SENSORY ANALYSIS PARAMETER
1. SENSORY PERCEPTION
Sensory assessment is the evaluation of signals that a human receives through the
senses of sight, hearing, taste, smell, and touch. In a way, sense organs may be viewed as
detectors that help to relay information about food properties from external stimuli to the
brain (1).
1.1!Physiology of human senses
!
1.1.1 Vision/Sight
Eyes is the first system of sense
organs that we use when assessing the
properties and quality of food. An
illustration of a human eye is provided
in Figure 1. The irritant or stimulus for
the eyes is light. The processing of the
images begins with the reflection of
light from the observed object, as a
result of which light passes through the
cornea to the pupil. From there, light
moves to the retina at the back of the eye where photoreceptors called rods and cones are
agitated to convert light into nerve impulses. The rods function when light intensity is weak;
cones, on the other hand, are engaged in bright light. The intensity of light striking the retina
is regulated by the pupil and its ability to constrict and dilate. (2)
Vision perception is directly tied to other senses. For example, visual perception of
food affects recognition of odor and taste, and their intensities. According to specific studies
done with wine tasters, the addition of red colorant to white wine significantly increases the
use of descriptors characteristic to red wine. (3)
1
1.1.2 Audition/Hearing
The auditory system is one of the most important human sensory systems as a means
of interpersonal communication. Acoustic signals (sound) are the stimuli of auditory system.
The system itself is divided into three parts: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear
(Figure 2). The outer ear consists of the visible part of the pinna (the visible part of the ear)
and the auditory canal. The eardrum separates the outer ear from the middle ear. In the middle
ear, three small bones are located: the hammer, the anvil, and the stapes. Inside the inner ear is
the cochlea which looks like a spiral-shaped canal. The cochlea is divided into three sections,
each of which is separated from the other by a membrane and contains a lymphatic fluid. (2)
When the outer part of the ear
registers sound waves, they are first
directed by the pinna through the auditory
canal to the eardrum. The eardrum starts
vibrating in turn. The hammer, anvil, and
stapes of the middle ear consistently
transmit vibrations through the middle ear
into the inner ear where the hydraulic
movement of fluids in the cochlea
changes accordingly. Inside the cochlea
on one of the membranes sound-
receiving apparatus is located that contains hair cells that transform mechanical vibrations
into signals. (2)
2
1.1.3 Somatosensation is the process of
perception of external factors (e.g.,
mechanical influence, changes in
temperature) carried out with the help
of receptors located in the skin,
muscles, tendons, joints, mucous
membranes, and lips. The most
common type of tactile receptors are
free nerve endings in the surface of the
skin . These nerve endings perform a
row of different functions of
thermoreceptors, pain receptors, and
mechanoreceptors.
Mechanoreceptors respond to touch,
pressure, stretch, and vibration. The physiological basis of tactile sensation is in agitation of
the receptors in the outer layers of the skin, the subsequent agitation of the nerve fibers, and
the flow of information from the receptors to the central nervous system. The main receiving
channel of tactile information is the spinal cord, through which the signals reach the brain. (4)
1.1.4 Olfaction/Smell
The visible part of human
nose consists of nasal bones and
cartilage tissue. Before reaching
the nasal cavity, the air first enters
through the nostrils. The nasal
septum, formed by a vertical plate
of latticed bone tissue, vomer, and
cartilage divides the nasal cavity
into two parts. These serve as a
humidifier, a heater, and a filter
for incoming air. For smell
perception to occur, the air
containing odor-active molecules
must enter the nasal cavity. Odor-active molecules dissolve on contact in the mucus covering
the nasal cavaity 10-20 million olfactory sensory neurons are located in a specific small area
of the nasal cavity called olfactory epithelium (Figure 4). After dissolving in the mucus, odor
compounds attach to the end of the olfactory receptors and interact with the membrane
3
proteins. (5) Membrane proteins involved in olfactory perception are specific to olfactory
receptors. There are more than 1000 kinds of receptors where each receptor cell produces one
special type of membrane protein.
Binding of molecules to the receptor proteins is selective, so that each receptor can bind only
to a certain range of compounds. Likewise, each odor-active compound can bind only to a
certain range of receptors. The sensitivity of the receptors to certain molecules can vary up to
10 times or more .
Due to the anatomy of the nose, air reaches the olfactory epithelium only partially. The
optimum sniffing time for a full contact is 1-2 seconds. Next comes the adaptation of the
receptors to the smell, after which a pause of 5-20 seconds is recommended to restore the
receptors. An additional difficulty hides in the fact that some odorants can partially block the
receptors for an extended period of time reducing the ability to detect specific odors or
distinguish similar odors.
The sensitivity of the sense of smell varies from person to person and depends on a
number of factors such as gender, age, habits, illnesses, and trauma. Cases of complete
absence of smell (anosmia) are rare but partial anosmia to certain odor compounds is
common. Also, sensitivity can depend on feelings of hunger and satiety, mood, pregnancy,
and menstrual cycle.
1.1.5 Gustation/Taste
The oral cavity is the first
part of the digestive tract. The
entrance to the oral cavity,
mouth, consists of the lips, teeth,
gums, tongue, and jaw. Inside
the oral cavity are
mechanoreceptors that respond
to pressure, and
muscles responsible for the
chewing process. Also in the
mouth are salivary glands.
Tongue plays an important role as it participates in the formation of taste sensation. Taste
sensation arises from the presence of hydrophilic molecules soluble in saliva (tastants) that
4
interact with specific receptors in the mouth. The taste cells agglomerate into taste buds which
are located both on the surface of the tongue and partially on the epithelium of the palate
(Figure 5). (2) One taste bud can contain up to 100 taste cells (7). The average lifespan of a
taste bud is 8-12 days. New cells are continuously generated. Each taste bud has a small
opening (pore) which is continuously in contact with the environment of the oral cavity.
Through this pore, the tastants dissolved in saliva reach the receptors. Receptors themselves
are transmembrane proteins that interact either with ions or molecules that cause taste
perception.
Five basic tastes can be distinguished: sweet, salty, bitter, sour, and umami. Recent
studies indicate that fat could be considered as an additional, sixth basic taste . Previously it
was believed that the receptors for basic taste are located on the specific parts of the tongue:
the tip of the tongue is responsible for the sweet taste; the lateral edges of the front part of the
tongue – for the salty taste; the lateral edges of the back of the tongue – for the sour taste; the
root of the tongue – for bitter taste. It is now widely recognized that the receptors are
distributed uniformly throughout the surface of the tongue .
The perception of taste is influenced by several factors such as the concentration of the
substances in the saliva, the serving temperature of the food product, duration of stimulus, and
the presence of other tastants. A complete lack of sense of taste (ageusia) is very rare but there
are differences in sensitivity to certain stimuli. For example, wide variations in sensitivity to
different substances causing bitter taste is quite common.
1.2 Sensory attributes
During sensory assessment, sensory attributes are addressed in the following order:
Appearance, odor/aroma , flavor , texture.
1.2.1 Appearance
The appearance of the food product in or out of the packaging is the main attribute
used to make a rapid decision on the quality of the product or its conformity with consumer
expectations. Based on that, appearance must be payed detailed attention to when assessing
the samples in laboratory environment.
Appearance of a food product can be assessed in terms of shape, size, surface texture,
and color (surface and cross section). Additionally for drinks, clarity and carbonations can be
viewed. Characteristics of shape and size can include but are not limited to length, width, and
thickness; geometric shape (e.g., square, round); distribution of filling or additives (e.g., nuts,
dried fruits, vegetables). The surface texture can be dry or moist, smooth or rough, matte or
shiny, soft or hard, crispy or chewy. Here, the uniformity of dusting can also be assessed.
5
Color of the food product can be expressed in terms of value, hue, and chroma. The evenness
of color can also be included when appearance is in question.
1.2.2 Odor
Odor is defined as a result of a process of volatile compounds travelling during
sniffing through the nasal passage into the nasal cavity where they are perceived by the
olfactory system. The process of perception of volatile compounds on the olfactory epithelium
within the nasal cavity is called the orthonasal olfaction. The number of volatile compounds
coming from food products depends on the serving temperature, and the nature of compounds
themselves. Surface properties of the food product also play a significant role where the
diffusion of volatiles through soft, wet, and porous surface is greater than through a hard, dry,
and smooth surface. Some compounds are released as a result of enzymatic reactions (e.g.,
cutting raw onions or garlic).
1.2.3 Flavor
During oral food processing several processes happen at once to aid perception. For
one, mastication of food releases volatile odor compounds that travel through nasopharyngeal
passage into the nasal cavity to come in contact with olfactory epithelium (4). This process is
called retronasal olfaction. At the same time, tastant compounds in food dissolve in saliva to
come in contact with taste receptors packed in taste buds (2). These tastants are perceived as
sweet, sour, bitter, salty, or umami. Additional sensations tied to the sensitivity of mucous
membranes of the mouth can be caused by certain chemical compounds that stimulate the
nerve endings (astringency, metallic taste, spiciness, cooling sensation) (4). The sum of
aforementioned perceptions is defined as food flavor.
1.2.4 Texture
The texture can be defined as a manifestation of the mechanical, structural, and
surface properties of food products (8). Based on that, texture can be considered as a complex
sensory attribute consisting of multiple different simultaneous perceptions.
The primary perception of texture is made through the organs of sight and hearing.
Terms than can be used to describe the properties of food in terms of visual perception are
surface properties, homogeneity, oiliness, and moistness. Hearing organs are associated with
the properties that are manifested through the sounds made when handling or chewing food
(e.g., crunchiness).
6
The sense of touch and pressure is associated with the texture properties that
characterize the structure of the food. According to structure, food products can be divided
into liquids, semi-solids, and solids. Unlike liquid products, semi-solids and solids require a
lot more mechanical processing in the oral cavity with the help of teeth, tongue, and jaw
muscles.
According to Szczesniak, A.S. (1963), texture properties can be divided into three
categories: mechanical characteristics, geometrical characteristics, and other characteristics
(mainly tied to fat and moisture content) . Based on that, Table 1 illustrates a detailed
classification of texture descriptors.
Table 1. Texture descriptors according to Szczesniak, A.S. (1963)
● Hardness!
● Cohesiveness!
▪ Brittleness!
▪ Chewiness!
Mechanical characteristics ▪ Guminess!
● Viscosity!
● Elasticity!
● Adhesiveness!
● Particle size!
Geometrical characteristics ● Particle shape!
● Particle orientation!
Other characteristics (moisture and fat content) ● Moisture content!
● Fat content!
▪ Oiliness!
▪ Greasiness!
7
8
