistakes in the effort to solve problems.
Too often, Bruner wrote, our educational system rewards answers that
are simply right without giving recognition or support to the creative
process of thinking intuitively about a problem. Teaching and learning,
need to make room for both.
iv) Motives for Learning
Interest in a subject, Bruner believed, is the ideal motivation for
learning. External motivations, such as grades or other rewards, carry
within them the seeds of loss through the inability to meet an applied
standard of success. Instead, Bruner wrote, it is the task of teachers and
learning environments to provide materials and activities that pique
children’s interest, motivating them from within to pursue opportunities
which will, inevitably, further their own growth. “Motives for learning
must be kept from going passive they must be based as much as possible
upon the arousal of interest in what there is to be learned.
Benefits of the Spiral Curriculum
Within this structure, there is also value in the dialogue that occurs
between students and their teacher; between students with one another;
and between the teacher, the students, and the learning environment itself
as a vehicle for knowledge. Coupling these aspects of learning with
Bruner’s ideas of a spiral curriculum enables Community Independent
School to present ideas to children at young ages, to help them revisit
concepts over time as they reach toward mature understandings, and to
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provide children with opportunities to become creative, intuitive

problems solvers equipped with the skills they need to construct and
express their own deepening knowledge.
The benefits ascribed to the spiral curriculum by its advocates are:
i. The information is reinforced and solidified each time the
student revisits the subject matter.
ii. The spiral curriculum also allows a logical progression from
simplistic ideas to complicated ideas.
iii. Students are encouraged to apply the early knowledge to later
course objectives.

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UNIT 5
PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES
AND CURRICULUM
ORIENTATION

5.1. PHILOSOPHICAL PERSPECTIVES

Philosophy is the starting point in any curriculum decision making
and is the basis for all subsequent decisions regarding curriculum.
Philosophy becomes the criteria for determining the aims, selection,
organisation and implementation of the curriculum in the classroom.
Philosophy helps us answer general questions such as: ‘What are
schools for?’ ‘What subjects are of value?’, ‘How should students learn
the content?’. It also helps us to answer more precise tasks such as
deciding what textbooks to use, how to use them, what homework to
assign and how much of it, how to test and use the results.
The above statement was written more that 2000 years ago by the
Greek philosopher Aristotle and we are still debating the same issues
today. We lament about the poor level of basic skills of students and call
for a return to the basics. We want students to develop critical thinking
skills and call for lesser emphasis on rote learning. Through the
centuries, many philosophies of education have emerged, each with their
own beliefs about education. In this unit, we will discuss four
philosophies, namely; progressivism, perennialism, essentialism,
reconstructionism and reconceptualism proposed by Western
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philosophers. Each of these educational philosophies is examined to see

what curriculum is proposed and how teaching and learning should be
conducted.
5.2. COMMON PHILOSOPHICAL ORIENTATIONS
(APPROACHES TO CURRICULUM)
1. Progressivism
2. Perennialism
3. Essentialism
4. Reconstructivism and
5. Reconceptualism
5.2.1. PROGRESSIVISM
Progressivism is a philosophical belief that argues that education
must be based on the fact that humans are by nature social and learn best
in real-life activities with other people. The person most responsible for
progressivism was John Dewey (1859-1952). The progressive movement
stimulated American schools to broaden their curriculum, making
education more relevant to the needs and interests of students. Dewey
wrote extensively on psychology, epistemology (the origin of
knowledge), ethics and democracy. But, his philosophy of education laid
the foundation for progressivism. In 1896, while a professor at the
University of Chicago, Dewey founded the famous Laboratory School to
test his educational ideas. His writings and work with the Laboratory
School set the stage for the progressive education movement.
According to Dewey, the role of education is to transmit society’s
identity by preparing young people for adult life. He was a keen advocate
of democracy and for it to flourish, he felt that education should allow
learners to realise their interests and potential. Learners should learn to
work with others because learning in isolation separates the mind from
action. According to him certain abilities and skills can only be learned
in a group. Social and intellectual interaction dissolves the artificial
barriers of race and class by encouraging communication between
various social groups (Dewey, 1920). He described education as a
process of growth and experimentation in which thought and reason are
applied to the solution of problems. Children should learn as if they were
scientists using the scientific method proposed by Dewey (1920):
1. To be aware of the problem (eg. plants need sunlight to grow)
2. Define the problem (eg. can plants grow without sunlight)
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3. Propose hypotheses to solve it

4. Test the hypotheses
5. Evaluate the best solution to the problem.
Students should be constantly experimenting and solving problems;
reconstructing their experiences and creating new knowledge using the
proposed five steps. Teachers should not only emphasise drill and
practice, but should expose learners to activities that relate to the real life
situations of students, emphasising ‘Learning by doing’.
The Progressive Curriculum
 Progressivists emphasise the study of the natural and social sciences.
Teacher should introduce students to new scientific, technological,
and social developments. To expand the personal experience of
learners, learning should be related to present community life.
Believing that people learn best from what they consider most
relevant to their lives, the curriculum should centre on the
experiences, interests, and abilities of students.
 Teachers should plan lessons that arouse curiosity and push students
towards higher order thinking and knowledge construction. For
example, in addition to reading textbooks, students must learn by
doing such as fieldtrips where they can interact with nature and
society.
 Students are encouraged to interact with one another and develop
social virtues such as cooperation and tolerance for different points
of view.
 Teachers should not be confined to focusing on one discrete
discipline at a time but should introduce lessons that combine several
different subjects.
 Students are to be exposed to a more democratic curriculum that
recognises accomplishments of all citizens regardless of race,
cultural background or gender and,
 By including instruction in industrial arts and home economics,
progressivists strive to make schooling both interesting and useful.
Ideally, the home, workplace, and schoolhouse blend together to
generate a continuous, fulfilling learning experience in life. It is the
progressivist dream that the dreary, seemingly irrelevant classroom
exercises that so many adults recall from childhood will someday
become a thing of the past. Students solve problems in the classroom
similar to those they will encounter outside school.

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Aim of Education
To promote democratic and social living.
Role of Education
Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong learners
who actively learn by doing.
Focus in the Curriculum
Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and interactive. Curriculum
is focused on students’ interests, human problems and affairs.
Curriculum Trends
School reforms, relevant and contextualizes curriculum, humanistic
education.
5.2.2. Perennialism
Perennial means "everlasting," like a perennial flower that blooms
year after year. Perennialism, the oldest and most conservative
educational philosophy has its roots in the philosophy of Plato and
Aristotle. Two modern day proponents of perennialism are Robert
Hutchins and Mortimer Adler. The perennialists believed that humans
are rational and the aim of education is “to improve man as man”
(Hutchins, 1953). The answers to all educational questions derive from
the answer to one question: What is human nature? According to them,
human nature is constant and humans have the ability to understand the
universal truths of nature. Thus, the aim of education is to develop the
rational person and to uncover universal truths by training the intellect.
Towards developing one’s moral and spiritual being, character education
should be emphasised.
Perennialism is based on the belief that some ideas have lasted over
centuries and are as relevant today as when they were first conceived.
These ideas should be studied in school. A list of the ‘Great Books’ was
proposed covering topics in literature, art, psychology, philosophy,
mathematics, science, economics, politics and so forth. Examples of such
books are: Robinson Crusoe written by Daniel Defoe, War and Peace
written by Leo Tolstoy, Moby Dick written by Herman Melville,
Euclid’s book Elements on geometry, Newton’s book on Optics, The
Sexual Enlightenment of Children written by Sigmund Freud, An Inquiry
into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations by Adam Smith and
many others. The book selected had to have contemporary significance,
that is, it should be relevant to the problems and issues of present times.
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The book should espouse ideas and issues that have occupied the minds
of thinking individuals in the last 2000 years. The book should attract
people to read it again and again and benefit from it. The perennialists
believed that these are history's finest thinkers and writers. Their ideas
are profound and meaningful even today as when they were written.
When students are immersed in the study of these profound and enduring
ideas, they will appreciate learning for its own sake as well as develop
their intellectual powers and moral qualities.
The Perennialist Curriculum
Based on the beliefs of perennialism, the curriculum proposed had
the following characteristics:
 The ‘Great Books’ programme or more commonly called the liberal
arts will discipline the mind and cultivate the intellect. To read the
book in its original language, students must learn Latin and Greek.
Students also had to learn grammar, rhetoric, logic, advanced
mathematics and philosophy (Hutchins, 1936).
 The study of philosophy is a crucial part of the perennialist
curriculum. This was because they wanted students to discover those
ideas that are most insightful and timeless in understanding the
human condition.
 At a much later time, Mortimer Adler (1982) in his book the Paideia
Proposal recommended a single elementary and secondary
curriculum for all students. The educationally disadvantaged had to
spend some time in pre-schools.
 Perennialists were not keen on allowing students to take electives
(except second languages) such as vocational and life-adjustment
subjects. They argued that these subjects denied students the
opportunity to fully develop their rational powers.
 The perennialists criticised the vast amount of disjointed factual
information that educators have required students to absorb. They
urge that teachers should spend more time teaching concepts and
explaining how these concepts are meaningful to students.
 Since, enormous amount of scientific knowledge has been produced,
teaching should focus on the processes by which scientific truths
have been discovered. However, the perennialists advise that
students should not be taught information that may soon be obsolete

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or found to be incorrect because of future scientific and

technological findings.
 At the secondary and university level, perennialists were against
reliance on textbooks and lectures in communicating ideas.
Emphasis should be on teacher-guided seminars, where students and
teachers engage in dialogue; and mutual inquiry sessions to enhance
understanding of the great ideas and concepts that have stood the test
to time. Student should learn to learn, and not to be evaluated.
 Universities should not only prepare students for specific careers but
to pursue knowledge for its own sake. University students may learn
a few trees, perennialists claim, but many will be quite ignorant
about the forests: the timeless philosophical questions.
 Teaching reasoning using the ‘Great Books’ of Western writers is
advocated using the Socratic method to discipline the minds of
students. Emphasis should be on scientific reasoning rather than
mere acquisition of facts. Teach science but not technology, great
ideas rather than vocational topics.
 Perennialists argue that the topics of the great books describe any
society, at any time, and thus the books are appropriate for American
society. Students must learn to recognise controversy and
disagreement in these books because they reflect real disagreements
between persons. Students must think about the disagreements and
reach a reasoned, defensible conclusion.
 School should teach religious values or ethics. The difference
between right and wrong should be emphasized so that students will
have definite rules that they must follow.
Aim of Education
i. To educate the rational person;
ii. To cultivate the intellect
Role of Education
Teachers help students think with reason.
Focus in the Curriculum
Classical subjects, literary analysis and curriculum is constant.
Curriculum Trends
i. Use of great books and return to liberal arts.
ii. Permanence is more real than change.
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iii. Human nature remains essentially the same.

iv. The good life-the life that is fit for men to live remains
essentially the same.
v. Moral principles remain essentially the same.
vi. Hence, the education that men receive should remain essentially
the same.
Socratic dialogue. E.g. R. Hutchins, M. Adler
Education implies teaching. Teaching implies knowledge.
Knowledge is truth. The truth everywhere is the same. Hence, education
should be everywhere the same. This is a very conservative and
inflexible philosophy of education. It is based on the view that reality
comes from fundamental fixed truths especially related to God. It
believes that people find truth through reasoning and revelation and that
goodness is found in rational thinking. As a result, schools exist to teach
reason and God's will. Students are taught to reason through structured
lessons and drills.
5.2.3. ESSENTIALISM
Essentialism comes from the word ‘essential’ which means the main
things or the basics. As an educational philosophy, it advocates instilling
in students with the "essentials" or “basics” of academic knowledge and
character development. The term essentialism as an educational
philosophy was originally popularised in the 1930s by William Bagley
and later in the 1950s by Arthur Bestor and Admiral Rickover. When it
was first introduced as an educational philosophy in American schools, it
was criticised as being too rigid. In 1957, the Russians launched Sputnik
which caused a panic in educational circles as Americans felt they had
fallen behind the Soviet Union technologically. A rethinking of
education followed that led to interest in essentialism.
Essentialism was grounded in a conservative philosophy that argues
that schools should not try to radically reshape society. Rather, they
should transmit traditional moral values and intellectual knowledge that
students need to become model citizens. Essentialists believe that
teachers should instill traditional virtues such as respect for authority,
fidelity to duty, consideration for others and practicality. Essentialism
placed importance on science and understanding the world through
scientific experimentation. To convey important knowledge about the
world, essentialist educators emphasised instruction in natural science
rather than non-scientific disciplines such as philosophy or comparative
religion.

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The Essentialist Curriculum

Based on the beliefs of essentialism, the curriculum proposed has the
following characteristics:
 The ‘basics’ of the essentialist curriculum are mathematics, natural
science, history, foreign language, and literature. Essentialists
disapprove of vocational, life-adjustment, or other courses with
"watered down" academic content.
 Elementary students receive instruction in skills such as writing,
reading, and measurement. Even while learning art and music
(subjects most often associated with the development of creativity)
students are required to master a body of information and basic
techniques, gradually moving from less to more complex skills and
detailed knowledge. Only by mastering the required material for
their grade level are students promoted to the next higher grade.
 Essentialist programs are academically rigorous, for both slow and
fast learners. Common subjects for all students regardless of abilities
and interests. But, how much is to be learned is adjusted according to
student ability.
 It advocates a longer school day, a longer academic year, and more
challenging textbooks. Essentialists maintain that classrooms should
be oriented around the teacher, who serves as the intellectual and
moral role model for students.
 Teaching is teacher-centred and teachers decide what is most
important for students to learn with little emphasis on student
interests because it will divert time and attention from learning the
academic subjects. Essentialist teachers focus heavily on
achievement test scores as a means of evaluating progress.
 In an essentialist classroom, students are taught to be "culturally
literate," that is, to possess a working knowledge about the people,
events, ideas, and institutions that have shaped society. Essentialists
hope that when students leave school, they will possess not only
basic skills and extensive knowledge, but also disciplined and
practical minds, capable of applying their knowledge in real world
settings.
 Discipline is necessary for systematic learning in a school situation.
Students learn to respect authority in both school and society.
 Teachers need to be mature and well educated, who know their
subjects well and can transmit their knowledge to students.

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Aim of Education
To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a
competent person.
Role of Education
The teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field of
specialization.
Focus in the Curriculum
Essential skills of the 3 R’s and essential subjects of English,
Science, History, Math and Foreign Language.
Curriculum Trends
Excellence in education, back to basics and cultural literacy.
Didactic Instruction. e.g., W. Bagely, W. Bennett.
Essentialism is a uniquely American philosophy of education which
began in the 1930’s and 1940’s as a reaction to what was seen as an
overemphasis on a child-centered approach to education and a concern
that students were not gaining appropriate knowledge in schools. The
two origins of essentialism are idealism and realism. • Essentialists
believe that there exists a critical core of information and skill that an
educated person must have.
5.2.4. RECONSTRUCTIONISM
Reconstructionism was a philosophy uniquely popular in the U.S.
during the 1930's through the 1960's. It was largely the brain child of
Theodore Brameld from Columbia Teachers College. He began as a
communist, but shifted to reconstructionism. Reconstructionists favor
reform and argue that students must be taught how to bring about change.
Reconstructionism is a philosophy that believes in the rebuilding of
social and cultural infrastructures. Students are to study social problems
and think of ways to improve society. Another proponent of
reconstructionism was George Counts (1932) who in a speech titled Dare
the School Build a New Social Order suggested that schools become the
agent of social change and social reform. Students cannot afford to be
neutral but must take a position.
Most advocates of reconstructionism are sensitive to race, gender,
ethnicity and differences in socioeconomic status. Related to
reconstructionism is another belief called critical pedagogy. It is
primarily a teaching and curriculum theory, designed by Henry Giroux

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and Peter McLaren, which focuses upon the use of revolutionary

literature in classrooms that is aimed at "liberation." Radical in its
conception, critical pedagogy was based on Marxist ideology which
advocates equality in the distribution of wealth and strongly against
capitalism. More recent reconstructionists such as Paulo Freire in his
book Pedagogy of the Oppressed (1968) advocated a revolutionary
pedagogy for poor students in which people can move through different
stages to ultimately be able to take action and overcome oppression. He
argued that people must become active participants in changing their
own status through social action to change bring about social justice.
The Reconstructionist Curriculum
 In the reconstructionist curriculum, it was not enough for students to
just analyse interpret and evaluate social problems. They had to be
committed to the issues discussed and encouraged to take action to
bring about constructive change.
 The curriculum is to be based on social and economic issues as well
as social service. The curriculum should engage students in critical
analysis of the local, national and international community.
Examples of issues are poverty, environment degradation,
unemployment, crime, war, political oppression, hunger, etc.
 There are many injustices in society and inequalities in terms of race,
gender, and socioeconomic status. Schools are obliged to educate
children towards resolution of these injustices and students should
not be afraid to examine controversial issues. Students should learn
to come to a consensus on issues and so group work was encouraged.
 The curriculum should be constantly changing to meet the changes in
society. Students are aware of global issues and the interdependence
between nations. Enhancing mutual understanding and global
cooperation should be the focus of the curriculum.
 Teachers are considered the prime agents of social change, cultural
renewal and internationalism. They are encouraged to challenge
outdated structures and entrusted with the task of bringing about a
new social order which may be utopian in nature.
 In general, the curriculum emphasised the social sciences (such as
history, political science, economics, sociology, religion, ethics,
poetry, and philosophy), rather than the sciences.

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Aim of Education
i. To improve and reconstruct the society
ii. Education for change
Role of Education
Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various educational
projects including research.
Focus in the Curriculum
Focus on present and future trends and issues of national and
international interests.
Curriculum Trends
Equality of educational opportunities in education; access to global
education.
Criticism: Focus is on providing students the critical tools to be agents of
social change. Students explore controversial issues, analyze world
events. E.g. P. Freire.
Progressivism: The goal is to help each student think rationally. Student
centered approach. Project and problem-based learning. E.g. John
Dewey.
Postmodernism: Focus on helping students recognize that here are no
universal truths, and the traditional narratives of the dominant culture
must be deconstructed. Deconstruction through dialogue. Critical
pedagogy. E.g. M. Foucault.
Behaviourism: Free will is an illusion; students' behaviour is shaped in
order to reinforce proper learning and behavior. Drill and practice. E.g.
B.F. Skinner.
5.2.5. RECONCEPTUALISM
Joseph J. Schwab was instrumental in provoking curriculum
developers to think beyond the traditionalist approach. In his paper
(1969), “The Practical: A Language for Curriculum” he declared the
curriculum field “moribund”. This, plus the social unrest of the 1960s
and 70’s stirred a new movement of “reconceptualization” of curricula. A
group of theorists, including James Macdonald, Dwayne Huebner, Ross
Mooney, Herbert M. Kliebard, Paul Klohr, Michael Apple, W.F. Pinar,
and others, created ways of thinking about curriculum and its role in the
academy, in schools, and in society in general. Their approach included

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perspectives from the social, racial, gender, phenomenological, political,

autobiographical and theological points of view.
The ‘70s bring into discussion the models imposed by the traditional
period. The emphasis moves from curricular development to its
understanding. The reconceptualist approaches are in search for new
alternative ways and for new perspectives on curriculum. From how to
why seems to be the major characteristics of this trend.
Phenomenological and feminist themes in reconceptualist curriculum
theory are used to address the political and social status of teachers and
their intellectual preparation for teaching. Arguments are offered for
autobiographical studies in education, collaborative modes of learning
and teaching, and interdisciplinary approaches to liberal arts education.
Post-reconceptualism:
Post-reconceptualism is characterized by several key elements
observed by Wright: we do not find a single global theory, but there are
to be found multiple and sometimes contradictory perspectives, such as:
 progressivism;
 phenomenology;
 hermeneutics and critical theory, illustrated by Dewey’s,
Piaget’s, Tyler’, Habermas’s studies;
Post-discourses development and new canons: post-modernism,
post-structuralism, Freud post-analysis, illustrated by Derrida’s,
Felman’s, Lacan’s and Kristeva’s studies;
• several clear study guidelines are crystallized;
• reconceptualism, as a rebuff to traditionalism, has not
achieved its aims;
• the evolution in this field is not clear, but several clear
trends are being crystallized;
 Educational Philosophy (Reconstruction)
 General Philosophy (Existentialism)
 Educational Psychology (More Humanistic, Pragmatic)
History
Reconceptualism in a sense has two agendas. The first focuses on
human concerns, emphasizing the psychological and social development
of the human being. A basic premise is, the more the students understand

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themselves, the more they will understand the world. The second focus is
on society, as the development of reconceptualism began in the late 60's
and continued into the early 80's when free speech, personal rights and
other social issues such as emancipation and freedom from power
structures were the focus of society.
In the seventies there was a great deal of controversy over the issue
of whether or not the curriculum field is being revitalized through the
development of a new movement in the field of curriculum studies. Pinar
argues strongly that a new movement is indeed visible in the field. Some
have termed it "reconceptualization" others "the new curriculum theory".
The reconceptualization is a reaction to what the field has been and what
it is seen to be at the present time.
A reconceptualist tends to see research as an inescapably political as
well as intellectual act. As such, it works to suppress or to liberate not
only those who conduct the research and those upon who it is conducted
but as well those outside the academic subculture. This political
emphasis distinguishes the work of reconceptualists from the work of
traditionalists and conceptual-empiricists. Curriculum development is
political connected with a view of history and the contemporary social
order.
Philosophical Basis
Reconceptualism is based on existentialist and reconstructionist
philosophies. Reconceptualists' principles are grounded in existentialism
philosophy and humanistic psychology. Therefore, they tend to be
trained in the humanities, and they developed in the late 60's and the
beginning of 70's as a reaction to the conceptual empiricists who were so
scientific, technological and behavioristic. In existentialism, reality is a
world of existing, truth is personal choice, and goodness is freedom.
Learning is highly personal and unique for each individual. Students
need to learn how to process their experiences and get meaning from
them, in order to control and improve their lives. Reconstructionists are
concerned with the relationship between school and society. Their effort
is on using schools as a mechanism to reconstruct society. Schools exist
to aid children in knowing themselves and their place in society, and the
instructional objective is to improve and reconstruct society.
APPLICATIONS:
1) Aim: Reconceptualists’ view can be applied in any situation where
the educational system does not consider students’ needs and interests,
and does not respect their intellectual abilities.

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2) Curriculum trends: Equality of education; cultural pluralism;

international education; futurism. This view puts all people of the society
in charge of the educational process, and gives all individuals the right to
educate themselves in ways they believe appropriate to them, and meet
their needs and interests. It emphasizes the development of dialogue
skills, critical thinking skills, problem solving skills, decision making
skills and personal values clarification through appropriate curriculum
content to students’ needs and interests. It influences instructional theory,
i.e.; teachers are responsible and should determine how to teach
curriculum content so that these skills are developed. They are involved
in curriculum planning and development.
4) Teaching strategies: Emphasize problem solving, critical thinking, and
decision making skills; process oriented, less focus on outcomes;
heterogenous grouping and integration of students by ability; teacher and
students plan activities; students learn on their own, independent from
teacher; teacher-student dialogue, student initiates much of the discussion
and activities.
5) Role of teacher: Questions, assists student in personal journey;
arousing personal responses; an agent of change and reform; helps
students become aware of problems confronting humankind; According
to the reconceptualists, curriculum content is less dictated by government
and more determined by local school districts.
6) Curriculum focus: Child-centered; emphasizes subject matter of art,
ethics, philosophy; skills and subjects needed to identify and ameliorate
problems of society; learning is active and concerned with contemporary
and future society; emphasis on social sciences and social research
methods; examination of social, economic and political problems; focus
on present and future trends as well as national and international issues.
7) Role of student: Active, determines own rule. Students are involved in
deciding what they want to learn, and teachers as well as parents are part
of the educational process.
8) Reconceptualists: William Pinar, Henry Giroux and Michael Apple.
5.3. CURRICULUM ORIENTATION
Elliot Eisner (1985) describes five different curriculum orientations.
Personal values, experiences, and beliefs about what is important in the
world contribute greatly to the type of orientation held. A teacher's
curriculum orientation is related to her/his philosophy of education and
they both relate to the goals of education, relative importance of subject
matter, and how teachers and students should interact. The five
orientations are:

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5.3.1. Academic Rationalism

Educators argue that the goal of education is to teach the basic fields
of study and academic disciplines that have traditionally been known as a
liberal education. The role of the teacher is to help students acquire the
content, concepts, and ideas of the classic academic disciplines.
i. major function of school is to foster intellectual growth in
subject areas that are most important.
ii. all children should be introduced to basic fields of study in order
to find what they're good at and interested in.
iii. link with idealist traditions — studying the "great books", etc.
iv. develop people's rational abilities.
5.3.2. Social Relevance
It attempts to develop a critical consciousness among children of the
major issues of society. The curriculum focuses on controversial social
issues and is designed to encourage students to take an active role in
improving the society in which they live. The teacher's role is to make
students aware of the important social issues of their time and culture and
to encourage them to debate alternatives, make informed judgments, and
act on them.
i. derives aims and content from an analysis of the society in
which school is situated
ii. focus on addressing societal needs and issues
iii. important to note that the Social Adaptation orientation is
essentially conservative serving the needs of various groups of
society and maintaining the status quo
iv. the Social Reconstruction orientation focuses on developing
critical consciousness controversial issues are a major focus
geared towards social action.
5.3.3. Personal Relevance
It is where the curriculum builds on the students' interests. This view
is held by educators who believe that learning is a developmental process
and students learn best from inside out. The teacher's role is to construct
educational situations that are based on students' present experiences,
interests, and needs.
i. emphasis on personal meaning.
ii. educational programs should be developed in collaboration with
students.

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iii. in order for school experience to be educational students must

have a stake in what goes on.
iv. teacher's role is to provide enough structure and guidance for
students to be productive.
v. S. Neill was a proponent of this orientation
5.3.4. Cognitive Process
Teachers would not agree that there is established content for
courses. The major goal of the teacher is to teacher the students to learn
how to learn by generating problematic situations for students to
investigate and solve.
i. major functions of school are to (1) help children learn how to
learn and (2) provide children with opportunities to use and
strengthen variety of intellectual processes.
ii. generally views mind as made up discrete and relatively
independent abilities.
iii. emphasizes process over content.
iv. curriculum focus tends to be problem centered.
5.3.5. Technological Orientations
It stresses a scientific approach using measurable goals and
objectives. The teacher's role is to plan the curriculum in a sequential
and orderly manner by specifying a list of sequential objectives with tests
that demonstrate the students' mastery of each objective.
i. views curriculum planning as a technical task a means-ends
approach.
ii. accountability movement is representative of this orientation.
iii. Benjamin Bloom, Hilda Taba, Ralph Tyler, and John Dewey all
advocated such an approach.
In general, either one or a combination of these five orientations
dominates teachers' and schools' approaches to curriculum. In order to
clarify and create a consistent curricular approach, it is important to
identify which of these orientations are important, the proceed to enact
these approaches in a consistent manner.
This work by Elliot Eisner was quite significant in providing
teachers and curriculum developers with insights into understanding
curriculum. However, since that time, a great deal of change has
occurred, including the emergence of new theories and understandings of
curriculum. Although these five orientations are still quite evident in

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schools, we can add a few new possibilities to the list. The following list
suggests new orientations that may involve some of the ideas embedded
in Eisner’s five orientations.
1. Curriculum for Social and Political Control
This orientation has been added as a possible explanation for how
curriculum is used as a political tool to control the population. Such
control may include:
i. Not covering topics, issues, and skills to prevent children from
acquiring such knowledge and skills.
ii. Emphasizing particular knowledge content and skills or specific
biased perspectives of such content and skills at the expense of
other knowledge and skills.
iii. Emphasizing coverage of many topics, so that the knowledge is
fragmented and disconnected, so that most students are unable to
develop meaningful and coherent understandings.
iv. Pressures of testing and curriculum coverage in reading and
mathematics, prevent many teachers from covering social
studies, science, art, etc. in any depth. At the same time, inquiry,
critical thinking, and creative thinking are not addressed,
because of the time it takes to develop these skills.
2. Curriculum as Emergent
Emergent curricula may be related to Eisner's "Personal Relevance"
orientation in that such curricula are grounded in the notion of relevance.
However, the emergent curriculum is further characterized as:
i. Curriculum that arises or extends from students' interests,
concerns, and questions.
ii. Although a particular topic may be initiated by the teacher, the
curriculum unfolds from the dynamic interaction among
students’ and the teacher in response to emergent questions,
concerns, and interests.
iii. The focus is on developing in-depth, meaningful, and relevant
understandings.
3. Curriculum for Complex Understandings and Thinking
i. The development of complex understandings and thinking
focuses on concepts and patterns that are important within and
across subject matter areas, as well as within personal
experiences and cultural traditions.

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ii. This orientation may overlap with or incorporate aspects of

Eisner's orientations of Personal Relevance, Development of
Cognitive Processes, Academic Rationalism, and Social
Reconstruction. In addition, this orientation may incorporate
aspects of Emergent Curriculum, Curriculum for Democracy,
Curriculum for Social Justice, and Project-Based curricular
orientations.
4. Curriculum Education for Democracy
i. Curriculum for Democracy is associated to some degree with
Eisner's Social Reconstruction orientation.
ii. The focus of this orientation can be (a) on involving students in
participating in democratic communities in and out of the
classroom and/or (b) on learning about democracy, including
thinking critically about issues facing democratic societies.
5. Curriculum for Social Justice
i. Curriculum for Social Justice also is related to Eisner's Social
Reconstruction orientation.
ii. The focus is on critical issues involved in the equitable treatment
and opportunities for all people in one’s society and in societies
around the world.
6. Project-Based Curriculum
i. Project-Based curriculum involves some aspects of Eisner's
Personal Relevance and Cognitive Processes orientations.
ii. The focus is on engaging students in working towards relevant
and meaningful goals while involved in authentic projects.
iii. Projects are generally small group or whole class projects.

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UNIT 6
EDUCATIONAL THINKERS
AND CURRICULUM
TRANSACTIONS

6.1. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712-1778)

Rousseau is known as a revolutionary philosopher, who wrote
against the contemporary social and political set up, hypocrisy,
artificiality, cruelty, correlation, despotism prevalent at that time. The
key notes of his philosophy is termed Naturalism, it contains his concepts
of “Natural state”, “Natural man” and Natural civilization. “Natural state
is a simple farming community or state without the evils of large cities
corrupt rulers, social classes and luxury. He believed that ‘Goodness was
innate and evils as acquired’. About natural man he says, “Man is born
free, but everywhere he is in chains”. In the words of Rousseau,
“Civilized man born, lives and dies in a state of slavery”.
Natural man according to Rousseau is governed and directed by the
laws of his own nature rather than those of social institutions. He
believed the man would have been happier if he had been allowed to
remain in his natural stage. He was against so called Civilization. By
natural civilizations he meant the simple farming life. Rousseau said,
“God makes all the things good; man meddles with them and they
become evil”. He declared, “Everything is good as it comes from the
hands of the Author of nature, but everything degenerates in the hands of
man”.
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Rousseau remarked, “Leave the child alone. Let him be a natural

man rather than a civilized man. Let him have a state of nature rather
than artificial surroundings that stunt the proper growth and arrest his
natural development”. Natural civilization is free from artificial
surroundings and rigid barriers that pollute the goodness of our nature.
‘Return to nature’ was his method to cure all troubles human nature his
natural heritage is essentially good and must be given the full
opportunities for fee development. He advocated the concept of liberty,
equality and fraternity. He has given three fundamentals of the Nature
considering them the best sources of education.
1. Isolation from society should be isolated from society and brought up
by laws of nature. He should not be allowed to acquire the evils of the
society.
2. Innate tendencies of the child in the words of Rousseau, the innate
tendencies to primitive emotions, instinctive judgment and natural
instinct are more reliable bases for action than the experience gained
from the society .In this sense education means the spontaneous
development of these innate tendencies of the child .
3. Contact with natural environment is to make contact with the
natural environment i.e. hills, trees, plans birds, animals, woods, stones
and physical forces. Thus the child should be brought up in natural
environment. As a result of it he will automatically become a rational
being and act according to the voice of his conscience.
6.1.1. Educational Philosophy of Rousseau/Concept of Education
His educational philosophy is born out of his philosophy i.e.
Naturalism there are some characteristics which are as under.
Concept of Education: For Rousseau education does not mean merely
imparting information or storing knowledge. It is not accretion from
without. It is the development of the child’s natural powers and abilities
from within. According to nature, man, things the concept of education
is;
A] Education from Nature: It consists in the spontaneous development
of our endowment and faculties. i. e. of child’s natural tendencies and
interests. He gave it the top priority.
B] Education from Man: It consists in influencing our social contacts
and various groups. He did not favor it at least in initial stages.
C] Education from Things: It consists in the acquisition of knowledge
and information through contact with physical surroundings and our
experience of dealings with the things.
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Rousseau conviction was that education should be considered as the

process of development into an enjoyable, rational harmoniously
balanced useful and hence natural life.
6.1.2. Aims of Education
1] Development of child’s inner facilities
Rousseau says that the most important aim of education is the natural
development of the child’s inner faculties and powers. To live is to work,
to develop and to properly utilize the various part of the body. In his
book, Emile’, Rousseau seeks to train Emile in the profession of living
so that he may become a human being before becoming a soldier, a
magistrate, or a priest education aim at making the child a real human
being.
2] Different aim at different stages:
In addition to the above mentioned aim, education should be
different at each stage in the life of the individual.
A) Development of well regulated freedom at infancy
During the period of infancy i.e. .up to 5 years the aim of education
is to develop in Emile a well regulated freedom according to his
capacities.
B] Develop sufficient strength at childhood stage
At the childhood stage i.e. from 5 to 12 years, the aim of education is
to develop in the child sufficient in order to have well regulated freedom.
Rousseau’s advice for this period is, “Exercise the body, the organs, the
senses and powers and keep the soul lying fellow, as long as you can”.
C) Intellectual development in Pre- adolescent period
At the boyhood stage i.e., from 12 to 15 years, the aim of education
is to develop the intellect of the Emile. Education should help in the
acquisition of knowledge which may enable him to the practical needs of
life.
D) Emotional, Moral and religious development during adolescence
During the fourth stage i.e., from 15 to 24 years Emile, should learn
to live for others and to live together in social relationships. His emotions
should be sublimated. Moral and religious bias should be given to
education. In short, during this stage, education should aim at emotional,
moral and religious development of the Emile.
6.1.3. Rousseau’s Curriculum for Emile
Even in framing the curriculum, Rousseau paid attention to these
four stages in development, which have discussed under aims above
infancy, childhood, boyhood and adolescence.
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A] Infancy state [up to 5 years]

A feeble body makes a feeble mind. All wickedness comes from
weakness. Give his body constant exercise, make it strong and healthy.”
During this stage of infancy the child should be properly protected.
Education begins at birth or before, and the first period of five years is
concerned primarily with the growth of the body, motor activities, sense
perception, and feelings. The method of nature had to be followed in
everything. Thus Rousseau, with impassionate pleading, recalled mothers
to their natural duties, and even made it fashionable to breast feed their
offspring.
The individuality of each child had to be respected. It was wrong to
model different minds on after one common pattern. The concern was
not to alter the natural disposition of the mind, but to prevent
degeneration. The doctrine of individual differences is fundamental to
Rousseau. He wrote: One nature needs wings, another shackle: one has to
be flattered, another to be intimidated. One man is made to carry human
knowledge to the farthest point; another may find the possibility to read a
dangerous power.
Rousseau condemned the prevailing styles of dressing infants in
swaddling clothes, which hindered the free movements of the body and
the limbs. On the other hand, he liberated helpless babies from the
bondage of dress; on the other hand, he accepted the hardening process
for the body. Even in infancy, the facing of hardships is nature’s method.
Educational process at this stage
For Rousseau education does not arise from without; it springs from
within. It is the internal development of our faculties and organs that
constitutes the true education of nature. The first education is the free and
unhampered expression of the natural activities of the child in relation to
the physical environment. The important thing is that the child is allowed
to obey the inner impulse to action, and that he experiences directly the
results of his behaviour.
B] For childhood stage [from 5 to 12 years]
Rousseau says, “Childhood is the sleep of reason and the educator is
not to disturb him in this sleep”. So at this stage, neither intellect nor
moral or social education is to be imparted to the child. Negative
education will consists of the free development of his physical organs
and the exercises of his senses. The child should be given maximum
freedom. There should be no verbal lessons, in language, history and
geography. Physical exercises constitute the core of the curriculum at his

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stage. Keep the child in sole dependence on things and we will follow the
natural order in the course of his education. Put only physical obstacles
in the way of indiscreet wishes and let his punishments spring from his
own actions.
Without forbidding wrong doing, be content to prevent it.
Experience or impotence apart from anything else should take the place
of law for him. Satisfy his desires, not because of his demands but
because of his own needs. He should have no consciousness of obedience
when he acts or of mastery when someone acts for him. This is the most
important and most critical period of human life. It has to be controlled
by two principles, namely, education should be negative, and that moral
training should be by natural consequences.
Existing methods of teaching and training
Rousseau was a severe critic of the methods then in fashion in the
schools. For most children, childhood was a sorrowful period, as
instruction was heartlessly severe. Grammar was beaten into their
memory. Teachers had not yet imagined that children could find any
pleasure in learning, or that they should have eyes for anything but
reading, writing, and memorizing. The only form of learning that
teachers knew was learning by rote. Rousseau considered this a grave
error; for he believed that the child had no real memory, and that purely
verbal lessons meant nothing to him.
Rousseau’s opposition to books
Rousseau saw in such a method only a means of slaving mankind.
This was the education that depended on books and upon the authority of
others. Of his bitter aversion to books Rousseau expressed himself
vigorously. “I hate books; they merely teach us to talk of what we do not
know.” This distrust in books is not confined to one stage of life. The
book comes in between the child and things. Moreover, the knowledge
that the child learns from books takes the place of the exercise and
formation of his own judgment.
The curriculum and practical activities
The activities which spring naturally from the needs of life form the
curriculum at each stage. The needs of boyhood are simple, merely
pertaining to existence. First come play and sports, which improve the
body, bringing health, strength and growth. Then, too, the child engages
in securing a livelihood. “Agriculture is the first employment of man; it
is the most useful, the most honourable, and consequently the noblest
that he can practice.”

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The child learns to handle the spade and the hoe, hammer, plane, and
file – in fact, the tools of all the trades. These activities lead him to count,
measure, weigh. And compare the objects with which he deals. He
judges distances, learns to observe and to draw accurately the things he
observes. Speech, singing, arithmetic, and geometry, are not learned as
formal schoolroom subjects, but as activities that are related to life
situations.
Before the age of twelve, the child cannot reason. At this stage the
child does not know the will of another, and should not be subjected to
either commands or punishments. His activities are caused by necessity,
and he can have no real sense of responsibility or of duty.
Negative Education
Rousseau did not maintain that there should be no education at all,
but that there should be one of a different kind, from the normally
accepted educational practices. Rousseau claimed that positive education
was that type of education which formed the mind prematurely, and
which instructed the child in duties that belonged to man. Negative
education according to him, was that education which perfected the
organs that are the instruments of knowledge, before giving the
knowledge directly. It further prepares the way for reason by the proper
exercise of the senses.
Negative education does not imply a time of idleness. It does not
give virtues, but protects the person from vice. It does not inculcate truth,
but protects one from error. It helps the child to take the path that will
lead him to truth, when he has reached the age to understand it. It will
also help him to take the path of goodness, when he has acquired the
faculty of recognizing and loving it.
C] For Boyhood Stage [from 12 to 15 years]
Physical sciences, languages, mathematics, manual work, a trade,
social relations, music and drawing will constitute the curriculum at this
stage. Sciences will develop heuristic attitude, mathematics will develop
precise thinking, manual craft will develop qualities of character of
drawing will train eyes and muscles. However the knowledge of social
relations will impress upon the boy the need of co-operation an economic
inter dependence of man upon man.
For intellectual instruction no definite course of study should be
projected. Those subjects who make a genuine contribution to the self
preservation of the individual should given greater attention. Geography
and astronomy are the first subjects of interest, and these ought to be

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learnt directly from nature. This is then followed by the physical

sciences. This further leads to agriculture and arts and crafts. When the
student has a good acquaintance with these, he is trained in cabinet
making. Such ought to be the curriculum from 12 to 15.
The central concern of Rousseau was threefold:
1) The first was to implant a taste for knowledge. He believed that
knowledge had to be given, but the person should also be taught how to
acquire it when necessary. This will enable the student to estimate its
worth, and to love it above everything else.
2) The second was to think clearly. Thus for Rousseau the important
thing was that only those ideas which were accurate and clear should
enter the mind.
3) The third was to furnish the right method. It was not only important to
teach the student the sciences, but to also give him a taste for it. This for
him was the fundamental principle of all good education.
The method of training
Rousseau firmly believed that we learn things much better if we
learn them by ourselves. Thus his great principle was that nothing should
be learnt on the authority of others. Thus Rousseau placed Emile in
situations that obliged him to depend upon his own strength, to get his
own bread, to think his own thoughts, to reach his own conclusions. By
this Rousseau was basically trying to say that Emile had to depend on his
own brains and not on the opinions of others.
D] For Adolescence Stage (from 15 to 24 years)
Rousseau laid special stress on moral and religious education at this
stage. Moral education is to be given through activities and occupations
and not through lectures on ethics. Besides moral and religious
education, history, geography sex education, physical culture and
aesthetics are to constitute the curriculum. For all these subjects he has
specific aims i.e. History is to be taught for the service of moral
instructions. Religious education for realizing the existence of god and
sex education about sex affairs. Aesthetics is to be taught for the
cultivation and improvement of tastes.
The students must invent the apparatus
Another principle which Rousseau stressed was that the student
should make his own apparatus. After observing geographic facts, he is
to make charts, maps, and globes. Finally, Rousseau pictures the ideal
boy at the end of this stage to be industrious, temperate, patient, firm, and
full of courage and endurance.
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The curriculum
The curriculum at this stage will include knowledge of human nature
and the social order, which today would classify as psychology,
sociology and ethics. Rousseau did not have in mind primarily the study
of these subjects in books; but in concrete life situations, the warm
experiences of the actual relations of living men. With regard to
literature, Rousseau favoured the ancient literature. He prescribed fables
to help in the moral training. Religion too, had an important part to play.
By religion, he was referring to the natural religion of the human heart,
and not of the dogmas and creeds of the church.
Education of Woman
Emile has now become a man, and a life companion must be found
for him. Accordingly the last book deals with the education of woman. It
is the weakest part of the book, because Rousseau completely abandons
the individualistic training that is given to the man.
6.1.5. Rousseau’s Methods of Teaching
i) Learning by Doing
Rousseau says, “Teach by doing whenever you can, and only for fall
back upon words when doing is out of question. The child should take
part in various activities and learn in natural way. It will help him in
satisfaction of creative activity”.
ii) Direct Experience
Knowledge acquired through books in second hand and easily
forgotten. On the other hand knowledge directly acquired from various
learning situations is permanent. He also urged experience before
expression and object before words.
iii) Method of Individual Instruction
Rousseau asserted that the teacher should properly recognize in the
individually of the child and place emphasized individual instructions.
iv) Heuristic Method
In this method the child is placed in the position of a discoverer. He
is to be given an opportunity to make experiment with the apparatus that
he made himself or invented. Rousseau also advocates the heuristic
method of teaching.
v) Example is better than Precept
For imparting moral education Rousseau stated, “Example is better
than precept. Teacher should practice morality. He should provide
opportunities to practice virtue. Lectures on morality will not prove
useful”.
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vi) Social Participation

During the period of adolescence will get knowledge about social
relations by actually visiting places and establishing contact with the
members of the community practically.
6.1.6. Rousseau’s Concept of Discipline
Rousseau opposed imposed discipline ‘leave the child free’. It is
only in free atmosphere that the child can develop his innate powers. No
punishment should be given to the child for improving his behavior. He
advocated discipline by natural consequence. He remarked, “Allow the
child to suffer the natural results of his acts.” For example of the child
puts his hand into fire, let him burn his hand and learn by consequence”.
6.1.7. Role of the Teacher
Rousseau did not assign high place to the teacher. The teacher should
see that the education of the pupils is the free development of their
interest and motives. He should provide suitable opportunities. He should
protect the child from repression mental conflicts and mental; disorders
for all kinds.
6.2. FROEBEL
Friedrich William A. Froebel (1782-1852) was a German pedagogue
who laid the foundation for modern education based on the recognition
that children have unique needs and capabilities. He is most famously
known as "the father of kindergarten"; it was due to his contributions that
the notion of early childhood education was born. As a keen observer of
nature and humanity, Froebel approached education from both a
biological and a spiritual perspective. According to him, "mind unfolds
from within according to a predetermined pattern. The development and
formation of the whole future life of each being is continued in the
beginning of its existence. "He was in the view that all things are
developing according to specific divine laws and so there should be no
external interference in the process of development. He believed that all
things of the universe have different entities, yet they all have originated
from God. Thus, all objects, however different they look in appearance
are essentially the same. This philosophical view of life influenced on his
educational thoughts and practices.
6.2.1. Aims of Education
Froebel's goal of education is stated in terms of a relationship to
God. Education consists in "leading man, as a thinking, intelligent being,
growing into self-consciousness, to a pure and unsullied, conscious and
free representation of the inner law of divine unity, and in teaching him
ways and means thereto."
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According to Froebel education is to awaken spiritual nature of man,

enable the child to realize the God and to identify himself with nature.
Moreover, education is to enable the students to realize the fundamental
unity of all living being with God.
6.2.2. School Curriculum
On the basis of his observation of nature and stages of human
development, Froebel's curriculum incorporated principles of self-
developed, activity and socialization, whose content was made up of all
types of self-expression activities. The aim was to lead the child into
knowledge of self, human relations nature and the external world and to
God as the divine source and cause of all existence. Play was at the core
of the curriculum, as the most valuable form of self expression. For
Froebel; this stimulated motor expression, skill, and developed the Childs
symbolic, constructive and aesthetic powers.
Subjects like modeling, drawing, sewing, painting, gardening, and
nature study are taught along with formal subjects like religion and
philosophy, natural sciences, mathematics and languages. All these
subjects should possess internal unity and high degree of correlation.
All-round development being his aim of education, Froebel wanted
that the curriculum at the childhood stage should consist of four main
divisions;
(a) Religion: which he says should be the basis of all education. No other
knowledge is possible without it.
(b) Natural Science: nature he has often repeated is the manifestation of
God. Its study will mean the contemplation of outer facts, while religion
requires inner contemplation. Therefore both are necessary to have a
complete man. Insight into nature reveals the laws that rule in human
life. This creates a sense of the reign of law. “From every object of
nature and life there is a way to God”. In this study of natural science he
also emphasizes the importance of mathematics. In his opinion this
subject is a connecting link between the mind of man and the natural
world. Mind and mathematics, he says, are inseparable as the soul and
religion.
(c) Languages: these help in establishing the inner living connection
among the diversities of things and thus complete the work of education.
(d) Expressional work: Froebel believed that there is need for the
expression of the soul in outward form. This expression may take the
form of singing, drawing, painting and modeling. Manual work helps in
the development of skill, creative power and exercise of the muscles. He
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attached the spiritual importance to hard work. He recommended

gardening, wood work, leather work, clay modeling and art in the shape
– of drawing, painting and singing in the education (curriculum). His
curriculum for children consists of mainly those activities and subjects
where the child expresses himself freely and yet learns something such as
construction, play, acting, writing, storytelling and hundreds other things.
Kindergarten – A Concept of Experimental School
Froebel was the first man in the history of education to give the idea
of Pre-School Education in the form of Kindergarten – “Children’s
garden”. Froebel started a school at Blankenberg (Germany) for small
infants and called it Kindergarten means a “garden of children” and was
designed to be a place where children were “allowed to blossom”.
Froebel regarded this school as a garden and the teacher as a gardener
who carefully tends the little human plants under his care and helps them
grow to beauty and perfection. There is an atmosphere of self activity,
play and joy in the school. Children are given freedom in activity while
Froebel saw this as a gentle type of education, it was really quite
structured. Kindergarten was devised to help children to their optimum
growth and development – by providing an environment to realize their
potentialities to the fullest extent. In the Kindergarten all attempts are
made for unfolding the innate potentialities of children. But such
enfoldment is guided, not moulded and children`s development is
nourished and nurtured, not imposed and forced. The motive of
Kindergarten is “Come, Let us, Live for the Children”.
Gift and Occupation
The gifts and occupations were a series of twenty devices and
activities, essentially a hand on curricular system, intended to introduce
children to the physical forms and relationship found in nature. These
tangible objects and activities assumed that there was a mathematical and
natural logic underlying all things in nature one which Froebel ascribed
to God's handiwork. The gifts literally functioned as tools with which to
awaken and develop a child’s recognition of the common, God given
elements found in nature. Froebel was concerned with sharing the
interrelationships between living and inanimate things. His gifts helped
him do so by instilling in children an appreciation of natural forms and
harmonies.
In fact, we still use many of Froebel's ideas and materials without
acknowledging their source. We considered block play, for example, as a
basic learning activity in early childhood education. It was Froebel who
introduced the use of blocks on a wide scale into early childhood
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education (third, fourth, fifth and sixth gifts). Likewise, the use of
parquetry and pattern recognition (seventh and thirteenth gifts) is one of
his important contributions, as is the use of structural design toys similar
to Tinker toys (nineteenth gift).
6.2.3. Teaching Methods
Froebel's teaching method was Kindergarten centered. Mainly three
methods were employed there: a) use of gifts, b) singing of his songs and
c) the games. Discussing them in order, the gifts-consisting of
geometrical patterns-awaken the child’s power to conceptualize and lead
him or her to recognize ultimate truths. Activities such as modeling,
drawing, sewing, and coloring were occupations that enabled the child to
act out his or her observations of adult life. They also filled and absorbed
the child’s mind giving him or her many sides’ results due to their
creative powers.
Mother play and nursery rhymes is a small book which contains
50songs. These songs establish affectionate bond between his sense
organs and helps in the physical, mental and spiritual development of the
child. The games gave the child a sense of community as well as an
opportunity to share in cooperative activities that contributed to his or her
socialization and motor competencies. Games also built relationships and
provided a group of ideas.
6.2.4. Principles of Teaching and Learning
Froebel’s method of teaching is based on four basic principles:
i) Principle of Self Activity: According to Froebel, real development of
the child is possible only through self-activities. It gives joy, freedom,
contentment and peace. It enables the child to reveal his personality and
attain self-realization. Froebel believed that child was not to indulge in
an activity that was suggested by parents or teachers. He stresses that the
child should be given full freedom to carry out his own impulses and
decisions.
ii) Principles of Play way Method: Play is the important activity of the
childhood period when the child is free from burden. Different qualities
such as cooperation, leadership, tolerance, freedom, mutual adjustment
etc. are developed. Play is very important for proper physical, mental,
moral, motor and social development of the children.
iii) Principles of Social Participation: From the very beginning,
children should be trained to lead a group life and to live well in the
society for developing different aspects of personality. Froebel asserted
that the real education can take place in the company of others because
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the life of the individual is an integral part of the society. He believed

that all social institutions like the home, the school, the church and the
state etc. are the agencies of development of the individual wherein he is
to realize the unity in diversity.
iv) Principles of Freedom: For Froebel in good education, in genuine
instruction, in true training, necessity should call forth freedom. Full
freedom is given for the expression of activities and educational
development of a child. He should not be interfered from outside.
6.2.5. Role of the Teacher
Froebel did not ignore the status and role of teacher in educational
process. He believed that teacher as moralist substitutes for parents. For
the child, the teacher is like a pastor, prophet and priest. He is at once
guide, teacher, and administrator of a sacred ritual. Froebel believed that
person who enters into the professional of teaching has to play different
roles for the welfare of the students and society. Teacher should be
sympathetic and show kindness with his pupils. Froebel believed that
teacher’s aim must be to make of his pupils and students capable, as
independent thinkers. Teachers are expected to promote cultural
tolerance and teach students the social skills they need to get along with
one another. Over all, the teacher should undertake his responsibility in
accordance with some basic principles, that a teacher is father figure for
pupils. Briefly speaking, Froebel advocated that teacher has to perform
the different roles – instructor, designer, manager, master of content, role
model etc for the welfare of pupils.
Discipline
Froebel's concept of discipline is the same as that of Pestalozzi. Self
discipline is learned through self activities and outside interference.
Compulsion and control are avoided. Social discipline is more important
than individual discipline according to him, which is brought about
through group activities and teamwork.
Froebel was against the represessionistic discipline, he said that good
education is possible only when the children have complete freedom for
self-activity. Froebel regarded self-activity as a process of creative
development. For this purpose, he laid stress on atmosphere of freedom.
Children love to work, play, sing or dance freely. There should be no-
interference in their activities. No-activity should be thrust upon them.
They are free to spend their time in a way they like. But at the same time,
they must remain conscious about their obligations. There should be self-
control of freedom, keeping those freedoms of others in view. Froebel’s

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entire theory of discipline rests upon the notion of full freedom and free
choices.
Froebel was a pioneer of several educational theories such as natural
development, motor expression, self expression, self activity,
creativeness and social participation. His educational thoughts greatly
influenced not only the theoretical aspects of education but also on the
practical aspects of education. His thinking and practices on education
paved the way of child centered education after Rousseau and
Montessori and gave strong base for pre-school education upon which
thousands of preschool institutions are running across the world
considering the liberty and spontaneity of the child.
6.3. DEWEY
6.3.1. Educational Theories and Aims of Education
Dewey’s educational theories are based on his philosophical and
psychological ideas stated above. Till the end of the 19th century the
educational world was dominated by the religiously-motivated moral
aim, the disciplinary aim, and the informational aim. Dewey discarded all
these aims of education. He puts forward his aims of education in the
light of the rapid social and economic changes in the world particularly
in America.
Dewey does not believe in an ultimate aim of education. He provides
no fixed and final goal of education. He always speaks of immediate or
proximate aims. To him education is experience which is subject to
constant change with the changing pattern of life. The process of
education is a continuous process of adjustment. The individual has
always to adjust and re-adjust himself to the environment.
Dewey agrees to the function of education as preparation for life, if it
refers to life now and the immediate future. Pupils, he said, are not
interested in the distant or remote future. Any such attempt would not
stimulate them to learn. Education should ensure adequate preparation
for immediate life. This will encourage the pupil to learn. Dewey also
agrees with the aim of education as self-realisation of the individual.
The pupil lives, exists, grows, develops in the present world. He
should realise all his powers now. All educational efforts should be
directed to that goal. Dewey wants that each pupil’s powers and
potentialities to be developed not according to any absolute standard but
according to the pupil’s own capacities and opportunities. The pupil’s
progress is to be measured by his own best standard and not by the
standards set by others who differ in ability and temperament. Education

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is a process of growth. He says, “Education protects, sustains and directs

growth.” Teacher stimulates, fosters and strengthens this growth.
Dewey’s Ideal School
Dewey set up a model school to experiment his cherished ideas of
education and to bring the school into close touch with real life in the
University of Chicago in 1896. He painfully noticed the failure of the
existing schools to keep pace with the tremendous changes brought about
by the Industrial Revolution and the democratic ways of living in
America.
To Dewey, the school is an essential social and psychological
institution. The school is not a place where some dry knowledge is
imparted. For Dewey, the school is a place where the child learns by his
own personal experiences. Considering the school as a psychological
necessity he wanted the ideal school to be like the ideal home.
In the ideal home the parent knows what is best for his child and
provides his needs. Real-life experiences of home and community have
to be provided. Instead of a ‘listening school’ it has to be a ‘doing
school’ in which morals as well as occupational skills are acquired by
living and acting in real situation. The economic, social, political and all
other activities and problems of society should constitute the curriculum
of the school.
Dewey outlined a definite scheme of elementary education at three
stages:
(a) The play period from 4 to 8;
(b) Period of spontaneous attention from 8 to 12, and
(c) Period of reflective attention from 12 onwards.
As a social institution, the school will try to develop a social
consciousness in the child. The school is to be a representative of the
society outside it. According to Dewey, “The school is to be a reflection
of the larger society outside its walls, in which life can be learnt by
living. But it is to be a purified, simplified and better balanced society.”
Dewey considered the ideal school as an enlarged ideal home. He
liked his ideal school to be an ideal community like the family where the
pupils are engaged in common pursuits and educative experiences. “The
school, in fact, should be an enlarged family, in which discipline the
child receives more or less accidentally at home is continued in a more
perfect form with better equipment and more scientific guidance”, said
Dewey.

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Dewey’s school will be a place where moral education is provided

not in the form of separate lessons and precepts but through activities
performed jointly with others. The school must enable the child to be
aware of him and of the society. He thinks that “the best and deepest
moral training is precisely that which one gets through having to enter
into proper relations with others in a unity of work and thought.” The
school should give a clear conception to its pupils of the needs and
problems of modern life and help to solve those problems. The school
will try to enable its students to adjust with the society outside.
6.3.2. Dewey’s Conception of the Curriculum
Dewey had no faith in the traditional curriculum as it cannot fulfill
the aims of education set forth by him. He did not believe in the faculty
theory of psychology which divides the mind into different
compartments such as memory, imagination, perception, judgement etc.
He considers mind as an organic whole. So he does not like the division
of knowledge into isolated branches or special studies. The traditional
curriculum does not take into account the child’s nature and so he has
discarded it.
To Dewey, it is the child’s own activities around which the school
subjects should be organised, not around subjects like science, literature,
history, geography, etc. Dewey’s curriculum includes the “occupations”
and “association” which serve the needs of man. Subject compartments,
according to Dewey, are not necessary for children. Dewey considered
the child as a unity developing through its own activity but in a social
setting. Mind, he said, is essentially social. It was made what it is by
society and depends for its development on social agencies. It finds its
nutrient in social supplies. It is, therefore, essential that social
experiences should form the main factors of the curriculum.
Dewey says, “the beginning is made with child’s expressive
activities in dealing with the fundamental social material food, shelter,
clothing, and the direct modes of social communication like speech,
writing, reading, drawing, modelling, moulding etc. Thus the curriculum
in the primary school should be organised according to the four-fold
interests of the child in conversation, enquiry, construction and artistic
expression. The traditional curriculum included subjects as mere
information. No attempt was made to relate them to actual needs of the
child. Dewey’s curriculum is based on the actual experiences, interests
and impulses of the child. Instruction is a “continual re-construction”.
The past experiences are reconstructed in the light of the present
experiences.
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Besides, in general principles of curriculum construction, Dewey has

advised as to how to organise the curriculum. Dewey has proposed an
integrated curriculum and followed the principle of correlation in the
organisation of subjects. He says, if different subjects are taken from the
materials of day-to-day life, the subject-matter of each subject links the
present with the past and they are taught in such a way that their
usefulness in the immediate present is emphasised. Moreover, different
subjects should be naturally correlated and, therefore, they should not be
presented as distinct studies. Dewey made industrial activities and their
historical and social development the center of the curriculum and
grouped the rest of the subjects around this center.
Dewey’s scheme of curriculum also included an esthetic, religious
and moral education. For full development, Dewey considered art as
“perfected expression of basic human activity”. He also writes, “arts
represent not luxuries but fundamental forces of development.”
Similarly, Dewey wants that religious and moral education should be
made an integral part of the basic experiences of the child. He does not
want to give religious and moral education through lessons but by
practical experience. The children should develop moral interest and
insight. Morality in discipline comes through the free and purposive
judgment of the individual.
6.3.3. Dewey’s Methods of Teaching
Dewey’s methods of teaching consist of three processes:
(1) Continuance of psychological order in the curriculum;
(2) Retention of problem or project method;
(3) Extension of social opportunity.
The first is natural and, therefore, essential. The second would
enable the pupils to learn “not things but the meaning of things.” The
third would arouse social consciousness. Dewey’s methods of teaching
are based on his pragmatic philosophy. He is of opinion that direct
experience is the basis of all method. Knowledge takes place from
concrete and meaningful situations. Hence, knowledge should come from
spontaneous activities of the children. Dewey’s methods of teaching are
based on the principles of ‘learning by doing’, activities in connection
with the life of the child. In his method, what a child does is the most
important thing.
In the Project or Problem Method, which Dewey advocated, the
child’s interests and purposes are the most important things. For his

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Problem or Project Method, Dewey laid down the following five steps as
essential:
(1) The pupil should have a genuine situation of experiences;
(2) A genuine problem should arise from this situation and should
stimulate the thinking of the child;
(3) The child should obtain information or make observation(s)
needed to deal with the problem(s);
(4) The suggested solution(s) should occur to him;
(5) He should have an opportunity to test his ideas by application.
Dewey’s Conception of Democracy in Education
As regards methods, the children will actively participate in the
learning process. They will not be passive recipients of knowledge. In a
democracy, the child’s views will be honored. Discipline in a democratic
system of education will be free and through self-government in the
school.
Dewey’s Contribution to Education
Dewey was an educational thinker and organizer par excellence. He
was a great philosopher, psychologist and educationist. His influence is
far-reaching. He has contributed immensely to every aspect of education
in America as well as outside. His motto was ‘Change for the Better’. He
was more for practice than theory, more for experimentation than
speculation, more for action than thoughts. We are grateful to Dewey for
this lasting service to education. He introduced the principle of activity in
education. He intended that activity should be the basis of all teaching
and learning. He was the pioneer of the “Activity Movement” in
education. Parallel thinking of Dewey is observed in Rabindranath
Tagore and Mahatma Gandhi. Being contemporaries, they each seemed
to have been influenced by the other two.
Dewey emphasised the necessity of relating education with the
practical life of the child. Dewey laid stress on both individual and social
aspects of education. He emphasised the necessity of studying the innate
powers (capacities, impulses, interests) of the child, for his successful
education. He reconciled interest and effort.
Dewey has rightly stressed on the need to train the pupils in
cooperative activities and democratic living in their community. Training
for productive citizenship forms an integral part of education. Dewey
considered carefully and reasonably the growing forces of democracy,
science, industrialism, evolution and pragmatism. He investigated almost

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all the aspects of human life and thought such as politics, ethics,
aesthetics, logic, religion and education. He has made notable
contribution to every field of his investigation. Dewey virtually discarded
the old realm of knowledge. He brought education more into accord with
the activities of the present-day life. The attainment of social unity was
his goal. This was Dewey’s great message for school and society.
6.3.4. Teachers in Dewey’s Scheme
Dewey gives an important place to the teacher. He is a social servant.
His duty is to maintain a proper social order and to see that the children
grow in a social atmosphere. A teacher should be concerned more with
the pupil’s impulses and interests rather than the inculcation of
knowledge. His main function is to guide the young through the
complexities of life. The teacher has to help the children so that they can
adjust successfully with the contemporary conditions of life.
Dewey was a staunch advocate of freedom of children. But this
freedom has to be regulated and organised by the teacher and it should be
exercised in the interest of the society as well. The teacher is not to
impose his personality or his ideology on the child. His business is to
select the influences which should enrich the child’s experience and to
help him so that he can properly respond to such influence. He must
know the intelligence and temperament of each pupil for guidance in
desirable channel. He must realise that his own superiority in experience
and knowledge should enable the pupils to reach a stage higher than his
(teacher’s) own in the evolutionary scale. The teacher must, at the same
time, ensure that the individual and the group move in harmony, both
acquiring the best and most positive habits of growth.
The teacher’s duty is to provide the right type of physical
environment that will enrich the child’s experience, and will direct his
activities in a cooperative manner. The individual will thus develop
social attitudes, interests and habits. Thus, according to Dewey, the main
purpose of school discipline is the cultivation in the pupils of social
attitudes, interests and habits, and ideals of conduct through the conjoint
activities of the school which has been organised as a community.
6.3.5. Discipline
Even in the matters of discipline, he is to simply guide the child on
the basis of his richer experience and wider wisdom. No rigid discipline
should be imposed on the child. The teacher should encourage self-
discipline and group-discipline. The students should be trained to
maintain discipline of their own accord. It should develop from within.
Discipline from within is true discipline. Discipline is inherent in the
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child. The natural impulses of the child ought to be directed and

disciplined through the cooperative activities of the school. It is such a
discipline that will lead to character training, not the discipline that is the
result of force or imposition from outside.
6.4. MONTESSORI
6.4.1. Principles of Montessori Education
There are several Montessori principles that must be implemented
for a Montessori program to be considered authentic. Essential
Montessori principles include: respect for the child, sensitive periods, the
absorbent mind, and the prepared environment. In addition, curriculum
areas a full complement of Montessori material, and role of a teacher are
especially important for a successful Montessori program. The key
attributes of a Montessori program are explained below.
1. Respect for the Child
Respect for the child is the cornerstone on which all other
Montessori principles rest. Maria Montessori believed that all children
should be treated with respect: Children are human beings to whom
respect is due, superior to use by reason of their innocence and the
greater possibilities of their future. Therefore, respect is incorporated into
every aspect of the Montessori learning environment. Teachers show
respect for children by providing them with the opportunity to do, think,
and learn for themselves. Through freedom of choice, children are able to
develop the skills and abilities needed to become confident learners. As a
result, Montessori children are independent, and are respectful of their
environment and others.
2. The Sensitive Periods
Maria Montessori believed that children pass through specific stages
in their development when they are most willing and able to learn
specific skills and knowledge. She referred to these blocks of time as
‘sensitive periods.’ These periods can be identified through a change in
behavior, such as intense interest or repetition of an activity. To support
children’s sensitive periods for learning, the Montessori program
incorporates a three-hour work cycle. During this time, children have the
opportunity to work on activities without interruptions. As a result,
children follow their natural interests, and progress naturally. In the
Montessori classroom, the role of the teacher is to be a skilled observer
of sensitive periods. Based on these observations, the Montessori teacher
guides children towards activities and materials that are suited to their

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stage of development. In effect, this supportive creates the optimal

environment for learning.
3. The Absorbent Mind
Montessori believed that the first six years of life are crucial to the
development of the child. In her research, Montessori refers to this period
of development as the ‘absorbent mind,’ which describes the period of
time when the child’s mind readily absorbs information from the world
around them. The first phase of the absorbent mind occurs from birth to
age three, and is known as the period of ‘unconscious creation.’ During
this time, children learn to walk, talk and develop their sense of self
through experiences with their environment. From the ages of three to
six, children move into the second phase of development, known as the
‘conscious absorbent mind.’ Most significant about this period, is that
children begin to actively seek out experiences that will help them to
develop their intelligence, coordination, and independence.
4. Mixed Age Groupings
In Montessori, it is common for students to be grouped with children
within a three-year age range. This structure to the Montessori
environment encourages older children to take on leadership roles, and
for younger children to learn through imitation. In addition, mixed age
classes teach children how to engage socially with both younger and
older children. In effect, mixed age class groups lead to imitative
learning, peer tutoring, and mixed-age team work.
5. The Prepared Environment
Doctor Maria Montessori conducted extensive research into children
and their development throughout her lifetime. She determined that
children learn best in a prepared environment where they have freedom
of movement and independent choice. Consequently, Montessori
prepared environments are child-centred learning spaces that makes the
educational experience available in an orderly format. Montessori
materials are displayed in progression order from left to right within their
specific curriculum area. The goal of the Montessori classroom is to
create a harmonious learning space that encourages independent learning.
Elements of a prepared environment include: freedom, structure, order,
beauty, nature and the integration of the social and intellectual aspects of
child development.
6. The Curriculum Areas
The Montessori curriculum is divided into five key areas of learning,
including: practical life, sensorial, mathematics, language and culture.

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The curriculum emphasises that learning is a developmental process that

cannot be determined by a child’s age. As a result, the learning process is
instead viewed as a process that is determined by the rate and speed that
a child can acquire one skills or knowledge area before they progress to
the next. Find out more about the Montessori Curriculum.
7. The Montessori Materials
Montessori materials are sensory based learning tools that are
designed to teach children through hands-on experience. Especially
relevant, is that each material is designed with an inbuilt control of error.
In effect, this unique design allows children to discover the outcome of
the learning material independent of an adult. Due to the self-correcting
aspect of the materials, children are encouraged to organise their
thinking. In addition, they learn to problem solve in a clear way, and
absorb the outcome of the material, under the careful guidance of their
teachers.
8. The Role of the Teacher
Montessori teachers are not the centre of attention in the classroom.
Rather, their role centres on the preparation of learning materials to meet
the needs and interests of the children in their class. Essentially, the focus
is on children learning, not on teachers teaching. Montessori believed
that the teacher should focus on the child as a person, rather than on the
daily lesson plan. Although the Montessori teacher plans daily lessons
for each child, they must be alert to changes in the child’s interest,
progress, mood, and behaviour. Maria Montessori believed: “It is
necessary for the teacher to guide the child without letting him feel her
presence too much, so that she may be always ready to supply the desired
help, but may never be the obstacle between the child and his
experience.”
The Montessori education approach is now being successfully
employed among preschools and elementary schools in nearly every
country of the world. Its principles are relevant for all preschool kids
irrelevant of their abilities and special needs. At Montessori Academy,
we believe that education is an aid and a preparation for life. Our
Curriculum is based on Doctor Maria Montessori’s findings about the
key developmental stages children move through from birth to age six.
6.4.2. Montessori Curriculum
The Montessori Curriculum is an innovative learning framework that
incorporates specific learning outcomes and knowledge skills that align
with children’s developmental needs and interests. It is divided into key

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areas of learning: practical life, sensorial, language, mathematics, culture,

science, art and music enrichment activities. As children progress
through the Montessori Curriculum, they encounter more challenging
learning materials that are appropriate to both age and skill levels. In this
way, the Montessori Curriculum emphasises learning as a process that
cannot be determined by a child’s age.
1. Practical Life
Practical life activities help children learn how to care for themselves
and their environment. These activities help the child to become more
independent, leading to greater self-confidence, and the ability to face
new challenges. Practical Life exercises include lessons in grace and
courtesy, care for self, and care for the environment. The purpose of
these activities is to enhance co-ordination, concentration, independence,
and indirectly prepare children for writing and reading. Activities often
include cleaning, food preparation, polishing and watering plants.
2. Sensorial
Sensorial materials were designed by Doctor Maria Montessori to
help children express and classify their sensory experiences. The purpose
of sensorial activities is to aid in the development of the intellectual
senses of the child, which develops the ability to observe and compare
with precision. There are sensorial materials that focus on visual
perception, tactile impressions, auditory sense and taste perceptions.
Activities often include matching and grading materials that isolate the
sense of sight, sound, touch, taste and smell.
3. Language
Language materials are designed to enhance vocabulary and explore
both written and spoken language. Through language-based activities,
such as the sandpaper letters and the moveable alphabet, children learn
phonetic sounds and how to compose words phonetically. They progress
using concrete materials to compose their own written work, read the
work of others, and learn to communicate their unique thoughts and
feelings.
4. Mathematics
Mathematical concepts are introduced to the child using concrete
sensorial materials. Initial explorations with sensorial materials
encourage children to understand basic maths concepts such as learning
number recognition, counting and sequencing of numbers. Sensorial
work prepares the child for a more formal introduction to mathematics,

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and the introduction of abstract mathematical concepts such as the

decimal system and mathematical operations.
5. Culture
Cultural activities lead the child to experience music, stories, artwork
and items from the child’s community, society and cultural background.
The areas of geography, science, zoology and botany are all included in
this area. A range of globes, puzzle maps and folders containing pictures
from different countries all help to give the child an insight into different
cultures. The culture area encourages children to develop their capacity
for creation, and develop fine motor skills. Whilst learning to freely
express themselves. Through cultural activities, children develop an
awareness and appreciation of the world around them.
6. Science
Botany activities are child-centered using live plants, seedlings,
flowers, and fruits to help them develop an appreciation for the delicate
balance of nature. Zoology activities develop the children's fascination
with animals and teach them to respect animals' needs and habits. The
scientific activities are a fun way to develop skills of predicting and
analyzing.
7. Art
Art is an area where the students can freely express themselves
through the use of many materials. Art appreciation is also a part of the
curriculum. The children will be introduced to different artists and
various mediums of art.
8. Music Enrichment Activities
Music and singing are part of the scheduled activities to help the
child develop an appreciation for sounds and melody.
6.4.3. Teaching Method
There are no text books, and seldom will two or more children be
studying the same thing at the same time. Children learn directly from
the environment, and from other children—rather than from the teacher.
The teacher is trained to teach one child at a time, with a few small
groups and almost no lessons given to the whole class. She is facile in the
basic lessons of math, language, the arts and sciences, and in guiding a
child's research and exploration, capitalizing on interests and excitement
about a subject. Large groups occur only in the beginning of a new class,
or in the beginning of the school year, and are phased out as the children
gain independence. The child is scientifically observed, observations
recorded and studied by the teacher. Children learn from what they are
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studying individually, but also from the amazing variety of work that is
going on around them during the day.
Montessori Education
Montessori is a method of education that is based on self-directed
activity, hands-on learning and collaborative play. In Montessori
classrooms children make creative choices in their learning, while the
classroom and the teacher offer age-appropriate activities to guide the
process. Children work in groups and individually to discover and
explore knowledge of the world and to develop their maximum potential.
Montessori classrooms are beautifully crafted environments designed
to meet the needs of children in a specific age range. Dr. Maria
Montessori discovered that experiential learning in this type of classroom
led to a deeper understanding of language, mathematics, science, music,
social interactions and much more. Most Montessori classrooms are
secular in nature, although the Montessori educational method can be
integrated successfully into a faith-based program.
Every material in a Montessori classroom supports an aspect of child
development, creating a match between the child’s natural interests and
the available activities. Children can learn through their own experience
and at their own pace. They can respond at any moment to the natural
curiosities that exist in all humans and build a solid foundation for life-
long learning.
The Association Montessori Internationale (AMI) was established by
Maria Montessori in 1929 to protect the integrity of her work and to
support high standards for both teacher training and schools. Today, AMI
continues to uphold Maria Montessori’s vision while collaborating with
contemporary research in neuroscience and child development.
Montessori Northwest is proud to be an official teacher training center of
AMI.
Learning of Children
Montessori environments support the learning of children from birth
to middle school:
Infant/Toddler
for children aged birth to three years;
 provide a safe, engaging and nurturing environment for the
child.
 promote trust in themselves and their world.
 develop confidence in their emerging abilities.

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 develop gross motor coordination, fine motor skills, and

language skills.
 offer opportunities to gain independence in daily tasks.
Primary (Also Called the Casa or Children’s House)
for children aged three to six years;
 foster the growth of functional independence, task persistence
and self-regulation.
 promote social development through respectful, clear
communication and safe, natural consequences.
 contain a large variety of materials for the refinement of sensory
perception and the development of literacy and mathematical
understanding.
 offer opportunities for imaginative exploration leading to
confident, creative self-expression.
Elementary
for children aged six to twelve years (Lower Elementary, ages six to
nine; Upper Elementary, ages nine to twelve);
 offer opportunities for collaborative intellectual exploration in
which the child’s interests are supported and guided.
 support the development of self-confidence, imagination,
intellectual independence and self-efficacy.
 foster an understanding of the child’s role in their community, in
their culture and in the natural world.
Adolescence (Also Called Erdkinder or Farm Schools)
for adolescents aged twelve to fifteen years;
 ideally a working farm in which adolescents engage in all
aspects of farm administration and economic interdependence,
but also include non-farm environments in urban settings.
 assist the young adult in the understanding of oneself in wider
and wider frames of reference.
 provide a context for practical application of academics.
 emphasize the development of self-expression, true self-reliance,
and agility in interpersonal relationships.
 Dr. Montessori died before the educational approach to this level
was completed. Consequently, there is currently no AMI teacher
training program for this level. However, many Montessori

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adolescent learning environments exist, with Montessori

professionals working towards standards for this level.
Above all, Montessori classrooms at all levels nurture each child’s
individual strengths and interests. Montessori education encourages
children to explore their world, and to understand and respect the life
forms, systems and forces of which it consists.
6.4.4. Teachers’ Role
In Montessori education we believe in the importance of three
things, that all work together: the child, teacher, and materials, where
each part is important. We believe that each child has many gifts and
talents to be discovered, and not that a child is an empty container
waiting to be filled up by the teacher. The teacher is an observer,
follower, and guide bringing wisdom, thoughtfulness, and experience to
the child's academic, social, and intellectual exploration. The Montessori
approach demands special professionals who are confident and skilled
enough to allow children to be active participants in their learning. It also
means that all school decisions are driven by what is best for the child.
The authentic and beautiful Montessori materials provide activities that
are cherished by the children and that help them learn with joy and
understanding.
The teacher establishes guidelines for work and behavior, showing
children how to be successful within the structure of the curriculum and
the community. As a result, a pattern of good work habits and a sense of
responsibility and cooperation are established in the classroom. The
teacher thoughtfully prepares a classroom environment with materials
and activities that meet his students’ unique interests, academic level,
and developmental needs. These he introduces to each child sequentially,
laying the foundation for independent learning.
Always, the teacher is aware of each student’s progress as she works
toward mastering the particular concept or skill. He knows when to step
in to offer special guidance, and when to challenge a student with the
next step in a learning sequence.
Mentor, Model, and Guide: Montessori education addresses the whole
child: his physical, social, emotional, and cognitive growth. As well as
helping each child become an independent learner, the teacher helps turn
his attention outward, fostering community, collaboration, and respect
for the dignity of others.
Skilled Observer: Through careful observation, the Montessori teacher
comes to know each student’s interests, learning style, and temperament.

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He understands the student’s developmental needs, and is receptive to

her “sensitive periods,” when she is most ready to learn a new concept or
skill.
With this information the teacher chooses materials and lessons that
will capture the student’s attention and entice her to learn. When he
observes that the student has mastered a concept or skill, he introduces
new lessons that become increasingly complex and abstract.
Creative Facilitator: The teacher serves as a resource as students go
about their work. She offers encouragement, shares their triumphs, and
steers them to greater understanding. She helps them advance through the
curriculum as they master new skills, so they are continually challenged
and eager to learn. As students progress, the teacher modifies the
classroom environment, adjusting the learning materials to meet the
students’ changing needs.
Character Builder: A Montessori class is a close-knit community,
fertile ground for nurturing the qualities that help children and youth
become citizens of the world and stewards of the planet. By his own
behavior and attitudes, the teacher models values such as empathy,
compassion, and acceptance of individual differences. He encourages the
students to be courteous and kind. And he brings students together in
collaborative activities to foster teamwork, responsibility, self-discipline,
and respect.
A Rewarding Career: The Montessori classroom is a place of
discovery, often as much for the teacher as for her students. It’s not hard
to imagine how, in the spirit of inquiry, the curriculum sometimes takes
an unexpected turn. For Montessori teachers, that’s part of the pleasure.
Like their students, Montessori teachers delight in the challenge of new
ideas and experiences; they are enthusiastic learners with a passion for
life. In the course of helping children become lifelong learners,
Montessori teachers enjoy a personal journey of continued discovery and
growth.
6.5. SWAMI VIVEKANANADA
Swami Vivekananda (12 January 1863 – 4 July 1902), born
Narendranath Datta was an Indian Hindu monk, a chief disciple of the
19th-century Indian mystic Ramakrishna. He was a key figure in the
introduction of the Indian philosophies of Vedanta and Yoga to the
Western world and is credited with raising interfaith awareness, bringing
Hinduism to the status of a major world religion during the late 19th
century. He was a major force in the revival of Hinduism in India, and
contributed to the concept of nationalism in colonial India. Vivekananda
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founded the Ramakrishna Math and the Ramakrishna Mission. He is

perhaps best known for his speech which began, "Sisters and brothers of
America ...," in which he introduced Hinduism at the Parliament of the
World's Religions in Chicago in 1893.
Born into an aristocratic Bengali Kayastha family of Calcutta,
Vivekananda was inclined towards spirituality. He was influenced by his
guru, Ramakrishna, from whom he learnt that all living beings were an
embodiment of the divine self; therefore, service to God could be
rendered by service to mankind. After Ramakrishna's death,
Vivekananda toured the Indian subcontinent extensively and acquired
first-hand knowledge of the conditions prevailing in British India. He
later travelled to the United States, representing India at the 1893
Parliament of the World's Religions. Vivekananda conducted hundreds of
public and private lectures and classes, disseminating tenets of Hindu
philosophy in the United States, England and Europe. In India,
Vivekananda is regarded as a patriotic saint and his birthday is celebrated
there as National Youth Day.
6.5.1. Principles of Teaching and Learning: Man-Making Education
Swamiji does not accept information as education. He advocates a
type of education, which is man-making, life-building and character-
formation. Education should also help in the development of originality.
It should unfold all the hidden powers in man. A child should learn to
accept pleasure and pain, misery and happiness as equal factors in the
formation of character. Man-making education is inherent in character
development as well as vocational development. What India needs today
is character and strengthening of the will. This can be achieved through
man-making education.
Man-making education also brings out the significance of the famous
words said by Vivekananda at the World Parliament of Religions held in
1893 at Chicago. These were, “HELP, ASSIMILATION, HARMONY
and PEACE”. Accordingly education should develop these qualities in
man.
Man-making education includes physical and health education. He
was also greatly concerned about the proper care of the body and the
healthy development of one’s physique. He urged, “Be strong my young
friends, that is my advice to you. You will be nearer to heaven through
football, than through the ‘Gita’. These are bold words but I have to say
them to you. I know where the shoe pinches. You will understand the
‘Gita’ better, your biceps, your muscles a little stronger”. He emphasized
repeatedly, “Strength is goodness. Weakness is sin”.
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Following are the chief elements of man-making concept for which

education should be directed to:
i. An individual must fully understand the Vedant philosophy,
which considers that the ultimate goal of human life is to attain
Unity with the creator.
ii. Development of the spirit of service to the fellow beings, since
service to man is equated with devotion to God.
iii. Development of a respectful attitude for all religions. Essential
elements of all religions are the same. No religion is inferior to
other religion.
iv. The concept wants man to imbibe love for all and hatred for
none.
v. Attainment of knowledge of science and spirituality.
vi. Development of a rational attitude in life without the cultural
boundaries of East and the West.
vii. Attainment of social equality.
viii. Development of such individual who are ethically sound,
intellectually sharp, physically strong, religiously liberal,
socially efficient, spiritually enlightened and vocationally self-
sufficient.
Swami Vivekananda’s views on education may be summed up in his
own words, “We want that education by which character is formed,
strength of mind is increased, the intellect is expanded and by which one
stands on one’s own feet”.
Swamiji’s contribution may be summed up as under:
i. He laid stress on character development education.
ii. He advocated education of masses which implies adult education
and free and compulsory education regardless of caste, creed or
colour.
iii. He revived the spirit of humanism in education.
iv. He insisted that it was the duty of the upper classes, who had
received their education at the expense of the poor, to come
forward and uplift the poor through education and other means.
v. He considered education of women as the chief instrument of
national regeneration.

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6.5.2. Curriculum
Swamiji did not specify any subjects to form the content of
education- it was a broad approach a sort of synthesis between Science
and Vedanta. He opined that it cannot be purely western. Curriculum
should be constructed with a view to promote leadership qualities in the
growing generation. Swamiji advocates that education should develop
patriotism and freedom. For achieving this curriculum should provide for
the following three things:
a. Love for the motherland
b. A strong will to desist evil and
c. Steadfastness in achieving the desired goal.
Physical education is one of the important items Vivekananda
wanted to include in curriculum. He advocated that a person who is
physically strong can realize the self. He wanted Indian students to learn
their own languages particularly Sanskrit and English to keep with the
current times. He was in favour of the study of Vedanta, Religion,
Philosophy and Theology. He also wanted science, engineering and
technical subjects. And above all, he wanted that the curriculum should
suit the needs and requirements of the masses.
A. The Subject-Centred Curriculum
One of the time-honoured criticisms of the traditional curriculum and
the curriculum as organized knowledge is that they do not teach the
processes by which the discipline is discovered, communicated, applied
and so on. The recent emphasis upon the mental processes associated
with a subject differs from its forerunners in its tacit assumption that
lower level skills have to be learned before those at a higher level.
Problem-solving is the apex of the cognitive activity. Through these
procedures it can be seen that students are acting upon knowledge rather
than being its passive recipients.
B. Student-Centred Curricula
Student-centred curricula are the results of attempts to individualize
the content, sequence and processes of learning. By doing so, the
methods and assumptions in constructing curricula become more explicit
and may they become part of the curriculum. The curriculum is
something designed by the teachers for the students rather than
something designed in co-operation with the students. Several attempts
have been made to devise curricula which are more student-centred than
subject-centred. In some cases, the student, with careful tutorial advice,

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is expected to organize his own programme of study to suit his interests

and needs.
Another approach is to place the emphasis not so much on subject
matter or learning methods as on the development of psychological
processes. In such courses, the aim is not only to develop high level
cognitive skills such as creativity, originality, problem-solving,
communicating, and decision-making; but affective qualities such as
valuing, caring, co-operation, commitment and the development of
personal relationships. The framework of a syllabus necessarily reflects
the perceptions of the individuals who design it. It will also be
interpreted differently by the teacher. The so-called 'facts' of an academic
syllabus are therefore not impartial. This has significantly implications
for interdisciplinary courses. It is necessary to construct curricula which
may vary for the specific needs of individual students. Thus the whole
conception of a fixed course designed by teachers may be modified.
What becomes more important when the curriculum varies for each
individual is the style of the learning methods used; and it is to basically
relate to the issue of content and process in teaching learning situation to
which we turn now.
6.5.3. Teaching Methods
Swamiji laid stress on meditation as a method of attaining
knowledge. He advocates that since the human mind is perfect in itself,
there is no necessity for it to receive knowledge from outside. Hence
learning is nothing but a process of discovery of knowledge within the
mind. However he has suggested following methods of teaching to be
followed in a teaching learning situation.
Concentration Methods: Swamiji considers concentration as the only
method of attaining knowledge. It is the key to the treasure house of
knowledge. Concentration method helps the child to withdraw his
different senses from temptations of life, and concentrate on the subject
matter of instruction. He believed that Brahmacharya is necessary for
developing the power of concentration. He said, “Brahmacharya should
be the burning fire within the veins”.
Methods of Realization: Vivekananda considers realization as the chief
aim of life. He advocated Yoga as the most ideal method of realization.
Yogas are four in number. 1. Karma Yoga, 2. Bhakti Yoga, 3. Raja Yoga
and 4. Jnana Yoga. The scope of all these Yogas is one and the same –
removal of ignorance and enabling the soul to restore its original nature.

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Discussion and Contemplation Method: Borrowing the idea from

ancient Indian gurukula system of education Vivekananda also advocated
discussion and contemplation to be followed in education.
Imitation Method: Children like to imitate the activities of others.
Vivekananda, therefore, advocated utilizing such qualities of children for
educational purposes. A teacher should present higher ideals and nobler
patterns of behavior before the children to help them to imitate such
activities for the formation of their character and personality.
Individual Guidance and Counselling: Vivekananda advocated the
method of individual guidance and counselling in the teaching learning
process to develop divine wisdom.
Lecture Method: Spiritual ideas are abstract ideas. It becomes difficult
on the part of a child to understand spiritual doctrines. Therefore
Vivekananda advocated for the introduction of lecture method to explain
the spiritual ideas in a simple way to the students.
Activity Method: Swamiji accepted learning through activities as an
ideal method of teaching. It can provide direct experience to the children.
He advocated that activities like singing, storytelling, drama and dance
should be performed by the students. He also advocated for the
introduction of activities like excursions, camps etc., to help the students
to understand the value of social service.
Direct and Indirect
Direct instruction is the most commonly known and used method of
instruction. Learning by the student is put on the shoulders of the teacher
with less responsibility put on the shoulders of the students. A teacher
who uses direct instruction might start his or her class by saying “please
open your books to page 63.”
An old adage says: "Tell me and I forget, show me and I remember,
involve me and I understand." The teaching of concepts, inquiry, and
problem solving are different forms of indirect instruction that actively
involve learners in seeking resolutions to questions and issues while they
construct new knowledge. Indirect instruction is an approach to teaching
and learning in which (i) the process is inquiry, (ii) the content involves
concepts, and (iii) the context is a problem.
6.5.4. Role of Teacher
Vivekananda advocates that the nature of human mind is such that,
“no one ever really is taught by another. Each of us has to be teacher
himself”. Within man is all knowledge and it requires only an awakening
and that much is the work of the teacher. They have to do only so much

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for the students that they may learn to apply their own intellect to the
proper use of their hands, legs, ears, eyes etc., and finally everything will
become easy. He said, “Like fire in a piece of flint, knowledge exists in
the mind: suggestion is the friction which brings it out”. He wants that a
teacher should be like a father, who will give the students their spiritual
birth and show them the way to eternal life. He should initiate the
students to practice the essential virtues of brahmacharya and shraddha.
To quote Swamiji, “true teacher is he who can immediately come down
to the level of the students and transfer his soul to the students’ soul”.
Vivekananda has a great appreciation for the ‘Gurugriha Vasa’. True
education is only possible through intimate personal contact between the
teacher and the taught. He states that, “My idea of education is personal
contact with the teacher – ‘gurugraha vasa’. Without the personal contact
of a teacher, there would be no education”. Swamiji advocates that the
teacher should possess the following qualities.
 A teacher must be a tyagi or a man of renunciation.
 He should act like a substitute of the parents for the students. He
should have personal love for the students, which will help him
to transmit spiritual force.
 He should come down to the level of the students and should
have sympathy for his students.
 He should have very high character and should be sinless.
 He must be pure in mind and heart.
Discipline
According to Vivekananda discipline is an important aspect of a
person’s character. He believed that teaching a child or disciplining him
from outside is only a myth. We cannot see outside what we are not
inside. Whatever we are comes from disciplining our mind and body. He
wants each of us to teach ourselves. The external teacher offers
suggestions and the internal teacher starts working. Undue domination
and excessive authority would only stunt the natural growth of a child.
He said, “If you don’t allow a child to become a lion, he will become a
fox”. Do’s and don’ts’ have to be reduced and the right environment
must be created.
An individual’s good character is said to be established when he is
completely under the influence of the good tendencies. Instead of trying
to discipline the child the teacher can set an example with his own life.
Children imbibe more from the teacher’s own than they do from books
and lectures. Discipline therefore, is to be caught rather than taught.
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Vivekananda was a great educationalist and he revolutionized

almost the entire field of education. His educational views were
immensely influenced by the eternal truths of Vedanta. He inspired the
millions of Indian youths by his revolutionary ideas of education. He
gave the clarion call, “Arise, awake and stop not till the goal is reached”.
He infused a new spirit in the national blood. He strongly advocated
national education on national lines and based on national cultural
tradition.
His great contributions in the field of education include self-
knowledge, self-reliance, concentration, universal mass education,
women’s education, physical education, man-making education,
character-building education, education through the medium of mother-
tongue, religious and moral education, value education, selfless dedicated
teachers etc. The teachings of Swamiji are of great importance in the
reorganization of our present system of education.
6.6. RABINDRANANTH TAGORE
The myriad minded genius and Asia’s first Nobel Laureate,
Rabindranath Tagore is the philosopher who imprinted some thought
providing ideas on my mind. Tagore was born on 7th may 1861 in
Calcutta as the fourteenth son of Maharishi Devendranath. He had early
education at home by a tutor. He attended University College in London,
but returned before completing his studies. He developed taste for
English literature and he was only twenty when his first collection of
poems was published. His writings include more than one thousand
poems and two thousand songs in addition to a large number of novels,
short stories, dramas and philosophical tests. It was at the age of forty
that he started a school of his own in Bengal. In this school he gave name
and local habitation to his dynamic idealism. The school known as
Shantiniketan Ashram, became in 1921 the world famous Vishwaharati a
seat of International University seeking to develop a basis on which the
culture of the east and west may meet in common fellowship.
In 1909 his world famous work Gitanjali was published and he went
to England in1912 with it. Next year he was awarded the Nobel Prize for
Literature. The Calcutta and the oxford university’s conferring honored
him by conferring on him the honorary degree of doctorate. He made
notable contributions to religious and educational thought, politics and
social reform, moral regeneration and economic reconstruction. Thus
Gurudev, the poet Laureate of India, a great thinker, philosopher and a
teacher, staunch patriot, and above all a noble heart who lived the whole
humanity- a perfect man the bard of Bengal died on 7th August, 1941.
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6.6.1. Educational View

Rabindranath Tagore was primarily an educationist rather than a
political thinker. He put emphasis on 'naturalism' for framing educational
model. In education, freedom is the basic guiding force for inculcating
interest within a student who will derive inspiration from nature to
pursue any branch of knowledge he likes. The establishment of
Shantiniketan fulfilled the desired goal of Tagore in the educational
front.
1. Unity of West and East:
Tagore's education marked a novel blending of the ideas of the East
and West. The spiritualism of Indian philosophy and progressive outlook
of the western people were blended together to give rise to an
educational philosophy which marked its distinction in comparison to
other educationists of India.
2. Natural growth in natural circumstance:
Tagore envisaged that nature is the best teacher to the pupil. Nature
will provide the student with necessary situation to earn knowledge. No
pressure should be exerted upon the student to learn anything. It is nature
which will be the guiding force to inculcate the spirit of learning in the
mind of a student to pursue the education he likes. It will shape his
behavior and character.
3. Goodbye to book-centered education:
For the first time in the arena of education, Tagore established a new
mile-stone. With boldness and firmness, he rejected a book-centered
education for students. To him it is not just to confine the mind of boys
and girls to text-books only. It will kill the natural instincts of a student
and make him bookish. It will kill his creative skill. So, students should
be freed from the-book-centered education and should be given a broader
avenue for learning.
4. Freedom to learner:
Tagore had championed the cause of freedom. The same he wanted
to implement in the field of education. With that object he had opened
Shantiniketan, Sri Niketan and Brahmachari Ashram. Accordingly, he
gave free choice to students to develop their interest in any field they
like. To him, education should be after the heart of a man. He explained
freedom in three-categorized ways i.e. freedom of heart, freedom of
intellect and freedom of will. Education imparted in a natural way will
lead to the fulfillment of these three freedoms. One may pursue the

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vocational education or education of an intellect, or education in any

branch of the arts or one may become a sansei by observing celibacy.
5. Teaching - practical and real:
According to Tagore, teaching should be practical and real but not
artificial and theoretical. As a naturalist out and out, Tagore laid
emphasis on the practicality of education. That will definitely increase
the creative skill within a learner. That creativity will bring perfection in
the learning process and the student will be a master in his own field but
not a slave to mere theoretical knowledge which one delves deep.
6. Palace of fine arts (dance, drama, music, poetry etc.):
Tagore attached great importance to the fine arts in his educational
curriculum. To him, game, dance, music, drama, painting etc. should
form a part of educational process. Students should take active part in
these finer aspects of human life for these are very essential to enrich
soul.
In his words, Speaking is for mankind and music for nature speaking
is clear and limited by its needs; whereas music is mystic and expressive
for a romantic eagerness. That is why; speaking creates nearness between
man and man, while music helps us to identify ourselves with nature.
When the harmonies of sounds are released with our expression then
speaking loses much of its limited significance, but on the contrary
getting together of the two muses had an all pervading character.
7. Education for rural reconstruction:
Tagore was aware about the rural poverty of our country. So, he
wanted to eradicate it through education. The practical training imparted
in different crafts to the students will make them skilled artisans in their
field. They can remove the poverty of the rural bulk by applying their
education helping thereby in the process of rural reconstruction.
Aims of Education
The aims of education as reflected in educational institution founded
by Rabindranath Tagore in Santiniketan are as follows:
(1) Self Realization:
Spiritualism is the essence of humanism; this concept has been
reflected in Tagore's educational philosophy. Self-realization is an
important aim of education. Manifestation of personality depends upon
the self-realization and spiritual knowledge of individual.

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(2) Intellectual Development:

Tagore also greatly emphasized the intellectual development of the
child. By intellectual development he means development of
imagination, creative free thinking, constant curiosity and alertness of the
mind. Child should be free to adopt his own way learning which will lead
to all round development.
(3) Physical Development:
Tagore's educational philosophy also aims at the physical
development of the child. He gave much importance to sound and
healthy physique. There were different kinds of exercises. Yoga, games
and sports prescribed in Santiniketan as an integral part of the education
system.
(4) Love for Humanity:
Tagore held that the entire universe is one family. Education can
teach people to realize oneness of the globe. Education for international
understanding and universal brotherhood is another important aim of his
educational philosophy. The feeling of oneness can be developed through
the concepts like fatherhood of God and brotherhood of man all creatures
are equal on this earth.
(5) Establishment of relationship between Man and God:
Man bears the diverse qualities and potentialities offered by God.
These qualities are inborn and innate. The relationship between man and
God is strong and permanent. However the dedication to spiritualism and
sacredness will lead to the harmonious relationship with man, nature and
God.
(6) Freedom:
Freedom is considered as an integral aspect of human development.
Education is a man-making process, it explores the innate power exists
within the man. It is not an imposition rather a liberal process their
provides utmost freedom to the individual for his all-round development.
He says, Education has learning only when it is imparted through the
path of freedom".
(7) Co-relation of Objects:
Co-relation exists with God, man and nature. A peaceful world is
only possible when correlation between man and nature will be
established.

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(8) Mother Tongue as the Medium of Instruction:

Language is the true vehicle of self-expression. Man can freely
express his thought in his mother-tongue. Tagore has emphasized mother
tongue as the medium of instruction for the child's education.
(9) Moral and Spiritual Development:
Tagore emphasized moral and spiritual training in his educational
thought. Moral and spiritual education is more important than bookish
knowledge for an integral development of human personality. There
must be an adequate provision for the development of selfless activities,
co-operation and love fellow feeling and sharing among the students in
educational institutions.
(10) Social Development:
According to Tagore, "Brahma" the supreme soul manifests himself
through men and other creatures. Since he is the source of all human-
beings and creatures, so all are equal. Rabindranath Tagore therefore
said, "service to man is service to god". All should develop social
relationship and fellow-feeling from the beginnings of one's life.
Education aims at developing the individual personality as well as social
characters which enables him to live as a worthy being.
Tagore’s Contribution to Modern Education
Tagore was fully dissatisfied with the prevalent system of education
at that time and called the schools as factories of role learning. Then he
advocated the principle of freedom for an effective education. He said
that the children should be given freedom so that they are able to grow
and develop as per their own wishes. A man through the process of
education should be able to come out as a harmonious individual in time
with his social set-up of life. He suggested creative self-expression
through craft, music, drawing and drama.
Tagore’s major contribution to modern education is the
establishment of shantinikethan at Bolepur, in 1901. The school which
was modeled on the ancient ashrams grew into a world university called
Viswa Bharati. It is an abode of peace where teachers and students live
together in a spirit of perfect comradeship. The motto of the institution is
where the whole world forms its one single nest. It has open spaces and
atmosphere of freedom surrounded by natural environment. It is open to,
all irrespective of country, race, religion, or politics. It is centered on
simple living and high thinking and has spiritual and religious
atmosphere.

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Tagore advocated teaching while talking as the best method and

stressed on tours and excursions. He supported teaching and learning
through debates and discussions which develop the power of clear-cut
thinking. He adopted activity method which makes the learner physically
sound. He also held heuristic method where the student is in the position
of a discoverer. He stressed on free environment which makes learner
self- disciplined.
In Tagore’ philosophy of education, the aesthetic development of the
sense was us important as the intellectual; and music; literature; art, and
dance were given great prominence in the daily life of the school.
Santhiniketan and Viswa Bharathi
As an alternative to the existing forms of education, he started A
small School of education in 1901. Later this school was developed into
a university and rural reconstruction centre, known as Viswa Bharati,
where he tried to develop an alternative model of education that stemmed
from his own learning experience. Students at Santhiniketan were
encouraged to create their own publications and put out several
illustrated magazines. The children were encouraged to follow their ideas
in painting and drawing and to draw inspirations from the many visiting
artists and writers. The main characteristics of the Santhiniketan School
are the following.
i) It is a community school where there is no distinction of caste
and creed.
ii) Co-educational and residential institution.
iii) It is a self governing institution – has a dairy farm, post office,
hospital and workshop.
iv) It is based on the concept of freedom of the mind.
v) Mother tongue is the medium of instruction.
vi) It is studied in natural surroundings and it provides for manual
labor.
vii) There is well- equipped library.
Rabindranath Tagore envisioned as a learning centre where
conflicting interests are minimized, where individuals work together in
common pursuit of truth and realize that artists in all parts of the world
have created forms of beauty, scientists discovered the secrets of the
universe, philosophers solved the problems of existence, saints made the
truth of the spiritual world organic in their own lives, not merely for
some particular race to which they belong, but for all mankind.
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6.6.2. R.N. Tagore’s Curriculum:

Tagore was dead against the prevailing British system of education
which was life-less, monotonous, listless, useless, colourless, lop-sided,
purely academic, and dissociated from the life-line of the society. In his
scheme of education he has struck a balance between the education of the
nature and education of man, and between the culture of east and west
(oriental and occidental culture), His curriculum was flexible, dynamic
and child-centred and aimed at development of personality in all its
aspects.
He emphasized a list of subjects, albeit, he did not favour book
learning and he wanted the best book was the ‘Nature’ where the child
would get adequate knowledge. He favoured the study of mother-tongue
and at the higher level of education; he favoured learning of English to
know the treasure of knowledge in the fields of culture, literature and
science. He also suggested the study of world history, culture of India,
literature, geography, science etc. Besides he suggested the following
activities for the promotion of aesthetic and emotional faculties. They are
music, fine arts, painting, drawing, dance, dramatics, and crafts like
book-binding, carpentry, weaving, serving, gardening etc.
Moreover, Tagore stressed upon community living and community
services for the realization of truth from the standpoint of spiritual
development. To sum up, his curricular framework emphasized subjects,
activities and services.
6.6.3. Method of Education
(1) Teaching through Tours and Trips:
Tagore believed that the subjects like history, geography, economics
and other social sciences can be effectively taught through excursions
and tours to important spots. By this students will get an opportunity to
observe numerous facts and gain first-hand knowledge through direct
experience.
(2) Learning by activities:
Rabindranath Tagore said that for the development of child's body
and mind, learning through activity is essential. Therefore he included
activities like climbing tree, drama, jumping, plucking fruits, dancing etc.
in his educational programs.

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(3) Narration-cum-discussion and debate method:

Narration-cum-discussion and debating activities were organized
Tagore's education center to develop oratory abilities of the students.
Students were encouraged to solve problems of various areas through
rational debate and thorough discussion.
(4) Heuristic Method
Rabindranath Tagore introduced heuristic method as an important
method of teaching in his educational institution. In this method first, the
students, are asked questions to clarify their doubts on topics and
teachers try to satisfy them by their correct answers. Then the teacher
asks the questions to students to evaluate how far the students are able to
comprehend the topic discussed in the class.
6.6.4. Tagore’s concept of a Teacher
In Tagore’s educational philosophy we observe the infusion of
traditionalism and modernism, orientalism as well as western thought.
His concept of a teacher was not an exception to the very fact. On the
one hand he wanted the ‘guru’ to be an ideal and authority for his
disciples, on the other hand he wanted a teacher to be a stage - setter or
facilitator as the modern educationalist also suggest. A teacher according
to Tagore’s concept is continuously a learner who is dynamic in his
efforts to know the unknown and to let it be known to others.
Ravindranath condemn any teacher who had lost the desire to know
and learn and only mechanically repeated his lessons. He said, “if the
teacher does not himself posses learning how can he impact to be
others?. The teacher, who merely repeats bookish information
mechanically, can never teach anything and can never inspire, and
without proper inspiration independent creative faculties can never
develop”. Thus, Ravindranath offered a highly dignified and responsible
role to teachers.
Relevance of Tagore’s Educational Thoughts in Indian Education
Rabindranath Tagore, by his efforts and achievements, is part of a
global network of pioneering educators such as Rousseau, Pestalozzi,
Frobel, Montessori, Dewey and in the contemporary context, Malcolm
Knowles. Although Tagore is a superb representative of his country the
man who wrote its national anthem, he is truly a man of the whole earth,
a product of the best of both traditional Indian and modern western
cultures. The core of Tagore’s educational philosophy was learning from
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nature, music and life. He created Shantiniketan to realize his educational

ideals. This is the reason why his education is easily acceptable by
human mind. Tagore extended the meaning and functional importance of
certain aspects of personality as nobody else had done before him. The
ideal educator must combine in himself the gifts of a philosopher, a poet,
a mystic, a social reformer, a scientist and a veritable man of action can
he has to take into account all types of men and their aspirations, all
facets of the human personality, all levels man’s experience, all fields of
endeavor and achievement.
6.7. JIDDU KRISHNAMURTHY
J. Krishnamurti believes that education helps in discovering the
significance of life. He said, “All may be highly educated, but if we are
without deep integration of thought and feeling, our lives are incomplete,
contradictory and torn with many fears; and as long as education does
not cultivate an integrated outlook on life, it has very little significance.”
For him to understand life is to understand ourselves and that is both the
beginning and the end of education.
J. Krishnamurti said, "So we are saying the brain has an
extraordinary capacity but that brain has been restricted, narrowed down
by our education, our self interest".
The Aims and Philosophy
The teachings of J. Krishnamoorthy, (JK) as he is affectionately
called by his admirers, rings with the immemorial dictum of the Delphic
oracle: Know thyself. The first and foremost aim of education, according
to JK, is self-knowledge, an integrated understanding of the whole of our
self which leads to an integrated human being. The second aim which
follows from the first is an integrated understanding of the whole of
human life which leads to an integrated action.
Most of us live in fragments. We know only a tiny fragment of our
total being and live in and act from that small part. Similarly we know
only a small part of the totality of human life. So our being, life and
action, all are fragmented. As a result, even our most noble and
apparently “selfless” and altruistic actions lead to unintended mischief.
We try to do what we think as good to a small segment of life we know.
But we do not know the other segments or levels of life of which we are
not aware. Sometimes what is good at one level for a segment of life

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may have harmful consequences at other levels or segments of life. So

the main purpose of education is to heal this fragmentation and awaken
the student to the wholeness of being, life and action. “The function of
education” says JK “is to create human being who are integrated and
therefore intelligent” and “without an integrated understanding of life our
individual and collective problems will only deepen and extend”. So one
of the major aims of education should be to awaken the individual to
“have an integrated comprehension of life, which will enable him to meet
its ever increasing complexities”.
The other important aspect of JK’s educational philosophy is “You
are the world.” The inner being and outer life of man form an indivisible
and interdependent whole. The outer world is the expression of what we
are within. So no amount of outer reformation through externalized
methods of systems and organisation or moral or religious or the
economic, political or social panaceas can solve the problems we are
facing today. The only lasting and permanent solution to all human
problem is the inner transformation of the human being through self-
knowledge.
6.7.1. Principles of Teaching and Learning
J. Krishnamurti has suggested 14 key words to explain his ideas on
education along with basic principles, they were as such :
1. Education is of prime significance in the creation of a new
culture.
2. The prevailing condition of education offers a subtle form of
escape from the self from the life.
3. The first principle of learning and learning to Unlearn.
4. Competitive spirit is accepted as a means for progress in the
realm of education.
5. Competition is absurd.
6. Right kind of education avoids comparison and competition.
7. Right kind of education teaches fearlessness.
8. Without fear one learns more.
9. Discontentment is to be understood in a very different sense. Get
disturbed and disturb others.
10. Discontentment burning desire for freedom, new understanding
of the way of life.
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11. One should ask oneself for Inward flowering.

12. Flowering means growing deeply, inwardly.
13. The beauty, watchfulness and constant inquiring mind make one
happy and
14. Right education makes one blossomed in all aspects.
Curriculum
J. Krishnamurti has not prescribed any specific subjects or any
selected course in a set, fixed pattern as a means of education. As he
expresses that he does not want to be bound by any specific belief about
set pattern for the study or fixed course or syllabus for education. So, the
researcher could not find out any direct idea units based on J.
Krishnamurtis educational ideas concerning to curriculum. Three idea
units which seemed to be relevant were: (1) Teaching of different
subjects is not enough but student’s initiative should be awakened, (2)
Students should be educated to live life, (3) With learning academic
subjects, and one should educate oneself.
He is the bitter critic of present day educational system, method,
curriculum and testing level (evaluation) so he expresses ideas through
right kind of education. He is the man who speaks complete truth in real
critical words. So, he has not mentioned or forced for any specific,
special subjects for the curriculum. In the key word, Teaching of
different subjects is not enough but student’s initiative should be
awakened, he suggests that the different subjects are necessary but they
are not enough. In the key word, Students should be educated to live life.
J. Krishnamurti’s philosophy regarding education is revealed as he
wishes that along with the teaching of other subjects, students should be
taught how to live, though he doesn’t mention it directly. He is of the
opinion that education should be concerned with totality of life. He
believes that education is the means to create new values, peace,
happiness and non- violence. He doesn’t lay stress on head (intelligent)
only but he feels that heart (emotional level) in the life should also be
emphasised. J. Krishnamurti is of the opinion that a child should be the
lover of the nature and its elements. It should be acquainted with the
nature. In the key word, with learning academic subjects, one should
educate oneself, he explains that learning of academic subjects is
important but the more important thing, for him, is to educate oneself. He
is not against technological or technical education, but they should not
over-power human beings.
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From the above discussion, the ideas of J. Krishnamurti regarding

curriculum can be summarised as under:
i. Curriculum should not be fixed but flexible and
ii. should include the matter which teaches how to live life.
[Link] gives completely novel, revolutionary, humanitarian,
non- violent ideas to the world to learn, to know, to implement and to
follow.
6.7.3. Methods of Instruction
We should not teach the student ‘what to think’ and ‘how to think’.
Allow him freedom to think for himself.
i. Study the child thoroughly and employ such methods that suit
him best.
ii. The student should be treated as an equal partner.
iii. Problem solving and explorative methods should be encouraged.
iv. Repetition encourages the mind of the child to be sluggish.
The Intellect, Skill and Intelligence
The eastern spiritual thinker, JK is categorical in denying the
efficacy of the mere thought or intellect in solving human problem. In
fact according to this modern seer, thought is part of the problem; it is
one of the main causes of human misery. So mental development cannot
be the primary aim of education:
Education is not merely a matter of training the mind. Training
makes for efficiency, but it does not make for completeness. A mind that
has merely been trained is the continuation of the past, and such a mind
can never discover the new. That is why, to find out what is right
education we will have to enquire into the whole significance of life.
6.7.4. Role of Teachers
1. Understanding the child
According to Krishnamurti, The right kind of education consists in
understanding the child as he is without imposing up on him an ideal of
what we think he should be. Ideals are an actual hindrance to our
understanding of the child and to the child’s own understanding of
himself. The right kind of a teacher doesn’t depend on a particular
method. He will study each pupil closely. He is fully aware of the fact
that the pupils are living beings who are impressionable, volatile,
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sensitive, affectionate and often timid. He knows that he should have a

lot of patience and love to deal with them. The absence of these qualities
makes a teacher mechanical in his attitude and shirks away the demands
of the profession.
2. Keen observer
The best way for a teacher to understand a child is to observe him at
play, work, and at different moods. The teacher should not be tempted to
project upon the child his prejudices, hopes and fears. The ideal teacher
will desist from molding him to fit his idiosyncrasies, prejudices and
ideas which gratify him.
3. Integrated Educator
If a lamp doesn’t burn itself, it cannot light other lamps. If the
teacher himself / herself is not an integrated personality, we cannot
expect him to help the children become integrated personalities.

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UNIT 7
CURRICULUM
AND PEDAGOGY

7.1. UNIVERSAL DESIGN FOR LEARNING (UDL)

Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an educational framework
based on research in the learning sciences, including cognitive
neuroscience that guides the development of flexible learning
environments that can accommodate individual learning differences. It is
a set of principles for curriculum development that give all individuals
equal opportunities to learn. UDL provides a blueprint for creating
instructional goals, methods, materials, and assessments that work for
everyone--not a single, one-size-fits-all solution but rather flexible
approaches that can be customized and adjusted for individual needs.
Origin
The concept and language of Universal Design for Learning was
inspired by the universal design movement in architecture and product
development, originally formulated by Ronald L. Mace at North State
University.
At a Glance
Universal Design for Learning helps all kids, not just those with
learning and attention issues. This teaching approach offers more than
one way for students to access the same material. This approach also lets
students use different methods to show what they know.
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Need for UDL

Individuals bring a huge variety of skills, needs, and interests to
learning. Neuroscience reveals that these differences are as varied and
unique as our DNA or fingerprints. Three primary brain networks come
into play:
Three Main Principles of UDL
i. Representation
ii. Action and expression
iii. Engagement
Key Takeaways
With UDL, information is often presented in visual, audio and
hands-on ways.
UDL encourages teachers to use different test formats, including oral
presentations and group projects.
UDL also looks for different ways to keep students motivated.
Universal Design for Learning in the Classroom:
Universal Design for Learning (UDL) is an approach to teaching
aimed at meeting the needs of every student in a classroom. It can be
helpful for all kids, including kids with learning and attention issues. But
UDL takes careful planning by teachers. Here are just a few examples of
how UDL can work in a classroom;
1. Posted Lesson Goals
2. Assignment Options
3. Flexible Work Spaces
4. Regular Feedback
5. Digital and Audio Text
i) Recognition Networks
The "what" of learning
How we gather facts and categorize what we see, hear, and read.
Identifying letters, words, or an author's style are recognition tasks.
Present information and content in different ways
More ways to provide
Multiple Means of Representation
ii) Strategic Networks
The "how" of learning

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Planning and performing tasks. How we organize and express our ideas.
Writing an essay or solving a math problem are strategic tasks.
Differentiate the ways that students can express what they know
More ways to provide
Multiple Means of Action and Expression
iii) Affective Networks
The "why" of learning
How learners get engaged and stay motivated. How they are challenged,
excited, or interested. These are affective dimensions.
Stimulate interest and motivation for learning
More ways to provide
Multiple Means of Engagement
UDL without Technology
Since technology played an important role in the initial creation of
the ideas surrounding UDL, it is often viewed as playing a vital role in
the successful implementation of UDL. While it is clear that technology
easily facilitates the multiple options called for and powerful digital
technologies applied using UDL principles, it also enables easier and
more effective customization of curricula for learners. Technology is not
required. In a study done by David Rose et al the authors contend that the
idea that many teachers who are “attracted to UDL as an idea are unsure
whether they can actually implement it in view of their limited access to
technology or their limited fluency in its use is untrue (Rose et al, 2009,
p. 5). In their paper they outline a lesson plan about the lifecycle of
plants which uses no modern technology but still meets the three UDL
principals. Below is a sample of the text from their lesson:
Principle I: Multiple Means of Representation
Guideline 1: Provide options for perception
i. The Seed Lesson has a “natural” advantage in “providing
options for perception”: its information is accessible through
multiple sensory modalities. Children can learn about the
growth of seeds and plants by looking at them, touching them,
tasting them, smelling them, and even perhaps by hearing them.
ii. The various senses of touch (e.g. shape, size, texture, hardness,
temperature, etc.), as well as smell, taste, or hearing (shaking
and manipulating the plants or seeds), provide students with
options to perceive and acquire information in different ways.

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Guideline 2: Provide options for language and symbols

i. In order to “provide options that define vocabulary and
symbols,” vocabulary associated in the Seed Lesson is
introduced and embedded in a meaningful activity, rich in a
relevant, authentic context. Embedding language development
into authentic tasks is much more effective than isolated
“vocabulary building” or dictionary look-up exercises.
ii. Supports such as the classroom “word wall” and student-created
dictionaries on vocabulary posters are also effective examples of
“providing options that define vocabulary and symbols.”
iii. The Seed Lesson also inherently provides “options that illustrate
key concepts non-linguistically.” The physical seeds, the plants,
and the tools themselves are all “non-linguistic” representations
of content from the lesson.
Guideline 3: Provide options for comprehension
i. In order to “guide information processing,” the teacher develops
a checklist to scaffold the information processing of her
students. These checklists support students in knowing what
features of the plant they should pay attention to.
ii. The Seed Lesson also “guides information processing” by
providing teachers with the opportunity to model strategies and
make their thinking visible for their students through the use of
modeling and “think alouds.”
iii. The “seed museum” is an example of “providing options to
highlight critical features.” By engaging in the activities of
identifying, comparing, labeling, and sorting seeds, students
begin to learn a great deal about categories, relationships and
even taxonomies” (Rose et al, 2009, p. 5 – 6).
In their conclusion the researchers found that the UDL benchmarks
can be adhered to and implemented without any particular modern
technology as long as the lesson is well designed from the start.
According to The National Center on Universal Design for Learning,
it is important to remember that while technologies do allow for “easier
and more effective customization of curricula for learners. It is important
to note that these technologies should not be considered to be the only
way to implement UDL (UDL and Technology, 2011). Teachers are able
to implement UDL theories in both high tech and low tech classrooms as
long as they are creative and resourceful in designing flexible learning
environments that address the variability of learners using a range of
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high-tech and low-tech solutions”. In addition, simply using technology

in the classroom does not mean UDL theories are also being used. It is
important for teachers who use technology to work to ensure that the
technology used is actually reducing student barriers, not raising them;
furthermore, they are still meeting the three principles of UDL
curriculum design. The goal of UDL is not solely to facilitate the use of
learning technologies but is more to ensure that students become expert
learners and learn better from the curriculum.
Why Technology Plays a Central Role in UDL
One of the strongest arguments for using educational technology
when implementing UDL lesson planning is that media such as digital
text, digital images, digital audio, digital video, digital multimedia,
hypertext, and hypermedia have malleability that can provide
opportunities for learning that may not be possible with print text and
traditional teaching methods. Digital media can easily be used to help
overcome the fact the curriculum is often based in the premise that
reading, understanding, and producing printed text are difficult for a
significant portion of students in public schools, including those with a
variety of disabilities”. Use digital technology along with UDL lesson
planning can help remove the barrier of curriculum being almost solely
text based by providing multiple means of interaction with curriculum.
The Future of UDL
To help ensure effective future implementation of the UDL design
principle Edyburn describes the new directions he hopes UDL moves
towards. We will focus on the three that we believe will be most relevant
in the future. The first is to recognize that UDL is more than using the
latest technology in the classroom, and is not simply using web 2.0 and
calling it UDL design because of its multimedia capability.
International Teaching and UDL
Besides the benefits above, UDL also lends itself well to
international teaching because it can easily be used to teach global
citizenship and benefit language learners. The central idea behind UDL
instruction is that "principles of fairness indicate that equity is achieved
when every student receives what he or she needs" (Edyburn, 2010, p.
39). When teaching at international schools, classes are often full of
students whose native language is not English yet almost all of the
content instruction they receive is in English. Students often struggle,
earning bad grades, not because they are not working hard or do not
understand the content, but because they are struggling with English.

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7.2. PROJECT BASED LEARNING

Project Based Learning (PBL) is an innovative, systematic teaching
method that promotes student engagement through deep investigations of
complex questions. It’s learning by doing. The PBL focuses on imparting
specific knowledge and skills while inspiring students to question
actively, think critically, and draw connections between their studies and
the real world. Project Based Learning is a teaching method in which
students’ gains knowledge and skills by working for an extended period
of time to investigate and respond to an authentic, engaging and complex
question, problem, or challenge.
The PBL approach is a great way to start incorporating more
engaging projects in any classroom for an innovative shift. Along with
the fundamental skills of reading, writing, and math, 21st century skills
such as teamwork, problem solving, research gathering, time
management, information synthesizing, and utilizing high tech tools are
critical components of supporting students as they become more
responsible for their own learning. PBL also provides various
opportunities for all learning styles since all children do not learn the
same. Since some teachers are finding innovative ways to use
information technology tools to help engage their students, they can add
PBL to the list.
Project Based Learning is an instructional approach built upon that
engage student interest and motivation. These activities are designed to
answer a question or solve a problem and generally reflect the types of
learning and work people do in the everyday world outside the
classroom. Since many students in classrooms across the globe are being
bored with one-dimensional content presented in mundane manners by
teachers, they will benefit from PBL academically through enriched
content and personally through positive relationships with their peers.
Definition
According to John Thomas (2000), other defining components of
PBL include "authentic content, authentic assessment, teacher facilitation
but not direction, explicit educational goals, cooperative learning,
reflection, and incorporation of adult skills." He also shares that various
definitions consistently relate "the use of an authentic ("driving")
question, a community of inquiry, and the use of cognitive (technology-
based) tools."
We believe that PBL is one of the answers to innovative curriculum
because it teaches students 21st century skills which are integrated into

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the actual content of the subject. As students use the skills stated above,
they are evolving into great students and leaders who have a better
chance of surviving in the real-world. Preparing students for this ever-
changing, global technology-enriched world we live in, is becoming
more vital to the success of our nation.
The PBL Model
PBL can vary from one school to another and even from one project
to another. Its defining characteristics, however, remain constant. The
PBL model:
i. Is organized around an open-ended driving question or
challenge.
ii. Integrates essential abstract academic content and skills into the
project development.
iii. Requires inquiry to learn or create something new.
iv. Requires critical thinking, problem-solving, collaboration, and
communication (a group often called "21st-century skills").
v. Allows student voice and choice.
vi. Incorporates feedback and revision.
vii. Results in a presentation of the problem definition, process, and
final project.
Structure
Project-based learning emphasizes learning activities that are long-
term, interdisciplinary and student-centered. Unlike traditional, teacher-
led classroom activities, students often must organize their own work and
manage their own time in a project-based class. Project-based instruction
differs from traditional inquiry by its emphasis on students' collaborative
or individual artifact construction to represent what is being learned.
Types of Project-Based Learning
i. Social Justice and Community Service Projects.
ii. Art and Performance Projects.
iii. Integrative Learning Projects.
Keys to Designing a Project-Based Learning Classroom
1. Learning Spaces Help Set the Tone
2. Think Information Access
3. Use Technology with Purpose
4. See Yourself as the Ultimate Resource

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Timeless Project-Based Learning Resources

1. Edutopia
2. Buck Institute for Education
3. Project-Based Learning
4. Project-Based Learning Checklists.
5. [Link].
6. Online Internet Institute
7. PBL Exemplary Projects.
8. Intel Teach Elements:
9. Houghton Mifflin’s Project-Based Learning Space
10. High Tech High.
11. PBL Lab.
12. [Link].
13. YouTube for Teachers.
The following steps for implementing PBL:
1. Start with the Essential Question
2. Design a Plan for the Project
3. Create a Schedule
4. Monitor the Students and the Progress of the Project
5. Assess the Outcome
6. Evaluate the Experience
When mastery learning is effectively implemented, teachers use
criterion-referenced tests to see if the students learned the concepts
instead of norm-reference tests which provide comparison data for
students. The process of mastering the content is critical and was proved
in Benjamin Bloom's Mastery for learning model, which was refined by
Block. The implementation of mastery learning has various forms such
as teacher-paced group instruction, one-to-one tutoring, or self-paced
learning. The learning strategies may include teacher instruction,
cooperative learning, or independent learning. In order for it to be
successful, learning objectives much is clearly defined and organized
into smaller units. Another key element of mastery learning includes
teacher support and interaction for students who need assistance.
Colin Rose and Malcolm Nicholl's book, Accelerated Learning for
the 21st Century: The Six-Step Plan to Unlock Your Master-Mind was
published in 1997 and it shared the following steps:

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The Six-Step Master Plan - steps to mastery learning:

How to make learning enjoyable and successful:
1. Motivating the Mind: be in a resourceful state of mind - being
relaxed, confident, and motivated. Having the right attitude towards
learning - What's In It For Me? WII-FM. The most important factors in
learning are: Motivation, motivation, motivation.
2. Acquiring the Information: absorb the basic facts in the best way
that suits your sensory learning preferences.
3. Searching Out the Meaning: long-term memory requires that the
search out implications and significance-the full meaning - understanding
as oppose to knowing - for example, we may know the date of the India
Independence, but understand why Independence was important to India
is searching for meaning.
4. Trigger the Memory: Learning Strategies for Memory - develop
techniques to help improve your memory - e.g. visual learning maps.
5. Exhibiting What we Know: Rehearse to self and others - teach / tutor
- if we can teach it, we are really showing that we fully comprehend
material- We don't just know it - we own it.
6. Reflecting on How we have Learned: Not upon what we learned, but
how we learned it. What lessons can we draw for the next time? -
Becoming a self-managed learner.
Benefits of PBL
School can, at times, seem boring to many learners; PBL counters
this reaction by actively engaging students and encouraging their
creativity. It revitalizes the classroom culture, enabling educators to
rediscover the joy of learning alongside their students.
The experience of questioning, making mistakes, and pursuing
inquiries in an organized, guided process makes PBL different from
traditional teaching methods. PBL also provides opportunities for
students who are not high academic achievers to become team leaders.
This shift in typical classroom dynamics is important for kids who have
fallen into set social roles the prankster, the brain, the pet and gives the
entire classroom community a chance to learn from one another in new
and unanticipated ways.
PBL is an effective teaching method, arguably more so than
traditional practices. An analysis conducted by Purdue University found
that PBL can increase long-term retention of learning material and
improve teachers' and students' attitudes toward learning. One

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explanation that researchers suggest is that both educators and learners

are more actively engaged with the subject material.
Challenges of PBL
To prevent PBL from becoming disorganized or a less-than-rigorous
activity, its implementation must include detailed guidelines and
measures of efficacy. Educators need to design project plans that outline
key content areas; they also need to create schedules that are structured
but allow for flexibility. Teachers need defined benchmarks and
methodologies that will serve to evaluate in-progress goals as well as the
final results.
The wide array and variety of PBL choices can be challenging for
many teachers. Projects vary in content and skill level, structure,
duration, topic, and educator involvement. In some schools, project-
based learning drives the entire curriculum, while in others, educators
may choose to implement just a couple of hands-on projects each year or
none at all. PBL can involve the entire class, or it can be undertaken
individually or by small groups.
Another common issue that teachers using PBL face is social loafing
i.e., when some team members don’t pull their weight, or when the
standards of the group are lowered to maintain a friendly atmosphere.
Because educators often only evaluate the finished product, they may
overlook the social dynamics of the group. To avoid this pitfall, teachers
must actively monitor the distribution and execution of work among
team members.
Educator Anne Shaw recommends an organizational strategy known
as “expert groups,” wherein each team member is assigned or chooses an
expert role and is responsible for researching her particular topic. For
example, a PBL project on environmental issues could be divided into
four different expert groups — air, land, water, and human impact. By
holding each student accountable for researching a specific topic,
teachers can intervene early with those who are not contributing fully.
Arch For Kids uses a similar strategy to alter imbalanced group
dynamics. As our projects are grounded in architecture, we often assign
each child real-life roles so everyone has a job. As Karen Orloff explains,
“Each student has a title with her own responsibilities. There is an
architect, a designer, an engineer, a contractor, a surveyor.” This
structure mirrors that of an architectural team and ties academic content
to real-world roles.

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Project-based learning activities should always culminate in a final

product. There should be a sense of finality in the overall unit of study
students need to be motivated to complete their work and to answer
essential questions. A public audience their classmates, guest experts, or
family members offers an opportunity for teams to present their work,
describe the challenges they faced, explain the decisions they made, and
answer questions posed to them. Such experiences provide students with
further instances of real-world applications of their work and prepare
them for the demands of higher education and today’s workplace.
PBL through the Grades
All learners benefit from the creative thinking that PBL involves,
whether they are elementary schoolers in an after-school program or
biologists in grade school. PBL can draw on subject areas as diverse as
architecture, literature, environmental science, or history; it can be
multidisciplinary or single-subject.
Here are a few sample projects:
For elementary schoolers:
A class of first-graders is studying how Chennai City has evolved.
The project asks students to investigate modes of transportation over the
past four centuries. Students create a timeline showing the various
transportation methods throughout a series of eras, and they make a 3-D
model of a particular mode of transportation.
For middle schoolers:
A group of eighth-graders is studying earth science. They are given a
project to design a sustainable dream house for a particular climate and
setting. They must incorporate what they have learned about climate,
topography, and geology as they design their sustainable houses, as well
as apply math concepts as they calculate the dimensions of their scaled
models.
For high schoolers:
An afterschool program for high schoolers, students learn the
fundamentals of structure, the properties of various building materials,
the difference between strength and stability, and the effects of force on
the components of their project. They use the Design Process identifying
a challenge, theorizing solutions, designing and testing a product,
iterating on its successes or failures, and presenting a final work to
design and build life-sized cardboard chairs that hold the weight of an
adult.

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For college level - The Long-Term Effects

At the college and graduate levels, critical thinking is paramount.
This is an essential outcome of PBL students should go beyond rote
memorization and pose questions, propose and test solutions, and argue
persuasively for their choices.
PBL marries the practical application of abstract academic concepts
to critical 21st-century workplace values. Students assume collaborative
responsibilities as they work in teams to address identified needs. They
learn empathy, passion, compassion, and resiliency. They create products
together, and in so doing they benefit themselves, their teacher, their
classroom, and their larger community.
7.3. ASSESSMENT AS LEARNING
Assessment as learning occurs when students are their own
assessors. Students monitor their own learning, ask questions and use a
range of strategies to decide what they know and can do, and how to use
assessment for new learning.
Assessment should be embedded in all aspects of a course rather
than being something that just happens at the end. More than any other
aspect of the curriculum, well-designed assessment is the key to
engaging students in active and productive learning. When we design
assessment for a course of study, we are essentially designing what and
how students will learn. What we decide to assess should be closely
aligned with the stated learning outcomes for the course.
Characteristics
1. Encourages students to take responsibility for their own
learning.
2. Requires students to ask questions about their learning.
3. Involves teachers and students creating learning goals to
encourage growth and development.
4. Provides ways for students to use formal and informal feedback
and self-assessment to help them understand the next steps in
learning.
5. Encourages peer assessment, self-assessment and reflection.
Student Assessment Techniques
Techniques for Assessing Course-Related Knowledge and Skills;
i. Assessing Prior Knowledge, Recall, and Understanding
ii. Assessing Skill in Analysis and Critical Thinking

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iii. Assessing Skill in Syntheses and Critical Thinking

iv. Assessing Skill in Problem Solving
v. Assessing Skill in Application and Performance
Techniques for Assessing Learner Attitudes, Values, and Self-Awareness;
i. Assessing Students' Awareness of their Attitudes and Values
ii. Assessing Students' Self-Awareness as Learners
iii. Assessing Course-Related Learning and Study Skills, Strategies,
and Behaviors
Techniques for Assessing Learner Reactions for Instruction;
[Link] Learner Reactions to Teachers and Teaching.
7.4. FORMATIVE ASSESSMENT
Formative assessment refers to a wide variety of methods that
teachers use to conduct in-process evaluations of student comprehension,
learning needs, and academic progress during a lesson, unit, or course.
Formative assessments help teachers identify concepts that students are
struggling to understand, skills they are having difficulty acquiring, or
learning standards they have not yet achieved so that adjustments can be
made to lessons, instructional techniques, and academic support.
Formative assessment, including diagnostic testing, is a range of
formal and informal assessment procedures conducted by teachers during
the learning process in order to modify teaching and learning activities to
improve student attainment.
In Embedded Formative Assessment, Dylan Wiliam (2011) makes
the case that the term formative assessment is a misnomer for the
practice of ongoing assessment in classrooms. Rather than a tool - a
particular "disruptive" assessment - formative assessment is a process for
informing both the teacher and the learner so that the teacher changes
what he or she is doing and the student understands where he or she is in
relation to the learning goal. That is, the assessment provides information
that changes what the teacher and learner are doing. Wiliam notes that
the UK Assessment Reform Group has lain out five requirements for
assessment to improve learning:
1. The provision of effective feedback to students.
2. The active involvement of students in their own learning.
3. The adjustment of teaching to take into account the results of the
assessment.

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4. The recognition of the profound influence assessment has on the

motivation and self-esteem of students, both of which are crucial
influences on learning.
5. The need for students to be able to assess themselves and
understand how to improve.
Benefits for Teachers
i. Teachers are able to determine what standards students already
know and to what degree.
ii. Teachers can decide what minor modifications or major changes
in instruction they need to make so that all students can succeed
in upcoming instruction and on subsequent assessments.
iii. Teachers can create appropriate lessons and activities for groups
of learners or individual students.
iv. Teachers can inform students about their current progress in
order to help them set goals for improvement.
Benefits for Students
i. Students are more motivated to learn.
ii. Students take responsibility for their own learning.
iii. Students can become users of assessment alongside the teacher.
iv. Students learn valuable lifelong skills such as self-evaluation,
self-assessment, and goal setting.
v. Students become more adept at self-assessment.
Strategies
1. Understanding goals for learning
2. Feedback
3. Questioning
4. Wait time
Formative Assessment Toolkit
1. Quick Feedback
2. Live Quiz Games
3. Integrated Presentation and Quiz Tools
4. Formative Assessment With Videos
7.5. MASTERY LEARNING
Mastery learning is a method of instruction where the focus is on the
role of feedback in learning. Furthermore, mastery learning refers to a
category of instructional methods which establishes a level of

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performance that all students must master before moving on to the next
unit (Slavin, 1987).
Mastery learning refers to the idea that teaching should organize
learning through ordered steps. In order to move to the next step,
students have to master the prerequisite step. Mastery learning engages
the learner in multiple instructional methods, learning levels and multiple
cognitive thinking types.
History
Mastery learning has been relevant for numerous years. Back in
1979, James Block published an article entitled, "Mastery Learning: The
Current State of the Craft". Even though this article may seem outdated
to many skeptics, it truly provides a detailed framework for how mastery
learning supports the classroom teacher. Block labels five teaching
behaviors as:
1. Diagnosis: the accurate predictions of each student's future
performance based on his/her present and past history;
2. Prescription: the provision of appropriate learning tasks for each
student based on the teacher's diagnosis;
3. Orientation: the clarification of each learning task for each
student in terms of what is to be learned and how it is to be
learned;
4. Feedback: the provision of constant information to each student
regarding learning progress;
5. Correction: the provision of timely supplementary instruction for
each student whose learning progress is insufficient
These teaching behaviors are still relevant today and are easily
enhanced by technology.
According to Davis and Sorrel (1995), the mastery learning method
divides subject matter into units that have predetermined objectives or
unit expectations. Students, alone or in groups, work through each unit in
an organized fashion. Students must demonstrate mastery on unit exams,
typically 80%, before moving on to new material. Students who do not
achieve mastery receive remediation through tutoring, peer monitoring,
small group discussions, or additional homework. Additional time for
learning is prescribed for those requiring remediation. Students continue
the cycle of studying and testing until mastery is met.
Block (1971) states that students with minimal prior knowledge of
material have higher achievement through mastery learning than with
traditional methods of instruction.

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In summary, mastery learning is not a new method of instruction. It

is based on the concept that all students can learn when provided with
conditions appropriate to their situation. The student must reach a
predetermined level of mastery on one unit before they are allowed to
progress to the next. In a mastery learning setting, students are given
specific feedback about their learning progress at regular intervals
throughout the instructional period. This feedback helps students identify
what they have learned well and what they have not learned well. Areas
that were not learned well are allotted more time to achieve mastery.
Only grades of "A" and "B" are permitted because these are the accepted
standards of mastery. Traditional instruction holds time constant and
allows mastery to vary while mastery learning or systematic instruction
holds mastery constant and allows time to vary (Robinson, 1992).
Mastery learning in practice
True mastery learning in the spirit of Bloom may not be very
popular, mostly because it is very costly and difficult. This applies to
both classroom teaching and electronic courseware.
However, a few key ideas can be found in many designs, e.g:
i. course modularity
ii. definition of objectives for each module
iii. entry tests
iv. individual learning pace
v. feedback after learning task with some remediation
vi. assessment
Technologies
Mastery learning at least at a superficial level of understanding and
implementation is very popular in computer-based training and e-
learning. It also can be found in richer models of computer-based
learning.
1. Toolkits like Author Ware have built-in facilities to Implement
Mastery Learning (IMS).
2. IMS Content Packaging plus IMS Simple Sequencing allows in
principle to implement this kind of design.
3. IMS Learning Design supports this instructional design model.
Benefits
The mastery learning model has been found to be beneficial in many
settings. It allows struggling students an opportunity to master critical
concepts before new content is introduced. At the same time, it provides
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a challenge for high achieving students. This style of education allows

gifted students to accelerate through the program and move on to either
the next level (year) or to engage in extension studies which will broaden
their understanding of the subject.
The model also allows for an individual learning pace. In addition,
feedback that is given during this process is helpful for the student. This
model stands for the fact that every learner can learn if given the time
and the right learning environment.
7.6. PERSONAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS
Personal Learning Environments (PLE) is systems that help learners
take control of and manage their own learning. This includes providing
support for learners to:
i. set their own learning goals (with support of their teachers)
ii. manage their learning, both content and process
iii. communicate with others in the process of learning.
Need of PLE
i. A personalised learning environment increases the students’
motivation and creates a learning situation where they can
control their own learning at their own pace.
ii. It allows students to actively in design their own learning
strategies
iii. PLE enables better contact between student/teacher, and the
education is less teacher-centred.
iv. PLE and modern technology together create a customised
learning environment that suits the development of the 21st
century classroom.
v. The technology of today makes it possible to create PLE
solutions which are developed to suit the demands from both
teachers and students.
vi. PLE in combination with technical tools increase the students’
interest in STEM subjects, which is important as there is a
growing demand in STEM related professions.
vii. The young generation of today primarily learns by being
interactive. This requires interactive classrooms with
personalized ICT solutions.
viii. The Personal Learning Environment is a system allowing
connecting students, teachers, school managers, tutors, families

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and the wider community by means of open and commercial

ICT solutions inside and outside the school facilities, supporting
lifelong learning, enabling students to control and define its own
learning processes under the mentoring of the teacher.
Definition of PLE
The Personal Learning Environment (PLE) for Science, Technology,
Engineering and Mathematics (STEM) is an adaptive, accessible, and
easy to use solution providing smart services for the realization of
personalized learning including individualized learning paths, support of
different learning strategies, and intelligent tutoring for primary and
lower secondary schools. The PLE for STEM shall offer a single access
point to repositories of freely available learning content, learning apps,
services and tools for STEM education through the application of open
standards. Through the provision of own communication and
collaboration functionalities and the integration with widely used social
media pages, the PLE enables students to learn, share and interact with
their friends, teachers, and other stakeholders such as their parents. The
PLE supports Bring Your Own Device (BYOD) through the provision of
a device and operating system independent solution, and lifelong
learning through the integration of an ePortfolio solution. Overall, the
PLE for STEM provides a highly motivational environment for formal
and informal STEM education.
PLE support to teachers/students/schools
1. Average size of student group per teacher is 23 – 25.
2. 20 - 30% of the students require personalized learning due to
special needs, the number is expected to increase in a mid to
long term perspective according WHO and pre term births and
GLD (General Learning Disabilities).
3. Early drop outs start often in primary education and among
children with special needs.
4. Science, Technology and especially Math are crucial topics in
order to stimulate innovations.
Personal Learning Environments (PLE)
As education moves well into the 21st century, the ways in which we
learn and the things we use to learn with, including technology, are
constantly changing and evolving. One of the most far-reaching changes
is the easy and increasingly inexpensive access to information
technology. Brown and Long claim that due to the increasing
proliferation of information technology, the need for basic access is not
as acute as a decade ago, allowing the focus to shift from the provision of
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basic access to that of integrated services to aid learning and that learning
spaces in the 21st century need to foster discovery, innovation, and
scholarship, not simply contain them. They also believe that the three
trends in education are “design based on learning principles, human-
centered design, and personal devices that enrich learning.
However, as the importance of standardized tests continues to
increase mandated curriculum is becoming more monolithic, less
differentiated, and increasingly individual. As Freen et al (2005) assert,
the logic of education should instead “be reversed so that it is the system
that conforms to the learner, rather than the learner to the system.” One
of the easiest ways to make the system come to the learner is through the
use of digital technologies to create personalized learning environments.
Freen, et. al. identify the personalization of learning as “enabling learners
to make informed educational choices; diversifying and acknowledging
different forms of skills and knowledge; the creation of diverse learning
environments; and the development of learner focused forms of
assessment and feedback”. As learner customization and personalization
becomes the norm “learner excitement will heighten when learning style
options can be juxtaposed so that students can simultaneously see, hear,
feel, and perhaps even taste the learning with any resulting learning will
be captured in individual learning portfolios.
The “personal web” is described as “a collection of technologies that
confer the ability to reorganize, configure, and manage online content
rather than just view it; but part of the personal web is the underlying
idea that web content can be sorted, displayed, and even built upon
according to an individual’s personal needs and interests. A student’s
building of these spaces to support their learning is referred to as a
personalized learning environment (PLE). While there is little agreement
among scholars as to what exactly PLE is, most scholars agree that it is
“not a software application purse, but is rather a characterization of an
approach to e-learning” and that “for the user, this personal learning
environment is not a separate space on the internet; hence, it is an
essential part of the users’ workspace. It should be highly integrated with
the user’s framework of tools for his/her personal use of the internet”
(Fiedler, 2011). Web 2.0 and the easy access it allows for information,
user generated, edited and created products has made personalized
learning spaces possible while also pushing is towards their creation.
Personalized Learning Environments and Technology
There are many advantages of using PLEs in teaching but two of the
most important are students gaining the ability to use Web 2.0
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technologies and the using of personalized learning environments to peak

student interest. Arnone et al (2011) assert that curiosity is a great
motivator in learning and explain that although “students may be curious,
the relevant resources may not be available to satisfy that curiosity.
Technology has the ability to effectively provide students with
information while also stimulating their curiosity. Arnone, et. al. explain
that students born after 1980 have “major aspects of their lives—social
interactions, friendships, civic activities mediated by digital
technologies’’ and that in these “new media contexts, children have
seemingly unlimited opportunities to invoke and exercise their curiosity”.
However, if students are not equipped with the right skills to sift through
and access the information furnished by new media contexts, they will
become frustrated and lose interest.
Students used a personal web page aggregator to bring all of their
separate tools together such as the reader, email, personal blog, not
taking program and social bookmarking on one page.
The benefits of using this sort of teaching style are many. While
undertaking the project, Drexler describes how students used a
constructivist approach to learning by constructing "knowledge based on
experiences and social interactions" and how the approach uses
technology a "collection of tools that promote knowledge constructions
an information vehicle for exploring knowledge, an active learning tool,
a social medium to promote conversing, and an intellectual partner to
facilitate reflection" (Drexler, 2011). Another advantage described by
Drexler to teaching using PLEs is students practicing networked
learning. This type of learning takes control of the content away from the
teacher by allowing students to connect with subject matter experts in
virtually any field and by teaching students how to “compare conflicting
viable points of view [which] is essential in an ever expanding
information age. Instead of having students simply learn content, PLEs
are allowing them to take an interactive role in their education by
developing 21st century skills they will use once the class is over, create
content that others can use, and construct the nodes in the PLE that must
be revisited and built upon to facilitate further learning. While Drexler
does acknowledge that creating a PLE does not guarantee comprehension
or deep understanding he argues that the greatest learning potential exists
in what the student does with the compilation of content and how it is
synthesized and hopes that students used the skills they acquired while
building a PLE to locate expertise beyond the classroom.

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Personalized Learning Environment without Technology

Despite the fact that much of the research on PLEs and how they are
often used in education today, centers around the heavy use of
technology, the ideas behind them can still exist in low-technology
economically disadvantaged environments. Fielder et al (2011) assert
that ‘from an educational intervention perspective, we need to make an
attempt to re-configure teaching activities so that the individual personal
learners can actualize and execute control and responsibility over their
own (personal) learning activity and its specific (personal learning)
environment” and that “digitalization and networking” have become the
“dominant medium” in education. Even without fancy graphically
stunning programs and high speed internet connections, PLEs can still be
designed to allow student's control over what they learn while also
‘actualizing and executing control and responsibility’ over what they are
learning. Students can access many of the texts and images available on
the internet, which will allow them to personalize learning, using satellite
internet. In addition teachers can find books, videos, and resources
around the school which will also help students personalize their
learning. While learning environments designed this way are not as
interactive and engaging as those using Web 2.0 and the latest learning
technologies, they still will require computers and internet access, they
can instill students with a love for learning and skills that will help them
be successful in the 21st century.
International Teaching and Personalized Learning Environments
Using PLE's when teaching is perfectly designed for international
teaching. Wilson, et. al. explain (2007) that when using PLEs learners
will encounter very large contexts which will present a "usability
challenge" because it will "not be possible to absorb all the information
within the context nor is it feasible to present users with flat
representations of contexts when they contain thousands of resources.
While synthesizing and evaluating the large amounts of information that
skilled teachers must teach, it allows for students to interact with
knowledge and ideas from around the world, gain perspectives that
would otherwise be hidden to them, and interact with students from
around the globe. Bonk (2009) describes how "these learning partners
will be connected in ways never before imagined" and that as these
connections become standard practice "there will be chances to
dramatically change how we deliver courses, programs, and education in
general." Another advantage to using PLEs when teaching internationally

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is that by allowing students to take control of their learning, they can also
help students take control of the content.
7.7. THE CLASSROOM OF THE FUTURE
The Physical Space
The days of classrooms where a teacher desk sits at the front of the
classroom and students’ desks are neatly aligned in rows are over.
Learning technologies, and changing pedagogical methods, are not only
changing the way we teach but also the physical environments we teach
in. The role physical environments play in our learning is just beginning
to be studied and understood. Akinsanmi (2011) asserts that there is little
research on the role the physical environment plays in the learning
process but more and more educations theorist and psychologists are
beginning to offer perspectives from which designers can conceptualize
the creation of an optimal learning environment. One thing that is clear
from the research of the physical spaces which make up learning
environments is that current classrooms seldom facilitate 21st century
learning.
A study done by the Herman Miller Company (2011) on adaptable
spaces and their impact on learning identified four key constructs that
affect student learning; Basic Human Need, Teaching, Learning, and
Engagement. Herman Miller assert that there is a “pedagogical value of a
comfortable chair” and that by recognizing the impact that physical
comfort has is support of pedagogy, and designing flexible, comfortable
learning spaces enhances the experience of both faculty and students.
When classroom furniture is easily moved to allow for comfort and
practicality students’ learning experience was heightened with increased
seating comfort (32%), being able to clearly understand the professor
(14%), and view materials (17%). Besides students being better serviced
by redesigned and malleable classrooms educators also reported the
benefits of increased lighting, better access to internet connections,
improved ability to hear students and having more whiteboard space.
The research summary also highlighted the fact that with regard to
teaching emerging discoveries about how people learn, rapid
advancements in technology, and heightened awareness of student
expectations were what caused the most pedagogical changes and in
order for teachers to take advantage of these changes teaching spaces
must be able to utilize new technologies and have classroom flexible
enough to accommodate different teaching styles. Adaptable learning
spaces also better facilitate learning especially since the meaning of
knowing has shifted from being able to remember and repeat information
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to being able to find it use it and contextualize it. Marc Presnsky

describes how students no longer prefer large lecture halls and instead
desire learning spaces that allow them to get to know one another,
engage in dialogue, work independently or in groups on projects get or
provide private feedback and seek a collaborative environment that
fosters understanding and learning. Prensky’s quote perfectly illustrates
why classroom spaces should no longer be static but should be easily
adaptable to fit whatever activity or pedagogical method the teacher
chooses to deliver that day’s lesson in.
Lastly adaptable learning spaces make it easier to engage students by
allowing for the quick and easy configuration of classrooms to facilitate
different kinds of activities. Students who participated in classes held in
classrooms designed around adoptable spaces ideas reported being 24%
more engaged in class and 23% more likely to feel that communication
was better facilitated while teachers described how it was easier to
integrate teaching methods (22%), easier to use technology while
instructing.
Classrooms designed using adaptable learning spaces adhere exactly
to what Askinsanmi described as removing the focus from the teaching
wall and creating the ambiance of a favorite grandma's living room,
thereby providing an emotionally safe, comfortable and visually
stimulating environment. When students are comfortable, sitting in a
room that they feel caters to their needs they are more willing and able to
learn. Hopefully as our ideas about how to instruct students continue to
change and evolve so will the way we setup and decorate our classrooms.
The Pedagogical Place
Besides the physical layout of the classroom changing so will the
tools we use to instruct students. As Heather Edick asserts there is
increasingly sophisticated technology to come which will benefit
teachers in terms of resource management and the opportunity to tap
sources of knowledge that would not have been available because of
geographical barriers. Besides technologies increased use in the
classroom of the future another major change is an emphasis placed on
learning models that support the active construction of knowledge and
skills. Instead of educational environments and instruction being passive
there has been a shift to environments in which the learner actively
explores the world and constructs their own internal models of
understanding. Classrooms of the future will no longer be little factories
where we can find teachers encouraged (and often compelled) to mass
produce learning and marginalize the differences in aptitudes, interests,
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and abilities which no longer prepare students for the fast changing
global society they will inherit.
In addition the classroom of the future will facilitate learning by
using technology-enhanced objects while also building communities in
virtual and physical learning spaces. By embedding technology into
“familiar every-day devices” it makes the technologies easy to use while
also turning them “into tools for effective and motivating learning. A
classroom designed to allow this kind of learning would need space for
collaboration to occur, access to the technologies that allow for the
creation of artifacts and would look remarkably different from the look
of most classrooms today.
The classroom of the future might also be paper free as laptops and
other educational technology allow for the elimination of paper. As
laptop and tablet computers become cheaper in the near future instead of
teachers copying handouts and exams to give to students they will be
‘pushed’ online to students. All students will carry laptop computers
which will include textbooks, eliminating textbooks, heavy backpacks
and lockers, while also making for a cleaner classroom environment. The
use of laptops and tablets could also allow for students to keep electronic
portfolios enabling them to “add comments and reflections based on an
artifact at any time.” The portfolios could also be used during parent
teacher conferences by allowing the teacher to share students’ portfolios
via SMART board or a tablet and explain the student’s progress to the
parents using the portfolio.
The classroom of the future is a space, both physically and
pedagogically, in flux. The physical spaces which make up the
classroom, the educational technologies we use, and the teaching
pedagogy we subscribe to are not static and as educators it is critical for
use to continue learning about what the classroom of the future will look
like. No matter what state or country we teach in these changes will
affect us all. As Makitalo-Siegal, et. al. (2010) assert teachers themselves
should be more open to new pedagogical models and the development of
technology as well as be willing to regularly update their knowledge by
participating in in-service education and reading current research
literature.

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UNIT 8
ASSESSMENT
TECHNIQUES

8.1. MEASUREMENT
8.1.1. Concept of Measurement
Measurement refers to the process by which the attributes or
dimensions of some physical object are determined. One exception
seems to be in the use of the word measure in determining the Intelligent
Quotient (IQ) of a person. The phrase, "this test measures IQ" is
commonly used. Measuring such things as attitudes or preferences also
applies. However, when we measure, we generally use some standard
instrument to determine how large, tall, heavy, voluminous, hot, cold,
fast, or straight something actually is. Standard instruments refer to
physical devices such as rulers, scales, thermometers, pressure gauges,
etc. We measure to obtain information about what is. Such information
may or may not be useful, depending on the accuracy of the instruments
we use, and our skill at using them. There are few such instruments in the
social sciences that approach the validity and reliability of say a 12"
ruler. We measure how big a classroom is in terms of square feet or cubic
feet, we measure the temperature of the room by using a thermometer,
and we use an Ohm meter to determine the voltage, amperage, and
resistance in a circuit. In all of these examples, we are not assessing
anything; we are simply collecting information relative to some
established rule or standard.

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8.1.2. Meaning of Measurement

Measurement is actually the process of estimating the values that is
the physical quantities like; time, temperature, weight, length etc. each
measurement value is represented in the form of some standard units.
The estimated values by these measurements are actually compared
against the standard quantities that are of same type. Measurement is the
assignment of a number to a characteristic of an object or event, which
can be compared with other objects or events. The scope and application
of a measurement is dependent on the context and discipline.
Generally, to measure and show the weight, length and volume of an
object in definite units is called measurement; for example, to show the
weight of a person in kilograms, length of cloth in meters and volume of
milk in liters. But the field of measurement is very wide. It includes
defining any characteristic of any object or person or activity in words,
symbols or units.
As far as explaining the qualities of objects, persons and activities is
concerned, it has been in vogue from very ancient times, of course,
without any definite base of measurement. In the present times, the bases
of most of the qualities of objects, persons and activities have been
defined; their standards and units have been specified; measuring tools
and methods have been devised and methods to demonstrate the results
of measurement in brief have been decided. Now, a characteristic of an
object, person or activity is described in definite words, symbols and
units in brief. Many scholars have attempted to delimit the definition of
this process.
8.1.3. Definition of Measurement
Most scholars are in agreement with the definition given by James
M. Bradefield. In his words: Measurement is the process of assigning
symbols to the dimension of phenomenon in order to characterise in
order to characterise the status of phenomenon as precisely as possible.
In this definition of measurement only the measurement of qualities
of objects and activities has been included, and not the measurement of
qualities of persons. Though the persons are included in the objects of the
universe; however, the objects are meant to include only concrete
materials, so it is necessary to show the measurement of qualities of the
persons separately. This definition of Bradefield does not point to any
such basis of measurement. We are of the opinion that it should also be
necessarily included in it and in that case measurement should be defined
as :

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Measurement is the process by which a characteristic of an object,

person or activity is perceived and understood on specific standards and
is described in standard words, symbols or definite units.
According to Prof. Richard.H. Lideman, “Measurement is defined as
the assignment of one of a set of numbers to each of a set of persons or
objects according to certain established rules. The set of numbers
depends up on the nature of the characteristics being measured and up on
the type of measuring instrument used”.
8.2. ASSESSMENT
8.2.1. Concept of Assessment
In education, the term assessment refers to the wide variety of
methods that educators use to evaluate, measure, and document the
academic readiness, learning progress, and skill acquisition of students
from preschool through college and adulthood. It is the process of
systematically gathering information as part of an evaluation.
Assessment is carried out to see what children and young people know,
understand and are able to do. Assessment is very important for tracking
progress, planning next steps, reporting and involving parents, children
and young people in learning.
Assessment is an ongoing process aimed at understanding and
improving student learning. It involves making expectations explicit and
public; setting appropriate criteria and high standards for learning
quality; systematically gathering, analyzing, and interpreting evidence to
determine how well performance matches those expectations and
standards, and using the resulting information to document, explain, and
improve performance.
8.2.2. Meaning of Assessment
Assessment is a process by which information is obtained relative to
some known objective or goal. Assessment is a broad term that includes
testing. A test is a special form of assessment. Tests are assessments
made under contrived circumstances especially so that they may be
administered. In other words, all tests are assessments, but not all
assessments are tests. We test at the end of a lesson or unit. We assess
progress at the end of a school year through testing, and we assess verbal
and quantitative skills through such instruments as the Scholastic
Aptitude Test (SAT) and graduate record examination (GRE). Whether
implicit or explicit, assessment is most usefully connected to some goal
or objective for which the assessment is designed. A test or assessment
yields information relative to an objective or goal. In that sense, we test
or assess to determine whether or not an objective or goal has been
obtained.
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Assessment of skill attainment is rather straightforward. Either the

skill exists at some acceptable level or it doesn’t. Skills are readily
demonstrable. Assessment of understanding is much more difficult and
complex. Skills can be practiced; understandings cannot. We can assess a
person’s knowledge in a variety of ways, but there is always a leap, an
inference that we make about what a person does in relation to what it
signifies about what he knows. The assess means; to stipulate the
conditions by which the behavior specified in an objective may be
ascertained. Such stipulations are usually in the form of written
descriptions.
8.3. EVALUATION
8.3.1. Concept of Evaluation
Evaluation is perhaps the most complex and least understood of the
terms. Inherent in the idea of evaluation is "value." When we evaluate,
what we are doing is engaging in some process that is designed to
provide information that will help us make a judgment about a given
situation. Generally, any evaluation process requires information about
the situation in question. A situation is an umbrella term that takes into
account such ideas as objectives, goals, standards, procedures, and so on.
When we evaluate, we are saying that the process will yield information
regarding the worthiness, appropriateness, goodness, validity, legality,
etc., of something for which a reliable measurement or assessment has
been made.
If the students want to determine the temperature of the classroom
they would need to get a thermometer and take several readings at
different spots, and perhaps average the readings. That is simple
measuring. The average temperature tells us nothing about whether or
not it is appropriate for learning. In order to do that, students would have
to be polled in some reliable and valid way. That polling process is what
evaluation is all about. A classroom average temperature of 75 degrees is
simply information. It is the context of the temperature for a particular
purpose that provides the criteria for evaluation. A temperature of 75
degrees may not be very good for some students, while for others, it is
ideal for learning. We evaluate every day. Teachers, in particular, are
constantly evaluating students, and such evaluations are usually done in
the context of comparisons between what was intended (learning,
progress, behavior) and what was obtained. When used in a learning
objective, the definition provided on the ADPRIMA site for the
behavioral verb evaluate is: to classify objects, situations, people,
conditions, etc., according to defined criteria of quality. Indication of

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quality must be given in the defined criteria of each class category.

Evaluation differs from general classification only in this respect.
8.3.2. Meaning of Evaluation
Evaluation is a broader term that refers to all of the methods used to
find out what happens as a result of using a specific intervention or
practice. Evaluation is the systematic assessment of the worth or merit of
some object. It is the systematic acquisition and assessment of
information to provide useful feedback about some object.
We are aware that measurement is used to express a trait of an
object, person or activity in standard words, symbols or units. In
evaluation, these results are analysed and this analysis is done on the
basis of certain social, cultural or scientific standards (Norms) and by
this analysis, the relative condition of the trait of the object, person or
activity is clarified.
8.3.3. Definition of Evaluation
James M. Bradefield has defined this process of evaluation in the
following words: Evaluation is the assignment of symbols to
phenomenon in order to characterise the worth or value of the
phenomenon usually with reference to some social, cultural and scientific
standards.
If we want to further clarify this definition in simple terms, we can
do it in the following words: Evaluation is the process in which the
analysis of the result obtained from measurement of a trait of an object,
person or activity is done on the basis of certain social, cultural or
scientific standards (Norms), and the relative position of the object,
person or activity is determined as relative to that trait.
8.4. ASSESSMENT FOR LEARNING
In classrooms where assessment for learning is practiced, students
are encouraged to be more active in their learning and associated
assessment. The ultimate purpose of assessment for learning is to create
self-regulated learners who can leave school able and confident to
continue learning throughout their lives. Teachers need to know at the
outset of a unit of study where their students are in terms of their learning
and then continually check on how they are progressing through
strengthening the feedback they get from their learners. Students are
guided on what they are expected to learn and what quality work looks
like. The teacher will work with the student to understand and identify
any gaps or misconceptions (initial/diagnostic assessment). As the unit
progresses, the teacher and student work together to assess the student's
knowledge, what she or he needs to learn to improve and extend this
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knowledge, and how the student can best get to that point (formative
assessment). Assessment for learning occurs at all stages of the learning
process.
Assessment is an essential component of the teaching and learning
cycle. Assessment for learning is approach that enable teachers to gather
evidence and make judgments about student achievement. These are not
necessarily discrete approaches and may be used individually or together
and formally or informally.
The principles of assessment for learning strategy
The principles of assessment for learning strategy have some
common elements. Assessment for learning incorporate:
i. self-assessment and peer assessment.
ii. strategies for students to actively monitor and evaluate their own
learning.
iii. feedback, together with evidence, to help teachers and students
decide whether students are ready for the next phase of learning
or whether they need further learning experiences to consolidate
their knowledge, understanding and skills.
iv. comprises two phases—initial or diagnostic assessment and
formative assessment.
v. assessment can be based on a variety of information sources
(e.g., portfolios, works in progress, teacher observation,
conversation).
vi. verbal or written feedback to the student is primarily descriptive
and emphasizes strengths, identifies challenges, and points to
next steps.
vii. as teachers check on understanding they adjust their instruction
to keep students on track.
viii. no grades or scores are given - record-keeping is primarily
anecdotal and descriptive.
ix. occurs throughout the learning process, from the outset of the
course of study to the time of summative assessment.
Assessment for learning approach helps teachers and students to
know if current understanding is a suitable basis for future learning.
Teachers, using their professional judgement in a standards-referenced
framework, are able to extend the process of assessment for learning into
the assessment of learning.
Assessment for learning involves teachers using evidence about
students' knowledge, understanding and skills to inform their teaching.
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Sometimes referred to as ‘formative assessment', it usually occurs

throughout the teaching and learning process to clarify student learning
and understanding.
The emphasis shifts from summative to Formative assessment in
Assessment for Learning. Assessment for Learning happens during the
learning, often more than once, rather than at the end. Students
understand exactly what they are to learn, what is expected of them and
are given feedback and advice on how to improve their work.
In Assessment for Learning, teachers use assessment as an
investigable tool to find out as much as they can about what their
students know and can do, and what confusions, preconceptions, or gaps
they might have. The wide variety of information that teachers collect
about students’ learning processes provides the basis for determining
what they need to do next to move student learning forward. It provides
the basis for providing descriptive feedback for students and deciding on
groupings, instructional strategies, and resources.
Classroom Practices
Much classroom practice can be described as assessment activities.
Teachers set tasks and activities and pose questions to learners. Learners
respond to the tasks, activities and questions and the teachers make
judgments on the learner’s knowledge, understanding and skills
acquisition as evidenced in the learner’s responses. These judgments on
learner’s performance happen quite naturally in the course of any
teaching and learning session and require two-way dialogue, decision-
making and communication of the assessment decision in the form of
quality feedback to the learner on their performance. Depending on how
successfully these classroom practices have been undertaken, learning
will have taken place in varying degrees from learner to learner.
1. Reflects a view of learning in which assessment helps students
learn better, rather than just achieve a better mark.
2. Involves formal and informal assessment activities as part of
learning and to inform the planning of future learning.
3. Includes clear goals for the learning activity.
4. Provides effective feedback that motivates the learner and can
lead to improvement.
5. Reflects a belief that all students can improve.
6. Encourages self-assessment and peer assessment as part of the
regular classroom routines.
7. Involves teachers, students and parents reflecting on evidence.

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8. Is inclusive of all learners.

9. day-to-day activities, such as learning conversations.
10. a simple mental note taken by the teacher during observation.
11. student self and peer assessments.
12. a detailed analysis of a student’s work.
13. assessment tools, which may be written items, structured
interview questions, or items teachers make up themselves.
Teachers’ Roles in Assessment for Learning
Assessment for learning occurs throughout the learning process. It is
interactive, with teachers:
i. aligning instruction
ii. identifying particular learning needs of students or groups
iii. selecting and adapting materials and resources
iv. creating differentiated teaching strategies and learning
opportunities for helping individual students move forward in
their learning
v. Providing immediate feedback and direction to students.
Teachers also use assessment for learning to enhance students’
motivation and commitment to learning. When teachers commit to
learning as the focus of assessment, they change the classroom culture to
one of student success.
Assessment for learning is best described as a process by which
assessment information is used by teachers to adjust their teaching
strategies, and by students to adjust their learning strategies. Assessment,
teaching, and learning are inextricably linked, as each informs the others.
Assessment is a powerful process that can either optimise or inhibit
learning, depending on how it’s applied.
Benefits of Assessment for learning
For teachers
Assessment for learning helps teachers gather information to:
i. plan and modify teaching and learning programmes for
individual students, groups of students, and the class as a whole.
ii. pinpoint students’ strengths so that both teachers and students
can build on them.
iii. identify students’ learning needs in a clear and constructive way
so they can be addressed.
iv. involve parents, families, and friends in their children's learning.

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For students
i. Assessment for learning provides students with information and
guidance so they can plan and manage the next steps in their
learning.
ii. Assessment for learning uses information to lead from what has
been learned to what needs to be learned next.
8.5. ASSESSMENT OF LEARNING
Assessment of learning refers to strategies designed to confirm what
students know, demonstrate whether or not they have met curriculum
outcomes or the goals of their individualized programs, or to certify
proficiency and make decisions about students’ future programs or
placements. It is designed to provide evidence of achievement to parents,
other educators, the students themselves, and sometimes to outside
groups (e.g., employers, other educational institutions). Assessment of
learning is the assessment that becomes public and results in statements
or symbols about how well students are learning. It often contributes to
pivotal decisions that will affect students’ futures. It is important, then,
that the underlying logic and measurement of assessment of learning be
credible and defensible.
Assessment of learning assists teachers in using evidence of student
learning to assess achievement against outcomes and standards.
Sometimes referred to as ‘summative assessment', it usually occurs at
defined key points during a unit of work or at the end of a unit, term or
semester, and may be used to rank or grade students. The effectiveness of
assessment of learning for grading or ranking depends on the validity and
reliability of activities. Its effectiveness as an opportunity for learning
depends on the nature and quality of the feedback.
1. It is used to plan future learning goals and pathways for students.
2. It provides evidence of achievement to the wider community,
including parents, educators, the students themselves and outside
groups.
3. It provides a transparent interpretation across all audiences.
4. Assessment that is accompanied by a number or letter grade
(summative).
5. It compares one student's achievement with standards.
6. Results can be communicated to the student and parents.
7. It occurs at the end of the learning unit.
The purpose of this kind of assessment is usually Summative and is
mostly done at the end of a task, unit of work etc.
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Six Types of Assessment of Learning

1. Diagnostic Assessment (as Pre-Assessment)
One way to think about it: Assesses a student’s strengths,
weaknesses, knowledge, and skills prior to instruction. Another way to
think about it: A baseline to work from.
2. Formative Assessment
One way to think about it: Assesses a student’s performance during
instruction, and usually occurs regularly throughout the instruction
process. Another way to think about it: Like a doctor’s “check-up” to
provide data to revise instruction.
3. Summative Assessment
One way to think about it: Measures a student’s achievement at the
end of instruction. Another way to think about it: It’s macabre, but if
formative assessment is the check-up, we might think of summative
assessment as the autopsy. What happened? Now that it’s all over, what
went right and what went wrong?.
4. Norm-Referenced Assessment
One way to think about it: Compares a student’s performance against
other students (a national group or other “norm”). Another way to think
about it: Group or “Demographic” assessment.
5. Criterion-Referenced Assessment
One way to think about it: Measures a student’s performance against
a goal, specific objective, or standard. Another way to think about it: a
bar to measure all students against.
6. Interim/Benchmark Assessment
One way to think about it: Evaluates student performance at periodic
intervals, frequently at the end of a grading period. Can predict student
performance on end-of-the-year summative assessments. Another way to
think about it: Bar graph growth through a year.
Teachers’ Roles in Assessment of Learning
Teachers have the responsibility of reporting student learning
accurately and fairly, based on evidence obtained from a variety of
contexts and applications. Effective assessment of learning requires that
teachers provide:
i. a rationale for undertaking a particular assessment of learning at
a particular point in time.
ii. clear descriptions of the intended learning.
iii. processes that make it possible for students to demonstrate their
competence and skill.
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iv. a range of alternative mechanisms for assessing the same

outcomes.
v. public and defensible reference points for making judgements.
vi. transparent approaches to interpretation.
vii. descriptions of the assessment process.
viii. strategies for recourse in the event of disagreement about the
decisions.
With the help of their teachers, students can look forward to
assessment of learning tasks as occasions to show their competence, as
well as the depth and breadth of their learning.
8.6. TECHNIQUES OF ASSESSMENT
8.6.1. Observation
In school, during the school hours, the students undergo various
institutional environments. During this time the students behave
differently. Observation is useful in evaluating students’ behavior in
different situations. In English we use the phrases to see and to observe.
To see means to study the external body feature along with the internal
features. This process of observation is simple as far as it is concerned
with the gathering of information about the behavior and personality of
the students.
Observation helps the observer to observe the activities of students,
class-behaviour, and hence ascertain the emotional development, mental
development and maturity etc. During observation care should be taken
that the person who is observed is unaware that he is being observed.
Thus the observation should be out of the knowledge of person. Further
care should be taken that the behavior which is to be observed should be
pre-decided. At a time one person and one characteristic should be
observed. Observation can be direct or indirect, controlled or
uncontrolled, known or unknown.
Types of Observation
Observations can be categorized as controlled observation and
uncontrolled. The observation done in the laboratory is called controlled
observation. Controlled observation means the observation is done with
the knowledge of the person means that the person who is being
observed is aware that he or she is being observed by the observer.
Controlled observation thus means conscious observation. Uncontrolled
observation means taking observation without the knowledge of person.
Uncontrolled observation is thus conducted in a natural situation or
condition.

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Steps of Observation
Following are the steps for observation:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] and interpretation
1. Planning
The characteristic, topic or the thing to be observed is decided in this
stage. Whether it is group observation or personal observation, when and
how many times the observation would be done, the tools useful for
recording the observation etc. is also decided here. The specific type of
training, if necessary for observer, is provided. These training are useful
during interpretation. Who will be doing observation or the observer is
also pre decided.
2. Execution
The arrangement for observation is done. The necessary arrangement
for the observation as such the natural or artificial arrangement is done.
Then after that environment of that opportunity is given so that the
person is motivated to behave in some manner and that behavior is
observed. Moreover the type of observation, its time and place for
observation is also decided.
3. Recording and Interpretation
If the tools or instruments are ready then observation turns a fast
process. The observation or the recording is herby evaluated and
interpreted.
8.6.2. INTERVIEW
“Interview is a purposeful conversation”. - John Darle
Interview means a serious conversation which is done by some
purpose (Goode and Hatt). Interview means communication or
conversation between two persons initiated by interviewer for collecting
the information about research keeping in mind the objectives of the
interview. Here the information is collected directly by verbal
communication between two or more persons and the responses of the
respondents are noted. It is a purposeful and serious conversation. The
important aspect of interview is establishment of intimacy and to get
response from respondent. Thus, the interview is a process of
communication or interaction in which the respondent delivers the
required information to the interviewer face-to-face. It is used effectively
to collect the useful information in many research situations.

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When the researcher is extremely conscious about asking the

questions in his presence to exhibit his personal interactive objectives,
the researcher uses this process of questioning which is called interview.
Here the information is collected from the people verbally with their
physical presence. The responses of the respondent are then collected by
the interviewer in a separate sheet. It can be conducted by the interviewer
in person or in group. When the interviewer is conducted in group, the
size of the group should not be so large that it inhibits participation of
most of the members and at the same time if should not be so small that
it lacks substantially greater converge than in the individual interview.
The optimum size is approximately 10-12 persons. Social, intellectual
and educational homogeneity is important for effective participation of
all group members. A circular seating arrangement, with the interviewer
as one of the group, is conducive to full and spontaneous reporting and
participation. The interview can be conducted one or more times as per
requirement. As a tool for research interview is used as formal and
informal, directional and non-directional interview.
Characteristics of Interview
 It is social interaction
 It is a sincere method
 It is direct purposeful conversation.
 It involves various direct involvements of interviewer and
respondent.
 It involves various forms of questions to be asked to the
respondent.
 It is a purposeful and serious conversation.
 It involves establishment of intimacy between the interviewer
and respondent.
 It is a process of communication or interaction.
 It involves the note of responses delivered by the respondent.
 It involves the face-to-face involvement of the respondent and
the interviewer.
 It can be conducted one or more time.
 It is a tool to collect the useful information in many research
situations,
 It can be in person or in group.
 It exhibits the response excitement by the respondent.
 It is a behavioral method.

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 It indicates social, intellectual and educational homogeneity.

 It may be formal, informal, directional or non-directional
interview.
Nature of Interview
1. It is in the form of individual or group interview.
2. It is directional or non-directional interview.
3. It is formal or informal interview.
Types of Interview
Interviews are helpful as well resourceful in the research study
especially in the personal study, case study, trend studies, historical
research, experimental problems etc., to collect the relevant important
information.
Following are the types of interview:
1. Diagnostic Interview: The problems related with education like
adjustment, self concept, anxiety etc. can be known through diagnostic
interview. It may be personal or in group. It consists of variety of
questions necessary for the diagnosis. The respondent is questioned and
thus diagnosis is done.
2. Remedial Interview: Such type of interview is conducted to resolve
the diagnosed related problems for their remedy. If may be personal or in
group. It consists of variety of questions necessary for the remedy. The
respondent is questioned and thus remedial work is planned.
3. Structured Interview or Controlled Interview: In this type of
interview the subject matter, questions and methods are pre-decided and
fixed. The order of the questions and words are pre-decided and asked
accordingly. Thus the content, method, number of question, words and
the order of questions are fixed in this type of interview. The questions
and answers are manipulated and controlled.
4. Unstructured Interview or Uncontrolled Interview: In this type of
interview the attitude, aspirations, beliefs and characteristics of
respondent are used to collect the information. It is uncontrolled and
flexible whereby pre-decided or pre-organized orders of questions are not
emphasized. Here the interview is un manipulated and flexible. To get
information about the attitudes, motivations, characteristics and beliefs of
the respondent the respondent is questioned in the way he feels
comfortable. Unlike structured interview the respondent can give free
responses.
5. Individual and Group Interview: Here as per the need the individual
or group interviews are conducted. Individual interviews are conducted

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to evaluate the behavior, attitude or development of the individuals

whereas group interviews are taken for specific or general problems etc.
6. Directional Interview: For fulfilling the needs related to interaction
process, uncontrolled interviews are taken. As such subject matter and
the area of checking are accurate and pre-organized and as it is used for
getting related information they are considered as directional. Here
interviewer is independent of form and order of question to be asked in
interview means that the interviewer is free to ask any question of any
form and in any order.
7. Non-Directional Interview: Non-directional interviews are included in
psychoanalysis and in the field of medicine. There is freedom to show
sympathy to the respondent by the interviewer. The respondents are
motivated towards the subject matter. There is no pre-decided structure.
In case of any doubt the answer of the respondent can be modified. It is
also used to know the attitude, beliefs, ideas and feelings etc. In this type
of interview free from of questions can be asked to find the solution of
the problem. This type of interview being irrespective of order or
sequence of questions, the interviewer should have talent of asking the
appropriate questions. The respondent can be motivated about the subject
of research.
8. Focused Interview: Focused interview focuses on events or occasions
or the known situation of the respondent. Prior to the interview, the
interviewer does the analysis and accordingly the questions are decided
by during the interview, if it is required the pre-decided hypothesis can
be rejected or can be changed. Interviewer interprets and evaluates the
excitement of excited samples. Focused interview may be structured or
un-structured.
9. In depth Interview: Through the in depth interview the amount of the
experience and characteristics of respondent can be decided. Here
exciting situations are motivated and concentrated over previous
experience. To get the relevant and in depth information the intimacy
between the interviewer and the respondent is established. Here the
statements are repeated, misunderstanding is created, description of
situation is done or situations are compared in different ways to get the in
depth information from the researcher.
Steps of Interview
For interview the talent, patience and potential of interviewer,
organization of interview and the intimacy between the respondent and
the interviewer are of much importance. To conduct an interview, it
should be carefully planned and designed whereas the interviewer, it
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should be skilled and able to develop intimacy with the respondent. The
steps of interview include preparation of interview, execution of
interview, note taking and analysis of the information. Following are the
steps of interview:
1. Preparation for Interview: Preparation for interview includes the
objectives of interview and preparing the interview register. It is
actually the mental preparation of the interviewer for the interview.
It includes thinking for the objectives, type of interview, number of
interviewer, position, place and time of interview etc. by the
investigator.
2. Objectives of interview: In this step, the general aims of research
are converted into specific objectives. The area, information to be
collected, the respondents and the type of interview is decided
according to objective.
3. Prepare an Interview Register: While preparing for the interview
register the objectives of research are used to frame the questions.
The research problem, related variables and the samples are
considered. The information of good questions is based on subject
matter, inspiration, realities, attitude, expectation of information and
the intellect of interviewer and his rapport to develop relations. After
the careful evaluation and critical thinking of the above aspects the
appropriate types of questions are planned and a register is prepared
whereby the investigator can use the appropriate type of questions. It
can be in the form of questions, fill in the blanks, rating scale,
checklist etc. The responses can be worked of accordingly.
4. Execution of Interview: The execution of interview means
conducting the interview. As per the preplan whether be it the
personal or group interview, before starting the interview it is
necessary to disclose the personal identity and the objectives and
type of interview. The investigator should bear the tape recorder,
camera, if necessary and the interview register. The instructions, if
any and necessary is delivered to the respondents. The execution of
interview included establishing the rapport and eliciting information.
5. Establishing Rapport: To get the necessary, relevant, important and
all the information related to the subject it is necessary to gain the
confidence of respondent and thus leading towards a good and
successful interview. It is necessary that the interviewer should be
polite, well dressed, cool, calm, patient, decent and capable of
questioning and must bear good understanding. The investigator
should himself be clear with the questions and their responses and

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the objectives of interview. The investigator should be skillful,

positive, joyous, unbiased, capable, and free of any rational and bear
the attitude of sympathy thus establishing a good rapport with the
respondents.
6. Seeking the Information: In pre-planned series asking appropriate
questions without hurting the feelings of respondent and getting
necessary and relevant information is important hence care should be
taken that if in any case the respondent gets distracted of the point
then those points should be flexible and the respondent is not bored
of the interview and thus the information could be obtained.
7. Note taking: The final step of the interview with the respondent
used a paper sheet, predesigned answer sheet, tape recorder or video
recorder as per the requirement. Information is then minimized
through analysis. To note the complete information from the
respondent various activities, skill and talent could be used.
8. Analysis of the collected Information: In this step the investigator
does the assessment of the respondent‘s view as per the pre-decided
structure. Here the information provided by the respondent is
analysed and transformed into specific group or class or category.
Then with reference to the objectives of research the analysis and
interpretation of the data is done.
8.6.3. Questionnaire
A questionnaire is an instrument containing statements designed to
obtain a subject’s perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, values, opinions, or
other non-cognitive traits. Questionnaires are one of the most common
and popular tools to gather data from a large number of people. A good
questionnaire can be a powerful tool to inform your evaluation, and a
poorly designed questionnaire can make life difficult for both those that
have to complete it, and those that have to analyse the data. The word
survey as a substitute for questionnaire, but surveys refer to the broader
range of methods to collect information from a group of people. Surveys
include questionnaires and semi-structured interviews.
TYPES OF QUESTIONNAIRES
1. Post-activity questionnaires
Post-activity questionnaires generally consist of a limited number of
questions that ask participants to rate the effectiveness of various aspects
of the activity (eg. workshop). The focus of the questions should reflect
the key evaluation questions and the related monitoring questions that we
have identified in our Monitoring and Evaluation (M and E) plan. Asking
questions that do not relate to our monitoring questions is a waste of time
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and effort, and may also impact your response rate if participants
perceive the questionnaire to be too long.
Post-activity questionnaires tend to be short in order to reduce the
amount of time respondents need to complete them, and therefore
increase the response rate. Questions tend to be quantitative and
generally consist of close-ended questions (tick the box, or scales). We
can also include open-ended questions but it is best to limit these in order
to make data analysis and reporting easier.
2. Pre-then-post questionnaires
Questionnaires can be given to participants before and after an
intervention (pre and post) in order to compare their behaviours,
practices, and household fitting and appliances. This requires participants
to complete two questionnaires if we want to have an individual
comparison between pre and post intervention. In many cases, we may
get some participants completing the pre questionnaire, and others the
post questionnaire, which leaves to either use a very small sample, or
look at the average results for before and after. This can be an important
consideration if the number of participants is small.
3. Retrospective post-then-pre questionnaire
The retrospective post-then-pre questionnaire design overcomes
some of the constraints of pre-post designs as it is implemented at only
one point in time, thereby reducing the possibility of questionnaire
fatigue. A benefit of the post-then-pre design is that participants answer
the post then pre questions with the same knowledge and understanding
of the issue, thereby reducing the possibility of response shift bias.
Response shift bias occurs when participants understanding of issues are
impacted by an intervention. This leads them to answering post-
questionnaires differently to the way they understand the pre-
questionnaire.
One constraint of the post-then-pre design is that it may lead to
participants answering with a social desirability bias, where they feel that
they need to report a change or improvement meet the evaluator’s
expectations or demonstrate that they are meeting a social norm. It is
important to note that social desirability bias is relevant to all
questionnaire designs.
4. Post-project questionnaire
Post-project questionnaires generally consist of a limited number of
questions that ask participants to self-report on the changes they have
undertaken or undergone as a result of taking part in a project. A post-
project questionnaire may be used on its own to ask participants what
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changes that have made as a result of their participation. This type of

questionnaire is similar to the retrospective post-then-pre design, except
that it does not require participants to articulate their pre-intervention
knowledge, attitudes and behaviours. The constraint of only having a
post-project questionnaire is that there is a risk of social desirability bias
in the answers and we cannot be certain as to the validity of the baseline
state. Questionnaires can be paper-based, or electronic. Virtual learning
environments often have evaluation or survey tools built into them.
5. Structured questionnaires
It is based predominantly on closed questions which produce data
that can be analysed quantitatively for patterns and trends. The agenda is
entirely predetermined by the evaluator and provides little flexibility for
respondents to qualify their answers.
6. Unstructured questionnaires
Whilst still having a structured sequence and focus predetermined by
the evaluator, are based on open questions allowing respondents the
freedom to answer in their own words and therefore to provide greater
qualification in their response.
7. Semi-structured questionnaires
It takes a mixed approach.
Need of Questionnaires
 To allow for feedback from a large number of students, where it
is impractical to collect feedback using other more resource
intensive methods.
 To allow each student the opportunity to provide anonymous
feedback on their experience.
 Structured questionnaires allow for the exploration of patterns
and trends which help to describe what is happening in the
context and provide a measure of respondents’ opinions,
attitudes, feelings, and perceptions about issues of particular
concern to the evaluator. They also help to identify patterns and
trends that merit further exploration using qualitative methods.
 Unstructured questionnaires allow for richer feedback that may
provide insight into explanations for what is happening and
participants’ opinions, attitudes, feelings, perceptions etc. They
also allow for issues to emerge that are not necessarily foreseen
by the evaluator.
Strengths
 Questionnaires can be used to collect data quite quickly.
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 All participants can be given the opportunity to provide

feedback.
 Feedback is generally anonymous, which encourages openness
and honesty.
 Structured questionnaire data can be processed by software
packages such as Excel and SPSS.
Limitations
 Questions could be interpreted differently by respondents. It can
be difficult to design questionnaires to minimise this effect.
 Data processing and analysis for large samples can be time
consuming.
 It can be difficult motivating potential respondents to complete
questionnaires.
8.6.4. Rating Scales
By observing the various school and college activities we find
change in behavior of students. Over and above that various personal
characteristics are also observed. These characteristics separate the
human behavior. The teacher observes such type of behavior of students
by his insight and intelligence and hence evaluates the personality of the
student. If this behavior of the students is evaluated through rating scale
then it becomes more reliable. The technique of observation or the tool
with the help of which the researcher or observer observes externally the
amount of the various characteristics developed in a person and takes a
note of it methodologically is called rating scale. Here the evaluation is
done in relation to their opinion. Such a tool or instrument which
converts the opinion into numbers is called rating scale. It can be used to
evaluate the personality traits, creative skills, individual or social
adjustment etc.
Types of Rating Scales
The following are the main scales-
i. Numerical Scales,
ii. Graphic Scale,
iii. Standard Scales,
iv. Check Lists,
v. Forced Choice Scale,
vi. Ranking method and
vii. Q-Sort-method.
i. Numerical Scales
One of the simplest scales to construct and easiest to use, is the
numerical rating scale. This type of tool usually consists of several items
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each of which names or describes the behavior to be rated, and then

offers as alternative responses a series of numbers representing points
along the scale. This simple numerical scale does have face validity and
therefore seems to be widely accepted. It is more subjective or bias tool.
ii. Graphic Scale
If the format of the rating scale in such that the characteristics to be
rated is represented as a straight line along which are placed some verbal
guides, the tool is referred to as a graphic rating scale. It is easy to
construct and easy to administer therefore it is widely used of all the
specific types of rating scales, but it is less reliable measure.
iii. Standard Scale
In the standard scale approach an attempt is made to provide the rater
with more than verbal cues in describe various scale points. Ideally,
several samples of the objects to be rated are included each with a given
scale value which have been determined in experimental studies prior to
the use of the scale.
iv. Check Lists
An approach which is widely popular because it is simple to
administer and still permits wide coverage in short time is the behavior
check list. It contains a long list of specific behaviors which supposedly
represented individual differences, and rater simply checks whether the
item applies. The behavior index of individual is obtained by summing
up the items, which have been checked. The modified check list or for
reliable result, it is essential for each item as applicable or not applicable
or not known.
v. Forced Choice Scale
One of the most recent innovations in the rating scale area has been
developed a forced choice technique which has been designed to
overcome the major difficulties faced on with earlier techniques. In a
forced choice rating the rater is required to consider not just one attribute,
but several characteristics all at one time. Assuming that relevant item is
difficult for a better to distinguish from which is not predictive if both are
equally favourable to the person, the format requires that only few of
several behaviours listed in each item be selected as applicable.
vi. Ranking Method
It is not possible that rater can accurately judge equivalent distances
at various points along the scale. Under these conditions a ranking
method which requires only that subjects who are being rated to be
placed in order of each trait can be used. This approach is essential for

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large number of persons are to be rated. The ranking approach has the
advantage of forcing the judge to make a definite discrimination among
these rates by eliminating the subjective differences faced by the judges,
second advantage that group ranking is uniform.
vii. Q-sort Method
Another relative ranking method is so called Q-Sort developed by
Stephenson in 1953. It is one of the best approaches to obtain a
comprehensive description of an individual while ranking method gives
the comprehensive friction of a group of the individuals. Therefore Q-
Sort is widely used for rating person’s school or one the hob for
individual guidance.
Importance of Rating Scale
i. Any characteristic can be measured through rating scale.
ii. It is helpful to evaluate the behaviour which other tools can
hardly deal with.
iii. Abstract characteristics can be evaluated by rating scales.
iv. It is helpful to personality or the social development of person.
v. The level of each characteristic of each student of the class can
be known.
vi. It is helpful to deliver all the necessary information related to the
progress of students.
vii. The rating scale is also useful for the measurement of other
methods or techniques.
viii. Within less time more opinions can be obtained.
8.6.3 Limitations of Rating Scale
i. The evaluation being totally based on observation, the bias,
liking, disliking, beliefs and assumptions etc., of the evaluator
are the hindering factors for unbiased evaluation.
ii. The unawareness about the characteristics leads to the wrong
observation.
iii. If large number of behavioral evaluation is to be done then the
evaluator being bored of the tick mark generalizes the results.
8.7. SEMESTER SYSTEM
Educational system all over the world has never been consistent over
the year. Through advancement and exposure to new concepts,
educationists investigate possibilities to teach texts in various feasible
manners. According to Myron Tribus (1994), there are innumerable
proposals or suggestions for reforms and changes in educational system

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and there are infinite number of good ideas and research results. The
target is not just to pick one of them but rather it is to have
comprehensive attitude and approach within which to bring to action
many good works known to us. Introduction of semester system can be
said to be the product of these investigations. A semester system is an
academic term. It is division of an academic year, the time during which
a college holds classes. It also might be applicable in the schools and
universities. Usually, a semester system divides the year in two parts or
terms. Sometimes, it might be trimester or quarter semester.
Literally, semester means six-month period. In India this six-month
system is generally followed. In schools we find the year divided in
between two (often three) major examinations in and around the
vacations. The central universities in India have been long following this
from quite some time. At present, the under graduate colleges in Assam
too have been familiarized with the semester system. We find that most
nations of the world today are constantly switching onto the semester
system. It is estimated that the famous global economies of the world are
the USA, China and India. In the world of competitions, one of the areas
of the big fights is education. We find that China is almost replacing
USA in this area too apart from fighting hand in hand in occupying the
global markets. In fact, trying to occupy the highest position in the world
of education is actually occupying the largest share of intellectual
position in the global education ladder. In People's Republic of China, all
schools including elementary, middle and high schools, colleges and
universities have two semesters. To remain in the same fight of the one
world and win, the rules should be the same. Following the footsteps of
China, and other important nations, India without losing anymore time
wants to fall in the same system. And it is doing so. As part of the nation,
Assam too has introduced the semester-system in the colleges along with
other states of the nation.
1. History and Reaction
Some of the aspects to be considered in the adoption of semester
system are that the government’s concern with privatization of education
system. Privatization of education means that education has been passed
on to the private sector and that also means that private sector has a
greater say in setting their own fees which can be exorbitantly high
although the quality of education provided might not even be half as
good. While at one level, privatization of education seems to be a good
option given the way the government has abjectly failed to maintain
decent standards of education and to add to the poor infrastructure
provided by the government. But, privatization is not really a solution to
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the problem that continues to plague India even 64 yrs after

independence that is poor educational standards in the country. The
biggest of the challenges with these private institutions is that there is no
guarantee of the quality of teaching and more so teachers teaching in
these institutions. The other problem with private institutions is that they
extract exorbitant amount of money for very short periods of coaching.
We have tried privatization of education earlier also without too much
success or to put it in a simple way there was a lack of change in the
education system even then. So, all said and done, there has to be some
serious thinking on the matter of providing quality education in a decent
manner and at a decent rate.
The semester system has been introduced on the undergraduate
curriculum in affiliated colleges in the university with effect from 2009
admission onwards. The academic world in Assam reacted slightly
stunningly with the introduction of semester system. Teachers, students
and guardians who were used to the practice and idea of the annual
system were slightly hesitant in its implementation. However, it can be
said to be the continuation of the past days spent in schools. In the
schools, the students and teachers are used to work and study almost the
whole year with two or three major breaks as vacations in the bi-yearly
or tri-yearly examinations. The introduction of this semester system can
be evaluated as part of the consistency of the school years.
2. Annual system verses semester system
Comparison between annual system and semester system is very
often done. Both the systems have its merits and demerits. Annual
system is the traditional system. Annual system covers more syllabuses
at a stretch and compels the student to remember all this till the end of
the year. Sometimes, two or more topics will be included in the same
paper, when specializations are there. Otherwise, certain topics will be
omitted and the syllabus diluted. Since at the end of the year only the
public examinations are conducted, University gets enough time to
prepare question papers and value answer papers. Number of examiners
and examinations also can be reduced, which become more economical
for Universities. Results can be announced in time and the schedule can
be kept.
In semester system, the students get more advantage; since
examinations are held within months (what is studied will remain afresh
in their brain). The syllabus load also will be less. Different topics need
not be combined in the same paper. Students get more chances to
improve also. Since examinations come within a few months student

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unrest also will be less in a semester system. There were many

challenges to be faced by the under graduate colleges in preparing the
students for the semester system. The semester system is a very proactive
system as it engages both the faculty and the students throughout the year
in academic activity. While, in the annual system once the student enters
the college he feels free and thinks about studying only during the exam
time. Semester system not only involves students more throughout the
year but also reduces examination burden. The semester system is the
need of hour and a very effective one.
3. Importance and objective of the semester system
Some of the objectives of the semester system are many;
1. To broaden the outlook of the students and instill in them a sense
of confidence and responsibility.
2. The student gets more chances to remain well versed.
3. Unit tests act as model tests for the final examination.
4. A detailed account of the student’s progress graph can be
produced in semester system.
5. To acquaint the students with different forms, styles and
thoughts in other parts of the country and beyond.
6. The semester system allows greater interaction with teachers and
the students will be more focused on preparing throughout the
year.
7. It is also part of the current trend in education system in other
parts of the country and beyond.
4. Merits
There are many merits of this semester system. They may be as
follows;
1. It is good for the student community. As these students are the
futures of society.
2. It creates awareness of the parallel streams prevalent in various
parts of the country.
3. It keeps the students in touch with the books the whole year. It
can prove beneficial for the students.
4. The compulsion of tests in between has made the students
presence in the colleges all throughout the year. In present world
there are too many distractions available for the youth to go
astray. Engagement in tests and examinations in the colleges can
keep them busy in more fruitful works, which will be personally
beneficial for them too.

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5. The students will be constantly evaluated and the depth and

breadth of their knowledge will improve.
6. It allows greater interaction with teachers and the children will
be more focused on preparing throughout the year.
7. This will give the students to cooperate in the future with the
universities, most of who run in the semester system. There shall
follow continuity in the imparting of the education and
examination system with the introduction of the semester
system.
8. For some students, it will be better as there will be fewer courses
as compared to annual.
9. The semester system allows the students no luxury of studying at
the last moment and still getting good marks in the final exams.
So one has to be on his toes throughout and cannot bunk classes
or afford to take their studies lightly. This is certainly a good
point of the semester system and it will keep everyone working
all through their college life seriously rather that turning to just
last minute studies which many students resort to because of the
structure of the current evaluation system.
10. The other plus point of the semester system is that it means that
the student gets tested on very small sections at a time, so when
he gives the final exams where the whole curriculum is assessed,
one is in a position to write an even better exam than with the
current system as this means he is already aware of the problem
areas and by the time of the final exams, we will have a chance
of improving the percentage in the final assessment.
11. When students go to undergraduate colleges after school, they
are compelled to revert back to annual system. Introduction of
semester system now will no more shock the students about the
system.
8.8. CCE
Continuous and Comprehensive Evaluation (CCE) is a process of
continuous attempts to assess desirable change taking place in the
students along the lines of educational objectives. The desirable behavior
related to the students’ knowledge and understanding in subjects and his
ability to apply it in an unfamiliar situation are described as objectives in
scholastic domain. The desirable behavior related to students’ attitudes,
interests, personal and social qualities ad physical health are described as
non-scholastic domain. The process of assessing the students’ progress in
achieving objectives related to scholastic and non- scholastic domain is
called comprehensive evaluation. Continuous and comprehensive
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evaluation is the regular assessment to the extent and degree of students’

progress, ability and achievement with reference to specific scholastic
and non-scholastic areas.
i. System of school based evaluation of the learner that covers all
aspects of the learner development
ii. Continuous assessment of one’s learning content, the responses,
the nature and success of its applications and the behavioural
outcomes and further by the measurement of the holistic
development through comprehensive tools of assessment.
iii. Learning profile of the student is continuous and not a onetime
terminal activity
iv. More a process rather than an event
v. Gives scope for remediation and further learning
vi. Targeted to enable learning, re-learning, and facilitating the
scaling up of the learning process
vii. Learning can be both formal and informal
viii. Occur through several facets of activities
ix. Learning profile of the learners needs to be assessed in different
contexts of learning both formal and informal.
x. Acknowledges expression of learning through a variety of
activities and hence their assessment through multiple tools of
assessment.
xi. Scan the entire learning map of the each student.
Facilitates assessment of the learner through the taxonomical domains
such as:
i. Knowledge
ii. Understanding
iii. Application
iv. Analysis
v. Synthesis
vi. Evaluation
vii. Creativity
Salient Features of CCE
i. Involves the process of assessing continuously and
comprehensively through a variety of tools and techniques.
ii. Broad-based
iii. Covers all the aspects of learner’s growth and development.

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iv. Non-threatening and helps in reducing learner’s stress by

assessing small portions of the curricular content.
v. It is a school-based evaluation consisting of both Scholastic and
Co – Scholastic aspects.
vi. The scholastic component of CCE conceptualizes evaluation of
all academic subjects as spread over the entire span learning
period.
vii. It also includes Physical Education in its scope of assessment.
viii. CCE is carried out through Formative Assessment (FA) and
Summative Assessment (SA)
ix. Criterion based, diagnostic and remedial.
x. It offers feedback to the teacher and learners.
xi. Descriptive Indicators are used to assess the achievement profile
of the learners in FA.
xii. SA is the evaluation of learning.
xiii. SA involves regular and norm-based assessment of all academic
subjects at the end of a Term.
xiv. Co – Scholastic Evaluation is the assessment of many informal
and formal developmental areas such as life skills, attitude and
values, wellness, service activities and work education.
Formative Assessment
i. An assessment that takes place during the course of learning.
ii. It is both diagnostic and remedial.
iii. Assessment for learning provides continuous feedback to
teachers and learners.
iv. Helps to bridge learning gaps both at the individual level and at
the group level.
v. Facilitates to reflect on their learning curve to make learning
more effective
vi. Includes within its scope, the assessment of learning activities
and transactional procedures in the classroom.
vii. Provides scope for social constructivism.
FA has 3 components;
1. Formative Assessment (FA (a))
2. Formative Assessment – (FA (b))
3. Practical
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1. Formative Assessment – FA (a)

 Broad-based measure of the learner’s participation and
involvement in learning activities.
 Reflects learner’s initiative, interest, perseverance, regularity ,
and perfection in performing activities related to the content
while learning
 Facilitated through activity - specific indicators given in the
guidelines.
 Assess all related areas of knowledge, including cognition,
understanding, application, skill and emotional responses
therein.
 Measures skills both at the individual level and at the group
level
 Assessment is not time bound and can occur at any point of the
learning process free of time and space.
 Concept Mapping
 Flow Chart
 Graphical Representation
 Classification Games
 Preparing Models
 Field Trip
 Mock Presentation of Institutions / Organizations
 Assignments
 Reporting
 Role Play/Skit
 Drawing
 Scrap Book
 Album
 Debate
 Presentation (Black Board, Chart, Technological etc.,)
 Discussion
 Creative Writing
 Doing an Experiment
 Project
 Dictionary Work
 Reading Books (Library/ Supplementary)

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2. Formative Assessment – FA (b)

 Assesses the learner’s understanding of subject specific
concepts.
 Happens at the completion of each learning unit or group of
concepts.
 Aims to diagnose a learner’s development in all areas of
curricular learning such as knowledge, understanding
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation,
creativity etc., through written tests.
 Built around thinking skills that have a definite possibility of
quantification.
 Objective in nature, and prepare students for Summative
Assessments.
 Focus of marking and grading would be on written work
 Right/Wrong, True-false,
 Yes/No, Fill in the blanks,
 Matching Type ( 2 or 3 column types),
 Multiple Choice Questions
 Quote from memory
 Reasoning and Assertion
 Odd one out
 Sequencing or Rearranging statements,
 Filling Forms,
 Completing Picture or Graph or Map,
 Solving simple problem,
 Multiple Choice Questions
 Quote from memory
 Reasoning and Assertion
 Odd one out
 Sequencing or Rearranging statements,
 Filling Forms,
 Completing Picture or Graph or Map,
 Solving simple problem
 Very Short Answer Questions,
 Short Answer Questions,
 Paragraph Questions

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3. Formative Assessment – Practical

 Practical could be conducted as suggested below.
 Practical work in Science
 Practical work/project in mathematics
 Creative writing/ Project work in languages
 Presentations on contemporary developments in the study of
geography or civic /environmental issues in the Social Sciences
Summative Assessment – SA
 Assessment of learning at the end of a definite time period
 Time scheduled
 Evaluates the extent and degree of the learner’s progress in all
areas of learning such as knowledge, understanding
comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, evaluation,
creativity etc., through written tests.
 It is an individualistic, blue – print based, written test.
 Blue print would specify the weightage only for instructional
objectives (K-20%, U – 30%, A-30%, S-20%) and not the
content / unit/ lesson.
 Question paper would reflect all units of the content prescribed
for that particular term.
 In the blue print, weightage to specific content / unit / lesson
would be given in proportion to the transaction time allotted for
them.
 While setting question paper, all types of questions viz.,
objectives type, Short answer type, Very Short answer type and
Paragraph type would be given.
8.8.1. Marks
Marking Scheme for FA
 FA carries a weightage of 40 marks in each term.
 In each subject Four FA (a) activities are to be assessed.
 Each activity carries 10 marks.
 Out of the Four, the best two shall be taken and recorded for 20
marks (2 x 10 = 20) marks
 In each subject two FA (b) tests are to be conducted.
 Each test carries 10 marks.
 Out of the two, the better one shall be taken and recorded for 10
marks (1 x 10 = 10 marks)

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 Each Practical carries 10 marks.

 Each practical is to be assessed by the criteria pertaining to that
practical / simple project.
 The average of the marks scored by the learners in all the
practicals (the best four) shall be taken and recorded for 10
marks.
 Learner who gets less than Grade ‘D’ should be given remedial
measures by the subject teacher until the learner gets greater
than or equal to Grade ‘D’ before moving to the next term.
Marking Scheme for SA
 SA carries a weightage of 60 marks in each term.
 Learner who gets less than Grade ‘D’ should be given remedial
measures by the subject teacher until the learner gets greater
than or equal to Grade ‘D’ before moving to the next term.
Co- Scholastic Activities
 A series of informal learning activities which scaffolds learning
at the experiential level.
 Addresses both to the cognitive and affective domains of
learning
 Facilitate in building the emotional profile of the learners and
their personality to empower them as competent, confident and
contributive citizens of the society and in this process they also
enrich learning.
 Dealt by the subject teachers and special teachers during the
course of curriculum transaction ie. in the Language, Math,
Science and Social Science, Physical Education Clubs.
 Outside including on the occasion of several functions,
celebrations, programs and meets.
 Based on the descriptors given in the Co-scholastic Guidelines
teachers handling all the subjects of the given class (IX A, IX B
etc.,) need to assess each student and record in a common grade
register.
 Five Co- scholastic areas viz., Life Skills, Attitude and Values,
Wellness, Service Activities and Art and Work Education.
Co- Scholastic Activities - Life Skills
 Thinking Skills --
o Self Awareness
o Problem solving and Decision Making

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o Critical Thinking
o Creative Thinking
 Social Skills
o Nurturing relationships
o Effective Communication
o Empathy
o Assertion and Refusal Skills
 Emotional Skills
o Coping with Stress
o Coping with emotions
Co- Scholastic Activities - Attitude and Values
 Social Skills
o Nurturing relationships
o Effective Communication
o Empathy
o Assertion and Refusal Skills
 Emotional Skills
o Coping with Stress
o Coping with emotions
 Attitudes and Values reflect the core personality profile of the
individual.
 Assessed on the basis of observing and interacting with the
learner in various contexts.
 Assessed both in the classroom and outside including on the
occasion of several functions, celebrations, programs and meets.
The components of attitude and values.
The components of attitude and values are:
 Enhancing Citizenship Qualities
 Respect to Culture and Heritage
 Contributing to Societal Integrity and Communal Harmony
 Gender Sensitivity
 Being Humane
Co- Scholastic Activities - Wellness
 Wellness is considered to be an active process of becoming
aware of and learning to make choices (healthy choices) that
lead toward a longer and more successful existence.

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 World Health organization (WHO) defines health as a physical,

mental, and social well being not mere absence of disease or
ailments.
 A variety of activities may be undertaken in a school for
developing the health of learners.
 Human Physiology
 Responsibility and Health
 Social Health
 Safety Health
 Environmental Health
 Nutrition and
 Consumer Health.
Co- Scholastic Activities - Service Activities
 It is necessary to develop social awareness and service to
humanity among learners.
 This can be attained by involving them in any one of the
activities available, in the school concerned
 NCC
 Scout and Guides
 JRC
 NGC
 RRC etc.
Co- Scholastic Activities – Art and Work Education
 Empowers the learners to involve in skill based activities which
may provide entrepreneur skills and aesthetic pleasure.
 The school may involve the learners in any one of the following
activities based on their interest and availability of local
resources.
 Tailoring
 Jewell making (Beads, Stones etc.,)
 Doll Making
 Preparation of Stationery Items such as covers,
 Book Binding
 Screen printing
 Origami
 Developing materials from waste paper
 Hand embroidery
 Running a book bank
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 Repair and maintenance of domestic electrical gadgets

 Repair and maintenance of Cell Phone
 Computer operation and maintenance
 Photography etc.
8.8.2. Grading System
Recording Grades in Co-scholastic Areas
 At the end of each term, all the subject teachers should record
the grades based on the descriptive indicators for each of co-
scholastic areas in his/her register for reference.
 But, the class teacher is the sole responsible person for
awarding the Grade in co-scholastic areas in consultation with
the subject teachers.
 Hence, the subject teachers and class teacher should jointly
discuss to arrive at the grade for each co-scholastic area for each
student as given in the Table .
Recording Grades in Co-scholastic Areas
 At the end of year, grade point average for each co-scholastic
area should be calculated by averaging the Grade Point of three
Terms and converted into corresponding Grade.
Scholastic – Scholastic - Scholastic -
Grading system Grading system Grading system
9 point 9 point scale SA 9 point scale Grade
scale FA 40 60 40+60=100 Point
Marks Grade Marks Grade Marks Grade
37-40 A1 55-60 A1 91-100 A1 10

33-36 A2 49-54 A2 81-90 A2 9

29-32 B1 43-48 B1 71-80 B1 8
25-28 B2 37-42 B2 61-70 B2 7
21-24 C1 31-36 C1 51-60 C1 6
17-20 C2 25-30 C2 41-50 C2 5
13-16 D 20-24 D 33-40 D 4
9—12 E1 13-19 E1 21-32 E1 --
12 & 20 &
8 & Below E2 E2 E2 --
Below Below
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GRADING SYSTEM
Model Teacher Assessment Record
Subject: Tamil Class: IX Term: I

FA(b) (better one )

Practical A verage
FA(a) ( best two)

Overall Grade
Total M arks

Grade FA
Grade SA
Practical
FA (a)

FA(b)

FA 40
SA 60

100
N am e
S. N O

20+10+10
Total 10
P2 10

P3 10
P4 10
Total

Total

P110
B2
b1
a1
10
a2
10
a3
10
a4
10

20

10

10

10
1

MARK AND GRADE REGISTER PART-1 (A) ACADEMIC

PERFORMANCE:
SCHOLASTIC AREAS
TERM– I TERM– II TERM– III

Overall Grade
Overall Total
SUBJECTS

Grade

Grade

Grade
FA 40
FA 40

FA 40
Total

Total

Total
100
SA

100

100
SA

SA
60
60

60

TAMIL

ENGLISH

MATHS

SCIENCE/
EVS

SOCIAL
SCIENCE

a. Marking Vs Grading
Realizing the bottlenecks in our examinations, a lot of thinking along
with deliberate efforts to bring about examination reforms has been the

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feature of post independence Indian education. During this period many

thoughtful endeavors were initiated in the areas of paper setting, making
system more systematic and objective and for transforming making
system into grading system. Many education commissions and
committee emphasized the need for a systemic change in examination
system in our country. Council of Boards of Secondary Education
(CBSE) constituted a committee on scaling and grading in 1981. This
committee recommended five-point grading system. National Policy of
Education (1986) and Programme of Action (1992) also recommended
the use of grades in place of marks while declaring the results.
National Curriculum Framework for School Education published by
NCERT (2005) also reiterated the need for declaring results in terms of
grades in place of marks.
b. Concept of Grading System
Evaluation is a powerful and potential process to know the direction
in which the children are developing. Evaluation is considered to be one
the most important components of education process that helps in
assessing the performance of children in a teaching- learning context.
The usual practice of assessment in schools is through conducting
examinations. One of the major drawbacks of our examination system is
reporting students’ performance in terms of marks. In order to minimize
the limitations of present day examinations system, a major reform
concerns transforming the marking system into a grading system.
Grading is a process of classifying students based on their
performance into groups with the help of predetermined standards,
expressed in a symbolic form i.e., letters of English alphabet. As these
grade and corresponding symbols are pre-determined and well defined,
the entire stakeholder would understand them uniformly and consistently.
While developing the grading system, it is of utmost significance that the
meaning of each grading symbol be clearly spelt out.
c. Types of Grading System
On the basis of the reference point of awarding grades, grades are
classified as Direct and Indirect, it is also divided into two as Absolute
and Relative. The reference point in former classification is an approach
and in the latter, a standard of judgment. Absolute and relative grading
come under indirect grading.

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Direct Grading
The process of assessing students’ performance qualitatively and
expressing it in terms of letter grades directly is called direct grading.
This type of grading can be used for assessment of students’ performance
in both scholastic and co-scholastic areas. However, direct grading is
mostly preferred in the assessment of co-scholastic learning outcomes.
While evaluation co-scholastic learning outcomes, the important factors
are listed first and then a student’s performance is expressed in a letter
grade. This type of grading minimizes inter- examiner variability and is
easy to use when compared to indirect grading. Direct grading has a
limitation that it does not have transparency and diagnostic value and
does not encourage competition to the extent required.
Indirect Grading
In indirect grading, student performance is first assessed in terms of
marks and then they are transformed into letter grades. Different modes
may be followed while transforming the marks into grades. On the basis
of the mode of transformation of marks into grades, there are two types
of grading, viz. absolute grading and relative grading.
Absolute Grading
Absolute grading is based on a pre- determined standard that
becomes the reference point for students’ performance. In absolute
grading, the marks are directly converted into grade on the grades on the
basis of a pre-determined standard. Absolute grading can be on a three-
point, five- point or nine –point scale for primary, upper primary and
secondary stages respectively.
i. Three-Point Scale
Students are classified into three groups as above average, average
and below average on the basis of pre-determined range of score as
shown in below table.
Three- tier classification and their meaning;
Range of marks Grade Description
60% and above A Above Average
30%- Less than 60% B Average
Below 30% C C Below Average

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ii. Five- Point Scale

Students are classified into five groups, distinction, first division,
second division and third division and unsatisfactory on the basis of pre-
determined range of score as shown in below table.
Five- tier classification and their meaning;
Range of marks Grade Description
75% and Above A Distinction/ Excellent
60% - Less than 75% B First Division/Good
45% - Less than 60% C Second Division/ Average
33% - Less than 45% D Third Division/ Below Average
Below 33% E Unsatisfactory/ Poor
iii. Nine- Point Scale
In absolute grading the range of absolute marks or percentage of
marks need not necessarily be of equal size. The range of marks as a pre-
determined standard for classifying students into different groups may be
taken as arbitrary. In a nine- point grading scale, the students may be
classified into nine groups, namely, outstanding, excellent, very good,
good, above average, below average, marginal and unsatisfactory. An
example of nine-point absolute grading is provided in below table.
Nine- tier classification and their meaning;
Range of marks Grade Description
90% and Above A Outstanding
80% - Less than 90% B Excellent
70% - Less than 80% C Very Good
60% - Less than 70% D Good
50% - Less than 60% E Average
40% - Less than 50% F Average
30% - Less than 40% G Below Average
20% - Less than 30% H Marginal
Below 20% I Unsatisfactory

Merits of Absolute Grading

i. Negative effects of pass/ fail eliminated.
ii. No grade signifies failure of students.
iii. Simple and straight forward.
iv. Meaning of each grade is distinctively understandable.

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v. Students have the freedom to strive for highest possible grade.

vi. No complications.
vii. Easy for teachers to award grades as per pre-determined range of
marks.
Demerits of Absolute Grading
i. Grade may not be comparable.
ii. Distribution of marks varies from one subject to another and
from one year to another.
iii. Number of students placed in different categories will differ
from subject to subject and year to year.
iv. Distribution of marks is taken on its face value.
v. Errors in measurement due to subjectivity are ignored.
vi. Different categories are arbitrarily decided.
Relative Grade
In this system, grades are given based on the student's score
compared to the others in the class. This system is used in some
universities and colleges and even in some advanced high school classes.
In this system, a few students are guaranteed to receive an A and a few
students are guaranteed to receive an F.
Point values in this system don't translate directly into letter grades.
For example, if most of your students scored between 80 and 90 out of
100, then this would mean that scores around 85 points are assigned a C.
Scores around the 90 mark are assigned a B and the highest scores are
assigned an A or A+. If the highest score is a 92, then 92 will equate to
an A+. The lowest score will equate to an F. If the lowest score is a 75,
then that 75 is an F.
d. Merits of Grading System
Due to over-emphasis on examinations, both teaching and learning
have become examination- centered. Teachers teach for examinations
and students learn for examinations. Award of marks and declaration of
results has become the main purpose of schooling. Actually,
Examinations are meant to examine the process of learning. They help
teachers to locate learning variations among children. Examinations also
aim at helping children estimate their learning performance and
accordingly improve their proficiencies. But these idealistic purposes of
examinations have taken a back seat.
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i. As grading involves grouping the students according to their

attainment levels, it help in categorizing the students as per their
attainments of instructional objectives also.
ii. One of the significant arguments in favour of the grading system
is that it creates faviourables conditions for classification of
students’ performance on a more convincing and justifiable
scale.
iii. In order to understand why grading is a better proposition than
the marking system, it is necessary to look closely into the
various procedures of scaling.
iv. Grading is a far more satisfactory method than the numerical
marking system.
v. The justification for the superiority of grading system over
marking system is that it signifies individual learner‘s
performance in the form of a certain level of achievement in
relation to the whole group.
e. Limitation of Grading System
Grading system is considered as the most viable and systematic to
assess the outcomes of teaching- learning process; it is not free from
criticism due to several reasons which are listed below;
i. There is a possibility of different examiners interpreting the
standard differently resulting in inter-examiner variability.
ii. Grading stipulates strict adherence to pre-defined criteria.
iii. In absolute grading, the students are put into different categories
on the basis of predetermined range of scores.
iv. Relative grading, though scientific is considered somewhat
complicated for teachers, especially when they are not equipped
to implement it in their classes.
v. Grades are often awarded without employing both multiple
criteria and multiple sources of information.
vi. The percentage of students belonging to different grades is pre-
determined and the grades are not awarded on the basis of
individual student‘s performance but are decided on the basis of
performance of students in a larger group.

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vii. Lack of uniform policy on grading across different State Boards

of Education creates a problem of compatibility of grade
awarded on different criteria in different board examination.
8.9. COMPUTER IN EVALUATION
Technology has a vital role to play in effective and efficient
assessment of learning. Modern technology offers educators a variety of
new tools that can be used in the classroom. Technology can help
teachers assess their students' learning as well as their performance in the
classroom. Use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) in
assessment involves the use of digital devices to assist in the
construction, delivery, storage or reporting of student assessment tasks,
responses, grades or feedback.
Geoffrey Crisp (2011) in the Teacher's Handbook on e-Assessment
stated that the ICT based assessment can be undertaken with many
devices, such as traditional desktop computers or laptops, with portable
communication devices such as smart mobile phones, with digital
devices such as iPads or through the use of electronic gaming devices.
ICT based assessment can use a multitude of formats, including text
documents or portable document formats, multimedia formats such as
sound, video or images; it can involve complex simulations or games; it
can also be undertaken by students in groups or individually and it can
occur with large numbers of students in a synchronous or asynchronous
manner.
Teachers can use computers to construct their assessment tasks, to
deliver these tasks to relevant students and to record and provide
feedback and grades to these students. Computers can also be used to
analyse students' responses, both to provide feedback to the student on
the quality and relevance of their response, as well as to provide
feedback to the teacher on whether the task can differentiate between
students with different abilities. ICT based assessment can be used to test
many different capabilities and skills that are developed by students.
There are only a few tasks that might not be suitable for completing and
recording electronically, but the number of such tasks is rapidly
diminishing as technology becomes more sophisticated and widespread.
In many disciplines laboratory equipment can be manipulated remotely
and students can undertake real time physical performances that are able
to be recorded and used for assessment purposes. We are quickly
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approaching the stage where our imaginations will be the limiting factor
in designing e-assessment tasks.
Christine, R. (2013) identified two conceptually different approaches
to assessing Key Competencies using ICT. On the one hand, Computer-
Based Assessment (CBA) approaches have been employed for more than
two decades and now go beyond simple multiple choice test formats.
With this new "Generation Re-Invention" or "transformative" testing,
questions are increasingly integrated into more complex and authentic
problem contexts, so that the full range of Key Competencies can be
assessed. Additionally, due to technological advances, a wider range of
answer formats, including free text and speech, can be automatically
scored.
On the other hand, technology-enhanced learning environments offer
a promising avenue for embedded assessment of the more complex and
behavioral dimensions of Key Competencies, based on Learning
Analytics. Many of the currently available technology-enhanced learning
environments, tools and systems recreate learning situations which
require complex thinking, problem-solving and collaboration strategies
and thus allow for the development of generic skills. Some of these
environments allow learners and teachers to assess performance,
understand mistakes and learn from them.
Computer Assisted Assessment (CAA):
Computer-assisted assessment refers to the use of computers to
assess students learning and performance. Computer-assisted assessment
is a term that covers all forms of assessments, whether summative or
formative, delivered with the help of computers. This covers both
assessments delivered on computer, either online or offline, and those
that are marked with the aid of computers, such as those using Optical
Mark Reading (OMR).
Computer Assisted Assessment is typically formative, in that it helps
students to discover whether they have learned what the educator
intended and provide timely feedback on how best to teach a subject.
Increasingly, it can be summative, with limited feedback typically being
given at the end of a course and serving to grade and categorize the
student's work. It can also be diagnostic, e.g. by testing for pre-
knowledge.

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Advantages
[Link] assisted testing is more likely to be objective testing;
testing that can be marked objectively and thus offer high
reliability.
[Link] benefit is that the tests can be marked quickly and easily, and
adapted to meet a wide range of learning outcomes.
Disadvantages
[Link] is usually associated with testing knowledge and skills rather than
conceptual understanding, because of the frequent use of
Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ) formatting, which is believed
to test at a lower level of understanding when related to Bloom's
Taxonomy;
[Link] of good objective tests requires skill and practice and
so is initially time consuming;
[Link] and software must be carefully monitored to avoid failure
during examinations;
[Link] issues can be a problem in Web based CAA;
[Link] require adequate IT skills and experience of the assessment
type.

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UNIT 9
CURRICULUM
EVALUATION

9.1. CURRICULUM EVALUATION

Curriculum is defined as the sum of all experiences, which are to be
provided in an educational institution. According to Wheeler (1967)
curriculum means the planned experiences offered to the learners under
the guidance of the school. Curriculum has been defined by Tanner and
Tanner (1975) as the planned guided learning experience and intended
learning out-comes formulated through a systematic reconstruction of
knowledge and experiences under the auspices of the school for the
learner’s continuous and willful growth in academic, personal and social
competence.
Evaluation is a word used in a variety of ways sometimes with
imprecise and overlapping meanings (Lawton, 1973). It is much wider
than that measurement. It is more fundamentally concerned with
deciding on the value or worth wholeness of a learning process as well as
the effectiveness with which it is being carried out.
Curriculum evaluation refers to the process of studying the merit or
worth of some aspect, or the whole of a curriculum. Depending on the
way in which the term curriculum is defined, the focus or objects of
curriculum evaluation could include curriculum design, learning

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environment, instruction process, resources and materials used in

instructional process It is also essential to find out about the adequacy as
well as the provision of the required teaching resources such as teaching
aids, laboratories, library books and instruments (Wiles and Bondi,
1989). Curriculum evaluation is clearly a process by which we attempt to
gauge the value and effectiveness of any piece of educational activity
which could be a rational project, or a piece of work under taken by or
with pupils.
9.1.1. Meaning of Curriculum Evaluation
Evaluation essentially is the provision of information for the sake of
facilitating decision making at various stages of curriculum development.
This information may pertain to the program as a complete entity or only
to some of its components. Evaluation also implies the selection of
criteria, collection and analysis of data. It includes obtaining information
for use in judging the worth of a programme and procedure. It is a
comprehensive term and transcends standardized tests covering all means
of ascertaining the results of construction.
Evaluation of curriculum is an integral and essential part of the
whole process of curriculum development. It is a continuous activity and
not a "tail-end-process". Evaluation and planning are complementary
processes which occur almost simultaneously and continuously. Planning
is made on the basis of evaluation and vice versa. However, as a separate
state evaluation has its own entity.
The importance of curriculum evaluation is to determine the value of
the curriculum itself. Is the curriculum appropriate for the particular
group of students with whom it is being used? Are the instructional
methods selected, the best choices in the light of the objectives sought? Is
the content the best that could be selected? Are the materials
recommended for instructional purpose appropriate and the best available
for the purpose envisaged?
Curriculum evaluation is performed for judging the effectiveness of
a given curriculum. Curriculum evaluation is a systematic and hence
technical decision-making process for various purposes. According to
Sanders, “Curriculum evaluation refers to the process of studying the
merit of some aspects, or the whole of a curriculum. Depending on the
way in which the term curriculum is defined, the focus or objects of
curriculum design, instructional processes. Materials used in instruction,
objectives for student outcomes, student progress through the curriculum,
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teacher effectiveness, the learning environment curriculum policy,

resource allotment, and the outcomes of instruction”.
Thus, curriculum is a process for informing some ones who are
concerned with the different aspects of curriculum for taking future
decision about the worth or effectiveness of the curriculum. Posner,
therefore, maintains, Evaluation for the purpose of informing decisions
about a curriculum are aptly termed ‘curriculum evaluation’. He also
states that as the definition of curriculum varies the meaning of the term
curriculum evaluation also varies. If curriculum refers to a document
such as a content outline, scope, and sequence, or syllabus, then
curriculum evaluation might mean a judgment regarding the value or
worth of such a document.
9.1.2. Objectives of Curriculum Evaluation
i. To determine the outcomes of a programme.
ii. To help in deciding whether to accept or reject a programme.
iii. To ascertain the need for the revision of the course content.
iv. To help in future development of the curriculum material for
continuous improvement.
v. To improve methods of teaching and instructional techniques.
9.1.3. Types of Curriculum Evaluation
According to Scriven, following are the three main types
1. Formative Evaluation: It occurs during the course of curriculum
development. Its purpose is to contribute to the improvement of the
educational programme. The merits of a programme are evaluated
during the process of its development. The evaluation results provide
information to the programme developers and enable them to correct
flaws detected in the programme.
2. Summative Evaluation: In summative evaluation, the final effects
of a curriculum are evaluated on the basis of its stated objectives. It
takes place after the curriculum has been fully developed and put
into operations.
3. Diagnostic Evaluation: Diagnostic evaluation is directed towards
two purposes either for placement of students properly at the outset
of an instructional level (such as secondary school), or to discover
the underlying cause of deviancies in student learning in any field of
study.

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9.1.4. Need for Curriculum Evaluation

The need for curriculum evaluation may be best understood if we ask
curricular questions and seek their answers clearly. The questions may be
linked to the following aspects;
1. Improving the existing curriculum and programme.
2. Examining the impact of the programme developed a curriculum
development process.
3. Reorganizing the existing programme.
4. Overall validation of the programme.
5. Collecting evidence for self-evaluation by the teacher.
9.1.5. Importance of Curriculum Evaluation
i. To develop new curriculum.
ii. To review a curriculum under implementation.
iii. To remove ‘dead-wood’ and update an existing curriculum.
iv. To find out the effectiveness of a curriculum.
v. To field test curriculum under process of development.
9.1.6. Purpose of Curriculum Evaluation
Educational prepares future generation to take their due place in the
society. It becomes essential that substandard educational goals,
materials and methods of instruction are not retained but up-dated in
consonance with the advances in social cultural and scientific field. It is
also important to ascertain how different educational institutions and
situations interpret a given or prescribed curriculum. Hence, arises the
need for curriculum evaluation. Curriculum evaluation monitors and
reports on the quality of education. Cronbach (1963) distinguishes three
types of decisions for which evaluation is used.
1. Course improvement: deciding what instructional material and
methods are satisfactory and where changes are needed.
2. Decisions about individuals: Identifying the needs of the pupil for the
sale of planning of instruction and grouping, acquainting the pupil with
his own deficiencies.
3. Administrative regulations: Judging how good the school system is,
how good individual teachers are. The goal of evaluation must be to
answer questions of selection, adoption, support and worth of educational
materials and activities. It helps in identifying the necessary
improvements to be made in content, teaching methods, learning

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experiences, educational facilities, staff-selection and development of

educational objectives. It also serves the need of the policy makers,
administrators and other members of the society for the information
about the educational system.
9.1.7. Levels of Evaluation:
The evaluation can be undertaken at two levels. According to
Scrivens (1967):
i) Formative: during the curriculum development. In the developmental
phase, the exercise of formative evaluation serves as a feed-back and
influence the shape of the curriculum through successive revisions.
ii) Summative: after the curriculum has been developed and
implemented. Summative evaluation is concerned with the appraisal of
the emergent curriculum as it is offered to the school system.
Tyler (1949) visualized curriculum evaluation as a process of
determining to what extent the educational objectives are actually being
realized by the programme of curriculum and instruction.
Two basic approaches to evaluation have been identified viz.
scientistic and the humanistic (Cronbach, 1982).
In the scientist approach, decision about the educational programme
is made on the basis of efforts of learners. The data gathered is in the
form of test scores of students, which are employed to compare student’s
achievements. The decision about the programme is made on the basis of
this comparison.
In the humanistic approach, the evaluator uses data obtained from
thick descriptions of actual events. Data is also obtained from interviews
with the participants in the curriculum programme and is utilized for the
purposes of evaluation.
9.1.8. Nature of Curriculum Evaluation
1. The instructional programme as indicated by the course offerings to
meet the varies requirements of a vast heterogeneous population.
2. The courses of study, embodying outlines of knowledge to be taught.
3. All the experiences provided under the guidance of the school.
4. Close examination of them reveals the difficulty in deciding the
basic nature of curriculum.
i. Is it thought of as a programme and pattern of offerings?
ii. Is thought of to be a content of courses?
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iii. Is it thought of to be experiences through which knowledge is

communicated?
5. Curriculum is that which makes a difference between maturity and
immaturity, between growth and stasis, between literacy and
illiteracy, between sophistication (intellectual, moral, social and
emotional) and simplicity. It is the accumulated heritage of man’s
knowledge filtered through the prisms of contemporary demands and
pressures. It is that wisdom considered relevant to any age in any
given location. It is that we choose from our vast amount of heritage
of wisdom to make a difference in the life of man.
9.1.9. Scope of Curriculum Evaluation
Scope relates to what should be taught or learned.
i. Sequence relates to when different parts of the curriculum
should be learned with respect to the other parts of the
curriculum.
ii. Integration relates to how different strands of a piece of
curriculum relate to other things
iii. Continuity relates to how previous learning and future learning
relate in terms of cumulative effects of learning.
Scope refers to the breadth of the curriculum- the content, learning
experiences and activities to be included in the curriculum. The scope
can be arrived at by answering the following questions: What do young
people need in order to succeed in the society? What are the needs of the
locality, society, nation and world? What are the essentials of the
discipline?
9.2. MODELS OF CURRICULUM EVALUATION
The term model may be defined in numerous ways. We are using
this term as a framework or tasks to be performed in the matter of aspects
of a curriculum. In fact curriculum evaluation process connotes flexible
as the very term curriculum can be defined form various perspectives.
Therefore, over the year’s curriculum researchers have looked forward
curriculum evaluation models in order to put their respective ideas in
different but somewhat systematic frameworks. One framework has
given main focus of curriculum evaluation to a particular aspect of
curriculum but a second framework has given main focus on another
aspect of curriculum. For example, some writers have used curriculum

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process evaluation. In this way we may generate a broader model of

curriculum evaluation.
We shall learn numerous models of curriculum evaluation. However
at the outset we are going some basic acquaintance with the models
described by Alkin. He has broadly divided curriculum evaluation
models into two head – Curriculum Product Model and Programming
Model.
Curriculum Product Evaluation Model
This evaluation focuses on products such as course of study, syllabi,
textbooks, and so on. One type of curriculum product evaluation employs
specified external criteria. In this sense, curriculum evaluation is an
examination of the adequacy of a curriculum product based on desire
characteristics describing appropriateness. The work of Tyler and his
associates offers an example of curriculum product evaluation employing
explanations to the content selection, sequence, and presentation,
evidence provided by the developers/publishers as the effectiveness of
the curriculum materials, specifications of instructional objectives on
which the material is based etc. McNeil, et al take consideration of five
general principles for evaluating the quality of instructional material used
as classroom reading, matter, these are consistency with reading
approach, adequacy of objectives, instructional content, instructional
methodology, and validation. Another kind of curriculum product
evaluation goes to evaluate the actual impact of the curriculum on
students. That is curriculum product evaluation is an examination or
validation of the impact of a newly developed product.
9.2.1. METFESSEL-WILLIAM MICHAEL EVALUATION
MODEL
Metfessel and Michael (1967) present a model with eight major steps
in the evaluation process.
This may be shown, in brief, in the following steps.
1. Involve everyone who is directly or indirectly affected.
2. Develop goals and specific objectives and arrange them in
hierarchical order.
3. Translate goals and objectives into curriculum content and
experiences.
4. Select or create evaluation instruments to assess achievement of
the objectives.
5. Conduct periodic observations.
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6. Make Recommendations.
7. Introducing.
8. Analyze, data, Interpret data and make decisions.
The model clearly suggests, among other things, that evaluators
should involve all those who will be 'affected' by the curriculum, i.e.,
teachers, professional organisations, senior citizens, students, etc.,
besides experts who conduct periodic observations throughout the
implementation and maintenance of the programme using tests, cases,
etc.
9.2.2. MICHAEL PROVUS’S DISCREPANCY EVALUATION
MODEL (1971)
The Discrepancy Evaluation Model (DEM) developed in 1969 by
Malcom Provus to provide information for programme assessment and
programme improvement.
Definition
He defined evaluation as the process of agreeing upon program
standards, determining whether a discrepancy exists between some
aspect of the program and standards governing that aspect of the
program, and using discrepancy information to identify weaknesses of
the program.
Purpose of Evaluation
His stated the purpose of evaluation is to determine whether to
improve, maintain or terminate a program (Gredler, 1996). His model is
primarily a problem-solving set of procedures that seeks to identify
weaknesses (according to selected standards) and to take corrective
actions with termination as the option of last resort. With this model, the
process of evaluation involves moving through stages and content
categories is such a way as to facilitate a comparison of program
performance with standards, while at the same time identifying standards
to be used for future comparisons.
Stages of Evaluation
The Provus method identifies four specific stages of all programs.
They are:
Stage 1: Program Definition
Where the purpose of the evaluation is to assess the program design
by first defining the necessary inputs, processes, and outputs, and then,
by evaluating the comprehensiveness and internal consistency of the
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design. Evaluation Stage 1 asks the question “Is the program adequately
defined?”
Stage 2: Program Installation
Where the purpose of the evaluation is to assess the degree of
program installation against Stage 1 program standards. Stage 2 asks, “Is
the program installed as defined in Stage 1?”
Stage 3: Program Process
Where the purpose of the evaluation is to assess the relationship
between the variables to be changed and the process used to effect the
change. Stage 3 asks, “Are the resources and techniques being used
congruent with the goals of the program?”
Stage 4: Program Product
Where the purpose of the evaluation is to assess whether the design
of the program achieved its major objectives. Finally, in Stage IV the
question is asked, “Are the program objectives achieved in the
implementation?”
Stage 5: Program Comparison.
Provus Terminology Defined
The following definitions will be useful in understanding the
evaluation which follows:
Enabling Objectives
Intervening behaviors/tasks which students must complete as a
necessary basis for terminal outcomes.
Terminal Outcomes
The behaviors the clients are expected to demonstrate upon
completion of the program.
Design Criteria
Contains a comprehensive list of program elements (input, process
and output) that become the standard of performance in Stage 1.
The Provus Discrepancy Model provides a basis for evaluating
programme. Provus considers discrepancies to be the essential clue in
program evaluation. Discrepancies point out differences that exist
between what program planners think is happening in the program and
what’s actually happening. Provus recommends that when discrepancies

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occur, either program performance or program design standards be

changed.
Three important basis phrases in the Provus Model;
i. Discrepancy: mean differences
ii. Program performances: what Extension refers to as program
implementation, result, and/or accomplishment.
iii. Program design standard: means objectives
To use the Discrepancy Evaluation Model, need to follow these steps.
STEP 1: Decide which program to evaluate. This might be:
A. A new program just being developed for introduction.
B. An ongoing program that may appear to be running out of steam.
C. A program that seems to be working just fine, but appears to have
switch directions.
STEP 2: Determine objectives for the targeted program. Question to/be
ask
A. Are written objectives already available?
B. As participants know it?
C. The advisory committee?
D. If there’s any confusion about program objectives, get them clarified
before proceeding. Involve several people and, if necessary, determine
objective now. To establish the base against which discrepancies can be
measured.
STEP 3: Plan the evaluation. Question to/be ask
A. What information do you need to know whether and how well
objectives are being accomplished? Whatever information is needed
must be possible to collect, and reasonable in terms of the work that
collection entails.
B. How can you get at that, who can help? Specialists often help with
developing evaluation plans and usually have advice and experience to
share. Don’t try to reinvent the evaluation wheel all by yourself.
STEP 4: Follow through by implementing plans to collect information.
STEP 5: Identify discrepancies between program objectives and
program accomplishments. Question to/be ask
A. Where do differences exist?

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B. What have you learned about them – their causes, effect on program,
participants, other pertinent information?
STEP 6: Plan what to do next. At this point, the Discrepancy Evaluation
Model says it’s time for remedial planning. Either the basic program
design standard or performance should be revised so that objectives and
accomplishments are consistent.
Use of the Provus Discrepancy Model:
The Provus model is most effective under the following circumstances:
1 When the type of evaluation desired is formal, and the program is in
the formative, rather than summative stages.
2 When evaluation is defined as continuous information management
addressing program improvement and assessment, and where
evaluation is a component of program development.
3 Where the purpose of evaluation is to improve, maintain or terminate
a program.
4 Where the key emphasis of evaluation is program definition and
program installation.
5 Where the roles of the evaluator are those of facilitator, examiner of
standards, observer of actual behaviors, and design expert.
6 When at each stage of evaluation program performance is compared
with program objectives (standards) to determine discrepancies.
7 Where the program evaluation procedure is designed to identify
weaknesses and to make determinations about correction or
termination.
8 Where the theoretical construct is that all stages of programs
continuously provide feedback to each other.
9 Where the criteria for judging programs include carefully evaluating
whether:
a. The program meets established program criteria
b. The actual course of action taken can be identified, and
c. A course of action can be taken to resolve all discrepancies
(Gredler, 1996).
Four components are as follows :
1) Determining program standards.
2) Determining program performance.

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3) Comparing standards with performance.

4) Determining whether any discrepancy exists between the
standards set and the curriculum.
If there is any discrepancy, it will be communicated to the decision
makers, who, in turn, have to incorporate necessary modifications at
every stage. This they can do by doing any one or more of the following:
going to the subsequent stage; recycling to a previous stage; starting the
curriculum over again; modifying the performance standards; and
terminating the curriculum.
In this model the programme, in operation, is constantly judged in
terms of fixed standard criteria already established. Ralph Waldo
Emerson once said that most of the shadows in life are caused by our
standing n our room sunshine. Provus Discrepancy Evaluation Model can
help us be in the best way to focus more light on the many excellent
features extension programes already have.
9.2.3. STUFFLEBEAM’S MACRO (TOTAL) EVALUATION
MODEL
This is an extended version of CIPP model. 'CIPP' here refers
respectively to the first letters of;
C - Context;
I - Input;
P - Process; and
P – Product
Stufflebeam (1971) considers evaluation a continuous process and
suggests that four types of decisions are required in evaluation efforts.
The four types are:
[Link] decisions made after context evaluation.
[Link] decisions made after input evaluation.
[Link] decisions made after process evaluation.
[Link] decisions made after product evaluation.
Four kinds of change to be evaluated;
a. Neomobilistic change – Large change, low information.
b. Incremental change – a series of small changes based on low
information.
c. Homeostatic change – small change based on much information.
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d. Metamorphic change – great change based on much information.

Four types of evaluation in relation to the four decision types:
Intended Actual
ENDS Planning decisions to Recycling decisions to judge
determine objectives and react to attainments
MEANS Structuring decisions to Implementing decisions to
design procedures utilize, control and refine
procedures.

Let us now take up for discussion each of the four evaluation types.
1. Context evaluation:
It involves studying the environment in which we run the
curriculum. Stufflebeam maintains that context evaluation is the most
basic type of activity that provides a rationale for determining objectives.
It helps us;
i. define the relevant environment;
ii. portray the desired conditions pertaining to that environment;
iii. focus on unmet needs and missed opportunities; and
iv. diagnose the reason for unmet needs.
It should suggest that context evaluation is not a one-time activity. It
continues to furnish baseline information regarding the operations and
accomplishments of the total system.
2. Input evaluation:
The purpose of this stage is to provide information for determining
how to utilize resources to meet curriculum goals. At this stage we
evaluate alternative designs in terms of how they will contribute to the
attainment of objectives stated and in terms of their demands upon
resources, time and budget. We should consider them in the light of their
procedural feasibility. In contrast to context evaluation, input evaluation
is ad hoc and micro-analytic. It evaluates specific aspects or components
of the curriculum plan.
3. Process evaluation:
This stage addresses curriculum implementation decisions that
control and manage the plan or curriculum. Through process evaluation,
we can determine the level of congruency between the planned and
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actual activities. Stufflebeam (1988) presents the following three main

strategies for process evaluation:
i) to detect or predict defects in the procedural design or its
implementation during the diffusion stages. In dealing with plan
or curriculum defects, we should identify and monitor
continually the potential sources for the failure of the
curriculum. The sources may be logistical, financial, etc.;
ii) to provide information for curriculum decisions. Here we should
make decisions regarding test development prior to the actual
implementation of the curriculum. Some decisions may require
that certain in-service activities be planned and carried out
before the actual implementation of the curriculum; and'.
iii) to maintain a record of procedure's as they occur. It addresses
the main features of the project design, for example, the
particular content selected, the instructional strategies planned or
the time allotted in the plan for such activities.
As process evaluation occurs during the production stage of the
curriculum, it helps us anticipate and overcome procedural difficulties
and to make preprogrammed decisions.
4. Product evaluation:
It helps us determine whether the final curriculum product in use
accomplishes the intended goals. Depending on the data collected, we
can decide whether to continue, terminate or modify a curriculum.
9.2.4. ROBERT STAKE’S RESPONSIVE EVALUATION MODEL
(1975)
This is shown as :
As the Eisner Connoisseurship Model, the Responsive Evaluation
model focuses on describing activities and processes rather than on test
scores and outcomes. It seeks to “tell the story of the program”.
A formal evaluation plan consisting of ten steps is implemented. The ten
steps are :
a. Negotiate a framework for evaluation with the sponsors.
b. Elicit topics, issues and / or questions of concern from the
sponsors.
c. Formulate questions for guiding.
d. Identify the scope and activities of the curriculum – the needs of
clients and personnel.
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e. Observe, interview, prepare logs and case studies.

f. Pare down information, identify the major issues or questions,
g. Present initial findings in a tentative report.
h. Analyze reactions and investigate predominate concerns more
fully.
i. Look for conflicting evidence that would invalidate findings and
corroborating evidence that would support findings.
j. Report the results.
Antecedent is any condition existing prior to teaching and learning
which may relate to outcome. Transactions are the countless encounters
of students with teacher, student with student, author with reader, parent
with counselor. Outcome includes measurements of the impact of
instruction on learners and others.
Antecedents
Conditions existing prior to Curriculum Evaluation;
i. Students interests or prior learning
ii. Learning Environment in the Institution
iii. Traditions and Values of the Institution
Transactions
Interactions that occur between:
Teachers = Students
Students = Students
Students = Curricular
Materials = Students
Educational = Environment
Transactions = Process of education
Outcomes
 Learning outcomes
 Impact of curriculum implementation on
i. Students
ii. Teachers
iii. Administrators
iv. Community
 Immediate outcomes Vs Long range outcomes

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Three sets of Data

1. Antecedents
 Conditions existing before implementation
2. Transactions
 Activities occurring during implementation
3. Outcomes
 Results after implementation
 Describe the program fully
 Judge the outcomes against external standards
Key Emphasis:
Description and judgement of Data.
Purpose:
To report the ways different people see curriculum Focus is on
Responsive Evaluation;
1 Responds to audience needs for information.
2 Orients more toward program activities than results.
3 Presents all audience view points (multi perspective).
Limitations:
1. Stirs up value Conflicts, and
2. Ignores causes.

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UNIT 10
CURRENT TRENDS IN
CURRICULUM

10.1. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS IN THE SUBJECT FIELDS

Reading
A multi-tiered approach with small group reading instruction. A
combination of effective whole group direct instruction and target small
group instruction can reduce the number of students struggling in
reading. Incorporating technology can enhance student participation and
achievement in reading.
Social Studies
There is a new broadening scope to teaching and learning history.
Students are no longer focused on learning the facts, now students are
using historical thinking skills to examine the rich content. Students are
learning to question and make personal connections with historical
figures and events.
Mathematics
Undergone less change than any other curriculum. The NCTM
(National Council of Teachers of Mathematics) emphasizes the role of
communication. Students should construct understanding and develop
connections of mathematical concepts. Focus on rich math curriculum

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built on a deep understanding. Math competence opens doors to

productive futures. Ask the questions: "What do my students
understand?" "How do I know they understand?"
Science
Inquiry Based Approach: John Dewey Engage students in the rich
process of inquiry based learning. Asking questions that children
honestly care about.
Constructivism Approach: Based on Piaget Learners construct
understanding of meaning. Students learn by asking questions and
making their own opinions.
Art Education
National Standards for Arts Education 1994 Trends are favoring
aesthetics, art history, and art criticism Technology incorporation.
Physical Education
Physical Education Standards Enhance physical activity in daily
living NASPE and American Heart Association recommend that all
children 5 and older should have 30 minutes at least 3 days a week.
Thinking Skills
There is a need to help teachers help students to improve their
critical thinking. A major focus area for improving thinking is the
engagement of students with content. Metacognition should be taught as
a deliberate mental activity. Students should exchange ideas.
10.2. CURRENT DEVELOPMENTS ACROSS THE CURRICULUM
10.2.1. What are some of the curriculum changes that are improving
Writing Skills?
The Writing Process:
Pre write – draft – edit – publish
Learning to Write by Writing
Getting better at writing requires doing it a lot.
Teachers should develop their own writing-to-learn framework:
1. Teachers need to identify the continuing uses of writing in their
discipline
2. Special uses-writing tasks
3. Teachers need to identify the essential qualities they want
evidenced in all longer pieces of writing in that discipline
4. Teachers need to develop instructional materials:

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i. A description of the composing process and a summary of

the pertinent research
ii. A reproduction of the framework
iii. Suggestions for implementing the “continuing uses”
proficiently
iv. Suggestions for making the “special uses” assignments more
productive
v. Sample assignment sheets for the “special uses”
assignments
vi. Suggestions to the teachers on responding to and grading
student writing
vii. Handouts for the students, clarifying matters of format and
style and explaining the special qualities desired.
TIP
 Writing is learned than taught
 Role of the teacher shifts from instructor to facilitator
10.2.2. What are some of the curriculum changes that are improving
Thinking Skills?
1. Engagement of students with content:
 Students build on their previous knowledge using real-world
examples.
 Engage students in firsthand experiences.
2. Efficient management of students’ own participation, studies and
assignments.
3. Teaching students learning strategies, processes and systems that
they can apply to a range of tasks and situations:
i. Controlled problem solving
ii. Open-ended problem solving
iii. Information processing reasoning
iv. Evaluating
v. Analyzing persuasive messages
vi. Mastering disciplinary inquiry
vii. Making moral choices
viii. Using thinking in making other life choices
Six Correlates of Effective Schools:
1. Clearly stated and focused school mission
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2. Safe and orderly climate for learning

3. High expectations for students, teachers and administrators
4. Opportunity to learn and student time-on-task
5. Instructional leadership by all administrators and staff members
6. Positive home-school relations
TIP
 Students can learn to think better if schools concentrate on
teaching them how to do so.
 Involve three thinking skills strategies: independent thinking,
self-managed learning, and self-directed learning.
10.2.3. What are some of the curriculum changes that are improving
Speaking Skills?
Instruction in speaking should:
1. Address the communication needs of students that arise from
everyday situations
2. Provide direct instruction, supervised practice, constructive
feedback, and more practice in a variety of situations
3. Include all communication contexts
4. Be integrated with the teaching of all of the other
communication arts strands
5. Be interdisciplinary and across the curriculum
6. Offer opportunities for co-curricular programs that aid students
in refining their speaking skills
7. Be sensitive to the diversity of culturally appropriate speaking
behaviors
10.2.4. What are some of the curriculum changes that are improving
Listening Skills?
Instruction in listening should do the following:
1. Address communication needs of students that arise from real-
life situations
2. Involve direct teaching of listening strategies and practice of
those strategies in a variety of listening situations
3. Include listening in all communication contexts
4. Integrate with the teaching of all of the other communication arts
strands
5. Be interdisciplinary and across the curriculum
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6. Be incorporated in co-curricular programs that aid students in

refining their listening skills
7. Be sensitive to the diversity of culturally appropriate listening
behaviors
Technology and the Curriculum
Technology as a Tool in the Curriculum
 Availability and access to technology
 Teacher preparation and training
 Time
 Leadership
Technology as the Curriculum
 Internet delivers a total curriculum or course of study.
 Use of Virtual Classroom to augment curriculum (E-Learning).
 Web-based technology enhances communication between
teachers, teacher and students, home and school, school and
community, and global learners.
 Technology can be used in a Universal Design for Learning.
 The role of technology in curriculum delivery:
 Upgrading the quality of teaching-and- learning in schools.
 Increasing the capability of the teacher to effectively inculcate
learning, and for students to gain mastery of lessons and courses.
 Broadening the delivery of education outside schools through
non-traditional approaches to formal and informal learning, such
as Open Universities and lifelong learning to adult learners.
 Revolutionizing the use of technology to boost educational
paradigm shifts that give importance to student-centered and
holistic learning.
10.3. INDIVIDUALIZING THE CURRICULUM
Individualized curriculum involves promoting student choice,
curriculum integration, differentiated learning, and self-assessment that
engage students deeply in learning. (Brown, 2002). Educators continue to
search for curricula that respond to individual differences among students
in the classroom so to cope up with individual differences they focus on
individualized curriculum. Differentiated instruction is an approach
applied to teaching and learning that gives students multiple options for
taking information and making sense of ideas. (Hall, Strangman, and
Meyer, 2011)
Students who are the same age differ in their readiness, interests,
styles of learning, experiences, and life circumstances. Students will
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learn best when supportive adults push them to work without assistance.
Students will learn best when they can make a connection between the
curriculum and their interests and life experiences (Passman, 2009).
i. Providing Elective Courses
ii. Curriculum Tracking
iii. Offering “mini-courses”
iv. Open classrooms
v. Self-paced instruction
An important aspect of any adaptive approach is that it relates to
curriculum standards and that it is simple to use them into academic
situations with well-organized plans and congruent unit objectives
(March and Peters, 2002).
i. Greater attention to problem solving.
ii. Focus by staff on most important parts of curriculum.
iii. Alignment of expected outcomes.
iv. Connections between different subject areas.
v. Inclusion of a variety of methods (inquiry, guided discussion,
action research).
vi. Authentic performance assessments.
vii. Multiple opportunities for teachers to collaborate.
viii. High quality materials.
ix. Consistency in preparation of student for next grade.
x. Adaptive Learning Environments Model (ALEM)
xi. Cooperative Learning Models (CLM)
xii. Learning-Styles Models (LSM)
xiii. Mastery Learning Models (MLM)
xiv. Computer-Based Models (CBM)
It is an attempt to combine the direct instruction with open education
system that is found to be more effective. ALEM attempts to restructure
the school environment rather than to alter the instructional system.
Cooperative learning methods provide teachers with effective ways to
response to diverse students by promoting academic achievement and
cross-cultural understanding. Even the slowest and more reluctant reader
can learn to read well when taught according to their individual learning
styles (Mariacarbo, 2003). According to this model learners differ in
their styles of learning, those styles are assessed and that knowledge of
styles help both learner and teacher.
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MLM includes the following six steps:

i. Clearly specified learning objectives
ii. Short and valid assessment procedures
iii. Specific mastery standards
iv. Sequence of learning procedure
v. Provision of feedback
vi. Provision of extra time and help on errors.
We can say that the important ingredient for creating successful
curriculum reform include a culturally and linguistically responsive staff
as well as thoughtfully planned and developmentally appropriate
curriculum that is likely to promote positive outcomes for all children.
Individualised Curriculum is based on SACE principles for students
in Years 11 – 13, and the Australian National Curriculum for students in
years 8-10. Learning activities using technology occur across all
curriculum areas with students working individually, in small groups and
in class groups. Goals relating to the use of specific technologies are
included in each student’s Negotiated Education Plan. The use of
technology features prominently in communication goals and programs.
Additional activities offered in the program include swimming at
Regency park every week, excursions (mainstream subjects and unit
specific), as well as regular walks to the park and shopping centre for
integrated and community learning. Catering to the diverse range of
learning needs of students is undoubtedly one of the greatest challenges
faced by the teachers of today.
It has become an expectation for teachers to ‘individualise’ the
curriculum for every unique learner in our care; a task which can make
us feel increasingly overwhelmed and inadequate. Most teachers can
relate to the ever-increasing demand to differentiate; however, despite
our best intentions, it is sometimes difficult to implement best practice in
our classrooms. While differentiation may seem like an insurmountable
task at times, there are many simple strategies teachers can draw upon to
ensure our students’ needs are being addressed. Five such strategies have
been outlined below.
1. Use a variety of instructional methods to deliver content
In days gone by, the traditional ‘chalk and talk’ instructional method
was the standard means by which content was delivered to students. The
teacher would talk and write notes on the board; the students would listen
and copy down the important information.

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In a modern-day classroom, direct instruction is but one of a wide

range of instructional methods available in the teacher’s tool belt. While
some students indeed learn best through listening; others prefer talking,
moving or using technology. Provide students with opportunities to learn
through a variety of experiences, such as collaborative discussions,
hands-on activities and online resources.
2. Allow students to present their learning in a variety of formats
When assessing the learning of our students, it would serve us well
to remember that we all express ourselves in different ways. While some
students may construct written texts clearly and with confidence; others
may prefer to express their learning more visually, or even
kinesthetically.
Where possible, provide students with a number of ‘product’ options
when it comes to presenting what they have learned. By insisting that
students present their learning in one way only, we are limiting their
ability to truly demonstrate their knowledge. Use student-driven tasks
where possible and appropriate. Providing tasks that are student-driven
enables students to take control and ownership of their learning.
One such example of a student-driven learning experience is an
open-ended task. Open-ended tasks can be embedded across all areas of
the curriculum. They promote multiple approaches, multiple outcomes
and multiple solutions, allowing students to engage with the curriculum
at their own individual level. There is no ‘right way’ to complete an
open-ended task, creating opportunities for student creativity and
individuality to flourish.
Another example of a student-driven learning experience is an
inquiry-based task. Students pose inquiry questions about a particular
topic, then research and present their findings. Inquiry-based tasks may
also be integrated across all curriculum areas; but lend themselves
particularly well to Science and the Humanities.
4. Provide relevant, meaningful enrichment
Providing additional ‘busy’ work to fast finishers has always been a
go-to strategy for teachers; however, do these students really need to
spend more time on a concept they have most likely mastered?
In most instances, students who finish tasks quickly and effortlessly
will benefit very little from receiving more of the same work. These
students are adequately challenged so that they continue to feel
motivated and engaged.

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Some suggestions include:

i. introducing new tasks which contain more sophisticated or
accelerated content.
ii. adapting tasks to make them more challenging or to promote
higher-order thinking.
iii. encouraging students to pursue individual interests within the
content being taught.
iv. allowing students to demonstrate their learning by peer-tutoring
others.
5. Provide appropriate, targeted support
The level and nature of support required by less confident students
will vary from student to student and from task to task. It is important to
choose the most appropriate support strategy for each learning
experience.
In some instances, minimal intervention will be sufficient in
enabling a student to successfully complete a task; however, on other
occasions, significant support may be required. These students are
adequately supported so that they feel confident in their ability to
succeed.
Some suggestions include:
i. simplifying the task, breaking it down into small, achievable
steps
ii. removing additional pressures, such as time restraints
iii. providing scaffolds or concrete materials for students to
manipulate
iv. re-teaching key concepts with the assistance of peers or support
staff.
Individualising the curriculum we deliver in our classrooms can, at
times, be perceived as an unrealistic ideal. By making a few small
changes to our instructional methods and the learning experiences we
provide, teachers can come one step closer to truly catering for the
individual learning needs of our students.
10.4. CURRICULUM OF THE FUTURE
Margaret Mead said, “We are now at a point where we must educate
our children in what no one knew yesterday, and prepare our schools for
what no one knows yet”.
In the age of the Internet and Google searches, curriculum has to do
with learning? If anyone can simply look up anything with a few clicks
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of the keys, is it important to guarantee certain nodes of knowledge?

Many current educational researchers argue yes, noting that foundational
knowledge is an important aspect of analysis and critical thinking.
Quoted in Schmoker (2011), Andrew Rotherham, founder of the 21st
Century Schools project notes that "content under-girds critical thinking,
analysis, and broader information literacy skills. To critically analyze
various documents requires engagement with content and a framework
within which to place the information. It's impossible, for instance, to
critically analyze the American Revolution without understanding the
facts and context surrounding that event." The 21st Century Schools
project website argues that curriculum that will best prepare students for
life and work beyond traditional school will be interdisciplinary, project-
based, relevant, rigorous and real-world.
Current research on curriculum and pedagogy
Robert Marzano (2003) argues that 35 years of educational research
have actually culminated in an exciting time for educational reform, as
the research continues to point to the same evidence. Marzano makes the
case that one of the most important factors in student success in school is
a guaranteed and viable curriculum - a curriculum that provides each
student with the opportunity to learn (guaranteed) and provides adequate
time to do so (viability). The first action step for schools is to explicitly
articulate what content is considered essential for all students, and in
order to make it viable, Marzano argues, that content needs to be pared
down from the long lists of state standards that have shaped classrooms
as teachers have been forced to go for "coverage" over learning.
Mike Schmoker (2011) argues that 21st Century skills
(collaboration, critical thinking, etc.) aren't new, but rather that they are
newly important as every student needs them to be successful in the post-
manufacturing age. He urges schools to say "no thank you" to faddish
activities that take valuable time from real learning and to incorporate a
"powerful combination of the following strategies for all students:"
i. Adequate amounts of essential subject-area content, concepts
and topics;
ii. Intellectual/thinking skills (e.g., argument, problem-solving,
reconciling opposing views, drawing one's own conclusions);
and
iii. Authentic literacy - purposeful reading, writing, and discussion
as the primary modes of learning both content and thinking
skills.
He goes on to argue that content does matter, and that foundational
knowledge is key to our ability to think and reason. While Schmoker
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does not argue that technology itself is bad, he suggests that we should
back off on implementing technology that is separate from or takes time
away from articulating a clear and coherent curriculum.
At Global Education 2025 we agree in the importance of
foundational knowledge and skills to facilitate critical thinking and
analysis, but we also find that much of the traditional research ignores
the new ways in which students learn. Technology can facilitate the
acquisition of that foundational knowledge through engaging students
more deeply in the curriculum, and we argue that in fact authentic
literacy in the year 2025 will necessarily include literacy in the digital
world.
Three trends that will shape the future of curriculum
Advances in technology and the rise of the interconnectedness of the
world through traditional and digital age technologies will necessitate a
change in curriculum for the year 2025. Writing in the KQED blog
Mind/Shift, Tina Barseghian (2011, Feb. 4) reports on three trends she
has identified that will shape the future of education:
10.4.1. Digital Delivery
No longer shackled to books as their only source of content,
educators and students are going online to find reliable, valuable, and up-
to-the-minute information. Sites like Shampoo’s fun-focused content on
everything from SAT prep to the Civil War; Google’s Education apps
and sources that teachers can use as teaching tools, such as the Sketch Up
design software and Google Earth are just a few of the free, easily
accessible sources available online.
Add to that sites like the Khan Academy, a collection of thousands
of YouTube videos that teach everything from calculus to the French
Revolution, Teacher Tube’s collection of content, books that have been
turned into YouTube videos, as well as sites from museums and art
institutions, sites like NASA and the Smithsonian, TED Talks and the
thousands of other educational resources available, and we can start to
see how online content will be used as a primary resource.
The open-source movement has further pushed online content to
include learners and educators in the actual content-creating process.
Wikipedia was one of the first open-source sites, and though many still
question the accuracy of Wikipedia entries, there’s a movement afoot to
make it a more trusted source. Revered institutions like Harvard and
Georgetown are creating coursework for students out of editing
Wikipedia entries.

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Following in the steps of Wikipedia – and the collaborative world of

Web 2.0 — a growing proliferation of open-source sites aimed at
education have sprouted up over the past few years. For both K-12
schools and higher education, sites like MIT Open Source Ware that
publishes almost all the university’s content for students, Open
Educational Resources, Curriki, Merlot, Connexions, CK12, Scitable,
and Hippocampus offer their own expert-written, vetted content. But
more importantly, they allow educators and students to add, edit, and
change the order of all the information on those sites according to their
own needs.
Entire school districts are starting to go open-source, too, such as the
Bering Strait School District in Alaska, which is using a Wiki-style
format for its curriculum. CK12 is part of California’s Free Digital
Textbook Initiative, and school districts in Pennsylvania are also
considering using its materials once the curricula has met state standards.
Watch for: 1) Google’s role in providing content, and how states and
districts work with the institution. 2) Open-source sites and content
publishers working collaboratively in the same content space.
10.4.2. Interest-driven
Though students typically have to wait until their third year of
college to choose what they learn, the idea of K-12 education being
tailored to students’ own interests is becoming more commonplace.
Whether it’s through Japanese manga art, Lady Gaga, or the sport of
curling, the idea is to grab students where their interests lie and build the
curriculum around it.
The idea of learner-centered education might not be new research
from the 1990s shows that students’ interests are directly correlated to
their achievement. But a growing movement is being propelled by the
explosive growth in individualized learning technology that could feed it
and we’re starting to see the outlines of how it could seep into the world
of formal education.
Take, for example, Forest Lake Elementary School in South
Carolina, where the entire school is built around personalized learning.
Or schools in Portland, Maine, that are entirely project based. Beyond
even bribing them with shiny gadgets, educators are sparking their
students’ love of learning by figuring out what they’re interested in.
“The better way is to motivate each student to learn through his or
her passion. Passion drives people to learn (and perform) far beyond
their, and our expectations. And whatever is learned through the

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motivation of passion is rarely if ever forgotten,” writes Marc Prensky in

his book Teaching Digital Natives.
Watch for: The growing importance of the student’s role as content-
creator and decision-maker in devising his own curriculum.
10.4.3. Skills 2.0
Eleven years into the 21st century, the buzz words “21st century
skills” are being thrown around in describing what needs to be taught in
schools: real-world readiness. Things like collaboration, innovation,
critical thinking, and communication are thought to be just as important
as U.S. history and calculus because they’re practical skills that can be
used in the world outside the confines of school.
“One thing is certain,” writes Will Richardson in the comprehensive
tome 21st Century Skills: Rethinking How Students Learn: although
schools may continue to fundamentally look and act as they have for
more than one hundred years, the way individuals learn has already been
forever changed. Instead of learning from others who have the
credentials to ‘teach’ in this new networked world, we learn with others
whom we seek (and who seek us) on our own and with whom we often
share nothing more than a passion for knowing.”
The ability to leverage the collective wisdom that thrives online is an
important part of building those muscles. But more than just practical
skills, it’s crucial for students to be able to navigate the digital world
around them without fear. To make sense of the deluge of information
online, to learn what to trust, what to dismiss, to be able to find the gold
that exists in the infinite number of Google searches. To know how and
what to contribute to the online global community, and how to be
responsible digital citizens.
These intangibles have found their way into the fiber of the
curriculum in schools like Napa New Tech and its network of schools
growing schools. And tech companies are looking for ways to provide
value to the movement.
Entire schools are dedicated to teaching skills like learning how to
create video games, whether it’s to boost brain power and multitasking
skills, or to learn applied physics as they do at the New York school
Quest to Learn. The idea is that the process of learning that skill can be
put to use in the real world.
Given the growing momentum of these trends, it mean for students,
teachers, schools, and the education community at large.

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Collaborating and customizing. Educators are learning to work

together, with their students, and with other experts in creating content,
and are able to tailor it to exactly what they need.
Critical thinking. Students are learning how to effectively find
content and to discern reliable sources.
Democratizing education. With Internet access becoming more
ubiquitous, the children of the poorest people are able to get access to the
same quality education as the wealthiest.
Changing the textbook industry. Textbook publishers are finding
ways to make themselves relevant to their digital audience.
Emphasizing skills over facts. Curriculum incorporates skill-
building.
10.5. INTERNET CONNECTIVITY
10.5.1. Internet Service Providers (ISP)
Internet Service Provider (ISP) is a company offering access to internet.
They offer various services:
 Internet Access
 Domain name registration
 Dial-up access
 Leased line access
10.5.2. ISP Types
ISPs can broadly be classified into six categories as shown in the
following diagram:

1. Access Providers
They provide access to internet through telephone lines, cable wi-fi
or fiber optics.

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2. Mailbox Provider
Such providers offer mailbox hosting services.
3. Hosting ISPS
Hosting ISPs offers e-mail, and other web hosting services such as
virtual machines, clouds etc.
4. Virtual ISPS
Such ISPs offer internet access via other ISP services.
5. Free ISPS
Free ISPs do not charge for internet services.
10.5.3. Connection Types
There exist several ways to connect to the internet. Following are
these connection types available:
1. Dial-up Connection
2. ISDN
3. DSL
4. Cable TV Internet connections
5. Satellite Internet connections
6. Wireless Internet Connections
1. Dial-up Connection
Dial-up connection uses telephone line to connect PC to the internet.
It requires a modem to setup dial-up connection. This modem works as
an interface between PC and the telephone line. There is also a
communication program that instructs the modem to make a call to
specific number provided by an ISP.
Dial-up connection uses either of the following protocols:
1. Serial Line Internet Protocol (SLIP)
2. Point to Point Protocol (PPP)
The following diagram shows the accessing internet using modem:

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2. ISDN
ISDN is acronym of Integrated Services Digital Network. It
establishes the connection using the phone lines which carry digital
signals instead of analog signals.
There are two techniques to deliver ISDN services:
1. Basic Rate Interface (BRI)
2. Primary Rate Interface (PRI)
Key points:
 The BRI ISDN consists of three distinct channels on a single
ISDN line: t1o 64kbps B (Bearer) channel and one 16kbps D
(Delta or Data) channels.
 The PRI ISDN consists of 23 B channels and one D channels
with both have operating capacity of 64kbps individually
making a total transmission rate of 1.54Mbps.
The following diagram shows accessing internet using ISDN connection:

3. DSL
DSL is acronym of Digital Subscriber Line. It is a form of broadband
connection as it provides connection over ordinary telephone lines.
Following are the several versions of DSL technique available today:
1. Asymmetric DSL (ADSL)
2. Symmetric DSL (SDSL)
3. High bit-rate DSL (HDSL)
4. Rate adaptive DSL (RDSL)
5. Very high bit-rate DSL (VDSL)
6. ISDN DSL (IDSL)

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All of the above mentioned technologies differ in their upload and

download speed, bit transfer rate and level of service.
The following diagram shows that how we can connect to internet using
DSL technology:
`

4. Cable TV Internet Connection

Cable TV Internet connection is provided through Cable TV lines. It
uses coaxial cable which is capable of transferring data at much higher
speed than common telephone line.
Key Points:
 A cable modem is used to access this service, provided by the
cable operator.
 The Cable modem comprises of two connections: one for
internet service and other for Cable TV signals.
 Since Cable TV internet connections share a set amount of
bandwidth with a group of customers, therefore, data transfer
rate also depends on number of customers using the internet at
the same time.
The following diagram shows that how internet is accessed using Cable
TV connection:

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5. Satellite Internet Connection

Satellite Internet connection offers high speed connection to the
internet. There are two types of satellite internet connection: one way
connection or two way connection. In one way connection, we can only
download data but if we want to upload, we need a dialup access through
ISP over telephone line. In two way connection, we can download and
upload the data by the satellite. It does not require any dialup connection.
The following diagram shows how internet is accessed using satellite
internet connection:

6. Wireless Internet Connection

Wireless Internet Connection makes use of radio frequency bands to
connect to the internet and offers a very high speed. The wireless internet
connection can be obtained by either WiFi or Bluetooth.

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Key Points:
• Wi Fi wireless technology is based on IEEE 802.11 standards
which allow the electronic device to connect to the internet.
• Bluetooth wireless technology makes use of short-wavelength
radio waves and helps to create personal area network (PAN).

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REFERENCES

1. Aggarwal, Deepak. (2007). Curriculum development: Concept,

methods and techniques. New Delhi: Book Enclave.
2. Aggarwal, J.C. (1990). Curriculum Reform in India – World
Overviews, Doba World Education Series – 3. Delhi: Doba House,
Book Seller and Publisher.
3. Arora, G.L. (1984). Reflections on curriculum. New Delhi: NCERT.
4. Chauhan, S.S. (1993). Innovations in the teaching learning process,
New Delhi: Vikas Publishing House.
5. Chikumbu, T.J. and Makamure, R. (2000). Curriculum theory,
design and assignment (Module 13). Canada: The Common wealth
of Learning.
6. Ciddldwood, D. and Burton, N. (2010). Managing the curriculum,
New Delhi: Sage Publications.
7. Dewey, John. (1996). The child and the curriculum, Chicago: The
University of Chicago Press.
8. Diamond Robert, M. (1986). Designing and improving courses in
higher education: A systematic approach, California: Jossey – Bass
Inc. Publication.
9. Doll Ronald, C. (1986). Curriculum improvement: Decision making
process. London: Allyon and Bacon Inc.
10. Erickson, H.L. (2002). Concept based curriculum and instruction:
Teaching beyond the facts. California: Corsion Press Inc.
11. Glatthorn, A.A. Boschee, F., and Whiteheed, B.M. (2009).
Curriculum leadership: Strategies for development and
implementation. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
12. Joseph, P.B et al. (2000). Cultures of curriculum (Studies in
Curriculum Theory). New York: Teachers College Press.
13. Julian C. Stanley and Kenneth [Link]. (1978). Education and
evaluation. New Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
14. McKernan, James. (2007). Curriculum and imagination: Process,
theory, pedagogy and action research. London: Routledge.

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15. Orstein, A.C and Hunkins, F.P (1988). Curriculum: Foundations,

principles and issues. New Jersey: Prentice Hall International
16. Saylor, G.J. and Alexander, W. (1965). Planning curriculum for
school, New York: Holt Richard and Winston Inc.
17. Sterling, G. Callahan. (1958). Successful teaching in secondary
schools, Brigham: Young University.
18. Taba, Hilda. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice,
New York: Harcourt Brace, Jovanovich Inc.
19. Tanner, D. and Tanner, L.N. (1975). Curriculum development:
Theory and practice, New York: MacMillan.
20. Thanavathi, C. (2018). Teacher Education in India: at Elementary
Level. Salem: Samyukdha Publications.
21. Thanavathi, C. (2018). Teacher Education in India: at Secondary
Level. Salem: Samyukdha Publications.
22. Thanavathi, C., (2012). Teacher Education. Thoothukudi: Perumal
Publications.
23. Thanavathi, C., (2017). Advanced Research and Statistics. Salem:
Samyukdha Publications.
24. Thanavathi, C., (2017). Curriculum Design and Development.
Salem: Samyukdha Publications.
25. Wrightstrane Justman, Robbins. (1964). Evaluation in modern
education, New Delhi: Eurasia Publishing House.

281 Samyukdha Publications

REFERENCES
Aggarwal, Deepak. (2007). Curriculum development: Concept, methods and techniques.
New Delhi: Book Enclave.
Aggarwal, J.C. (1990). Curriculum Reform in India – World Overviews, Doba World
Education Series – 3. Delhi: Doba House, Book Seller and Publisher.
Arora, G.L. (1984). Reflections on curriculum. New Delhi: NCERT.
Chauhan, S.S. (1993). Innovations in the teaching learning process, New Delhi: Vikas
Publishing House.
Chikumbu, T.J. and Makamure, R. (2000). Curriculum theory, design and assignment
(Module 13). Canada: The Common wealth of Learning.
Ciddldwood, D. and Burton, N. (2010). Managing the curriculum, New Delhi: Sage
Publications.
Dewey, John. (1996). The child and the curriculum, Chicago: The University of Chicago
Press.
Diamond Robert, M. (1986). Designing and improving courses in higher education: A
systematic approach, California: Jossey – Bass Inc. Publication.
Doll Ronald, C. (1986). Curriculum improvement: Decision making process. London:
Allyon and Bacon Inc.
Erickson, H.L. (2002). Concept based curriculum and instruction: Teaching beyond the
facts. California: Corsion Press Inc.
Glatthorn, A.A. Boschee, F., and Whiteheed, B.M. (2009). Curriculum leadership:
Strategies for development and implementation. New Delhi: Sage Publications.
Joseph, P.B et al. (2000). Cultures of curriculum (Studies in Curriculum Theory). New
York: Teachers College Press.
Julian C. Stanley and Kenneth [Link]. (1978). Education and evaluation. New
Delhi: Prentice Hall of India.
McKernan, James. (2007). Curriculum and imagination: Process, theory, pedagogy and
action research. London: Routledge.

Orstein, A.C and Hunkins, F.P (1988). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and issues.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall International
Saylor, G.J. and Alexander, W. (1965). Planning curriculum for school, New York: Holt
Richard and Winston Inc.
Sterling, G. Callahan. (1958). Successful teaching in secondary schools, Brigham: Young
University.
Taba, Hilda. (1962). Curriculum development: Theory and practice, New York: Harcourt
Brace, Jovanovich Inc.
Tanner, D. and Tanner, L.N. (1975). Curriculum development: Theory and practice, New
York: MacMillan.
Thanavathi, C. (2018). Teacher Education in India: at Elementary Level. Salem:
Samyukdha Publications.

Thanavathi, C. (2018). Teacher Education in India: at Secondary Level. Salem:

Samyukdha Publications.

Thanavathi, C., (2012). Teacher Education. Thoothukudi: Perumal Publications.

Thanavathi, C., (2017). Advanced Research and Statistics. Salem: Samyukdha
Publications.

Thanavathi, C., (2017). Curriculum Design and Development. Salem: Samyukdha

Publications.

Wrightstrane Justman, Robbins. (1964). Evaluation in modern education, New Delhi:

Eurasia Publishing House.

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