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OXFORD EARLY CHRISTIAN STUDIES

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    :

The Minor Prophets as Christian Scripture in the Commentaries of
Theodore of Mopsuestia and Cyril of Alexandria
Hauna T. Ondrey (2018)
Preaching Christology in the Roman Near East
A Study of Jacob of Serugh
Philip Michael Forness (2018)
God and Christ in Irenaeus
Anthony Briggman (2018)
Augustine’s Early Thought on the Redemptive Function
of Divine Judgement
Bart van Egmond (2018)
The Idea of Nicaea in the Early Church Councils,  431–451
Mark S. Smith (2018)
The Many Deaths of Peter and Paul
David L. Eastman (2019)
Visions and Faces of the Tragic
The Mimesis of Tragedy and the Folly of Salvation
in Early Christian Literature
Paul M. Blowers (2020)
Art, Craft, and Theology in Fourth-Century Christian Authors
Morwenna Ludlow (2020)
Nemesius of Emesa on Human Nature
A Cosmopolitan Anthropology from Roman Syria
David Lloyd Dusenbury (2021)
The Consolation of Boethius as Poetic Liturgy
Stephen Blackwood (2022)
Clement and Scriptural Exegesis
The Making of a Commentarial Theologian
H. Clifton Ward (2022)
The Cult of Stephen in Jerusalem
Inventing a Patron Martyr
Hugo Méndez (2022)
Patriarch Dioscorus
of Alexandria
The Last Pharaoh and Ecclesiastical Politics
in the Later Roman Empire

VOLKER L. MENZE
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP,
United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
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© Volker L. Menze 2023
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To Eda
Acknowledgements

The book has been in the making since 2016 and I am grateful to a number of
people who helped me along the way. My first thanks go to the staff of CEU’s
library in Budapest who throughout years faithfully delivered each and every ILL
I needed. The first chapter of the book started to take shape in 2018 during a stay
in Istanbul and it owes a lot to Tudor Sala’s meticulous comments. I wrote the first
drafts of Chapters 2 and 4 in Budapest and revised them together with chapter
one completely during my stay in Hamburg in 2020–21. I am much obliged to
Sabine Panzram of the Center of Advanced Studies ‘RomanIslam’ in Hamburg
who made Eda’s and my stay at the Alster most pleasant and productive.
My thanks also go to Kevin Grotherr who organized and scanned books for me
during this first Corona year.
The complex Chapter 3 resisted completion several times but I finished it
during spring and summer 2021 in Munich. Two anonymous readers from
Oxford University Press helped to shape my argument, particularly ‘reader one’
who challenged me to think harder in characterizing my protagonist Dioscorus.
After Oxford University Press had accepted the typescript for publication, I asked
Richard Price as the expert on the ecumenical councils in Late Antiquity if he
could have a look at my revised version. I then learned that he was ‘reader one’! He
kindly agreed to read the whole typescript again, and I am greatly indebted to him
for numerous corrections and suggestions. All remaining mistakes are of course
my own.
The research supporting this book was partly sponsored by Central European
University Foundation of Budapest (CEUBPF) and allowed me to hire Annalisa
Zox-Weaver for editing the typescript before I submitted it to the publisher. I am
most grateful to David Rockwell who painstakingly went through the final type-
script and impeccably edited text and footnotes. I also thank OUP, particularly
Tom Perridge and Alexander Hardie-Forsyth who guided my book through the
stages of publication, as well as the series editor Gillian Clark for her notes. Sona
Grigoryan, Dieter Korol, Ariel Lopez, Samuel Moawad, Katharin Papadopoulos,
and Andreas Weckwerth at various stages of completion provided me with
literature, comments, and suggestions. Cankat Kaplan kindly agreed to compile
the index.
Last but not least, I have been supported in writing this book by Annabella Pal,
Andrea Pencz-Körmendi, my angel Theodora, and particularly—as always—by
viii 

my parents. My father did not hesitate when I asked him if you would design the
cover: he created the beautiful icon of Dioscorus as Pharaoh with Alexandria and
the Council of Chalcedon in the background. Above all, my wonderful wise wife
Eda has patiently listened to my rambling thoughts about Dioscorus throughout
the past years, and the book is rightfully dedicated to her.

Volker L. Menze
Antiphellus/Wien
Christmas 2022
Contents

List of Abbreviations xi
Introduction 1
1 Cyril’s Legacy: Between Bankruptcy and Sanctity 11
2 Wind of Change? Dioscorus and the See of St Mark 39
3 The Emperor’s Henchman: Dioscorus and the ‘Robber-Council’ 89
4 The Black Swan of Chalcedon and Dioscorus’ Deposition 151
Conclusion: Dioscorus’ Afterlives as Heretic, Saint, and Reformer 186

Bibliography 201
Index 219
List of Abbreviations

ACC The Acts of the Council of Chalcedon. trans. Richard Price & Michael
Gaddis, 3 vols. [TTH]. Liverpool: Liverpool University Press, 2005.
ACO Acta Conciliorium Oecumenicorum, ed. Eduard Schwartz. Berlin:
Walter de Gruyter, 1914–82.
CJ Codex Iustiniani [Corpus Iuris Civilis, vol. 2], ed. Paul Krüger. 9th–
12th eds. Berlin: Weidmann, 1914–1959.
Council of Ephesus The Council of Ephesus of 431: Documents and Proceedings, trans.
Richard Price with notes by Thomas Graumann [TTH]. Liverpool:
Liverpool University Press, 2020.
Coleman-Norton Paul R. Coleman-Norton, Roman State & Christian Church: A
Collection of Legal Documents to A.D. 535, vol. 2. London: S.P.
C.K., 1966.
CSCO Corpus Scriptorum Christianorum Orientalium. Leuven: Peeters, 1903–.
DOP Dumbarton Oaks Papers.
Flemming Akten der Ephesinischen Synode vom Jahre 449, ed. and trans.
Johannes Flemming. Berlin: Weidmann, 1917.
NPNF2 Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, second series, ed. Philip Schaff and
Henry Wace, 14 vols. New York: Christian Literature Publishing,
1890–1900.
Perry (1875) Vel secundam synodum Ephesinam necnon excerpta, quae praesertim
ad eam pertinent e codicibus Syriacis manuscriptis in Museo
Britannico asservatis, ed. Samuel G.F. Perry. Oxford: E. Pickard Hall
and J.H. Stacy, 1875.
Perry (1881) The Second Synod of Ephesus together with certain extracts relating to
it. From Syriac MSS. preserved in the British Museum, trans. Samuel
G.F. Perry. Dartford: The Orient Press, 1881.
PG Patrologia Graeca, ed. Jacques-Paul Migne. Paris: n.p., 1857–66.
PL Patrologia Latina, ed. Jacques-Paul Migne. Paris: Apud Garnieri
Fratres, 1841–55.
PLRE II Martindale, John Robert, Arnold H. M. Jones, and J. Morris, The
Prosopography of the Later Roman Empire vol. 2: A. D. 395–527.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1980.
PO Patrologia Orientalis, Paris: 1904–.
TTH Translated Texts for Historians. Liverpool: Liverpool University
Press, 1988–.
Introduction

A World without Chalcedon?

Theodosius II was the longest ruling emperor of the (eastern) Roman Empire. He
was acclaimed as sole ruler in Constantinople in 408 and ruled for the next forty-
two years. While his rule was extensive, his life was not; he died by accident on 28
July 450, aged 49.¹ In the weeks following his demise, his sister Pulcheria married
the domesticus Marcian, who ascended the throne on 25 August 450. Although the
new emperor was a military man, one of his first concerns was the convocation of
a general council. In his letter to Pope Leo (440–461), in which he announces his
ascension, Marcian suggests summoning a general council in which the pope
should take the lead.² The pope at first ignored Marcian’s suggestion,³ but the
emperor persisted, and the Augusta Pulcheria sought to persuade the pope as
well.⁴ The imperial couple wanted this council to take place; but, on 23 May 451,
when Marcian summoned it, he still lacked Leo’s explicit support. The emperor
wrote:

Therefore, because certain doubts appear to have arisen about our orthodox
religion, as indeed shown by the letter of Leo, the most God-beloved bishop of
the glorious city of Rome, this in particular has pleased our clemency that a holy
council should be convened in the city of Nicaea in the province of Bithynia, in
order that, when minds agree and the whole truth has been investigated, and after
the cessation of those exertions with which some people have lately disturbed the
holy and orthodox religion, our true faith may be recognized more clearly for all
time, so that henceforth there can be no doubting or disagreement.⁵

Marcian imagined himself a new Constantine and therefore designated Nicaea as

a fitting location for this council, just as Constantine had summoned the bishops
to the first ecumenical council 126 years earlier. What later was canonized as the

¹ Theodosius II was born in 401 and crowned as infant in 402.

² Leo, ep. 73; ACO II.3.1, p. 17: ‘per celebrandam synodum te auctore’; see translation in ACC, vol. 1,
pp. 92–3 and discussion in Manuela Keßler, Die Religionspolitik Kaiser Marcianus (450–57) (PhD Diss.
Goethe-University Frankfurt am Main, 2011), pp. 46–7.
³ Marcian’s next letter to Leo noted that Leo had sent delegates to Marcian, but they obviously had
no instructions to discuss a general council with the eastern emperor; see Leo, ep. 76; ACO II.3.1, p. 18.
⁴ Leo, epp. 76 and 77; ACO II.3.1, p. 18 and II.3.1, pp. 18–19.
⁵ ACO II.1.1, pp. 27–8; quote from ACC, vol.1, pp. 98–9.

Patriarch Dioscorus of Alexandria: The Last Pharaoh and Ecclesiastical Politics in the Later Roman Empire. Volker L. Menze,
Oxford University Press. © Volker L. Menze 2023. DOI: 10.1093/oso/9780192871336.003.0001
2    

Council of Chalcedon—because it was transferred from Nicaea to Chalcedon—or

the fourth ecumenical council, started in Nicaea. Alois Grillmeier, the German
Jesuit scholar and leading expert on this council and its Christology, notes:

The early history of christological doctrine now reached its climax at the Council
of Chalcedon, which was held in October of the year 451. It was the purpose of
those who were responsible for the synod to put an end to the bitter internal
disputes which had occupied the period after the Council of Ephesus. For
Ephesus had left unfulfilled a task which by this stage of development was long
overdue: that of creating a dogmatic formula which made it possible to express
the unity and the distinction in Christ in clear terms.⁶

Upon Emperor Marcian’s insistence, the council established this new formula of
faith (not a creed but a ὅρος, a definition) and ratified it in its sixth session.⁷ Most
theologians agree with Grillmeier on the state of Christology, but historians must
disagree with the determinism with which he depicts events leading to the
convocation of the Council of Chalcedon. This development was by no means a
given. Theodosius II was not only the longest ruling Roman emperor but also the
only emperor who summoned two ecumenical councils in his lifetime: in 431 and
again in 449, when he summoned bishops to Ephesus. The council of 431 was an
organizational disaster, as two councils met separately in Ephesus, and mutually
condemned the respective protagonists Cyril of Alexandria (412–444) and
Nestorius of Constantinople (428–431). Even though the one organized by Cyril
was later accepted as ecumenical, it took two years before the bishops of Antioch
and Alexandria reached an agreement to be in communion again. Unrest and
resistance to the agreement continued to unsettle the near eastern provinces for
the following decade and a half.
Theodosius had learned from this conciliar mismanagement when he sum-
moned his second ecumenical council. This time he gave clear instructions to
Dioscorus, the patriarch of Alexandria (444–451), as president of the Council, to
proceed against Flavian of Constantinople (446–449), Theodoret of Cyrrhus
(423–455/60), and other ‘Nestorians’. Dioscorus delivered what the emperor
expected and proceeded against all ‘Nestorians’ and opponents of Cyril’s
Christology. The patriarch of Alexandria installed his former ambassador (apoc-
risarius) as the new bishop of Constantinople, who in turn ordained a new bishop

⁶ Alois Grillmeier, Christ in Christian Tradition vol. 1: From the Apostolic Age to Chalcedon (451),
trans. John Bowden, 2nd ed. (Atlanta: John Knox Press, 1975), p. 541. More recently also Sandra
Leuenberger-Wenger, Das Konzil von Chalcedon und die Kirche: Konflikte und Normierungsprozesse im
5. und 6. Jahrhundert (Leiden: Brill, 2019), p. 2 speaks of a ‘Kulminationspunkt’.
⁷ Grillmeier also noted that the Council did not find general acceptance, and a large part of his later
oeuvre is dedicated to the theological dissentions that echoed throughout the following century.
 3

of Antioch. In short, harmony was restored between the major eastern sees, and
the emperor hoped that, finally, the ‘Nestorian heresy’ had been ‘excised’.
Theodosius considered the Second Council of Ephesus to be the third ecumen-
ical council and defended it against all appeals from the West: three letters to the
western Emperor Valentinian III (425–455), his mother Galla Placidia, and Licinia
Eudoxia, Valentinian’s wife and daughter of Theodosius, respectively, survive
from the first half of 450. In these letters, Theodosius mentions the Second
Council of Ephesus together with Nicaea and the First Council of Ephesus,
informing his addressees that he was pleased with the outcome and that no
other decision would have been possible.⁸ Only a few months later, though,
Theodosius died unexpectedly: he fell off his horse on 26 July 450, and succumbed
to his spinal injuries within two days.⁹ If the emperor had stayed at home that day
instead of riding, the Council of Chalcedon would have never taken place. Papal
protests against the council might have caused a schism between Rome and
Constantinople, like the Acacian schism a few decades later, but the pope hardly
had enough power to reverse decisions of an ecumenical council in the East on his
own.¹⁰
Grillmeier and other (Western) theologians may be correct that Christology
reached its apex with the Council of Chalcedon, but a theological approach is
unsatisfactory for the historian, inasmuch as it fails to take into account (ecclesi-
astical) politics and the problem of contingency in history. Indeed, historians
should take pause and not simply accept developments as a given. Historians must
analyse the causalities. Against historical determinism and theological assertions
of Chalcedon’s achievements for the doctrine of the Church in the long run, the
historian must stress that, nonetheless, in the first half of 450, contemporaries
would have found it inconceivable that there would be an(other) ecumenical
council any time soon. To wit, as George Bevan argues:

Historians of this period, both ancient and modern, have been all too ready to
accept the evolutionary schema that sees the triumph of the ‘two natures’ as the
standard of orthodoxy as fundamentally right. When Theodosius died it was far
from certain that the ‘two natures’ would ever be adopted. That it ever was was
the result largely of secular, not religious concerns.¹¹

⁸ See Chapter 3, p. 141.

⁹ The sources differ on whether Theodosius died the same day or up to two days later; for a detailed
overview of the sources see Richard W. Burgess, ‘The Accession of Marcian in the Light of Chalcedonian
Apologetic and Monophysite Polemic’, Byzantinische Zeitschrift 86–87 (1994): pp. 47–68, here 48–9 and
61–2.
¹⁰ Any potential council held a few decades later would not have dared to reverse the decisions of the
Second Council of Ephesus because of its impact the council had made by this point on Church and
state.
¹¹ George A. Bevan, The New Judas: The Case of Nestorius in Ecclesiastical Politics, 428–451 CE
(Leuven: Peeters, 2016), p. 315.
4    

The last ecumenical council had just taken place a few months previously, and a
council like Chalcedon that annulled the previous ecumenical council was the
most unlikely event possible—a Black Swan of late antique ecclesiastical history.¹²
The two conclusions drawn from this sketchy outline are simple but should
suffice to explain the premises on which this book is written:

(a) Historians cannot look at this ecclesiastical controversy from its end. The
Council of Chalcedon indeed had a great impact on the history of
Christian doctrine, but its genesis was due to an accident, not because
there were unfulfilled Christological tasks that only Chalcedon was deter-
mined and/or able to accomplish.
(b) Most scholars who study the Council of Chalcedon point to the theo-
logical controversy and the opposing Christological understandings.
While Christology is certainly a crucial ingredient of the Christian dis-
course in the fifth century, this book will argue that politics is more
relevant than theology to understanding the causality of events leading
up to the Council and its denouement.

Patriarch Dioscorus of Alexandria: The Last Pharaoh and Ecclesiastical Politics

in the Later Roman Empire therefore discusses developments of the Church
(including doctrine and theology) as part of late antique political history. It
thereby seeks to elucidate the motives and actions of some of the ecclesiastical
protagonists of the time—particularly Patriarch Dioscorus. Individual perspec-
tives are of course difficult to reconstruct because our evidence is limited, but
personal decisions of the protagonists greatly influenced the development of
ecclesiastical history. When it comes to ‘ecumenical’ councils, it needs to be
stressed that a council convened by the emperor was political by default. In the
long run, the formula of faith decided upon by such a council established
orthodoxy for the Church(es), but for the bishops attending, politics were what
mattered for the future of their see. The book is a study of political church history,
as late antique bishops had to be politicians if they wanted their theology to
prevail.

Why Dioscorus?

In his synodical letter from February 591 to the patriarchs of Constantinople,

Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem (as well as the ex-patriarch of Antioch), Pope

¹² Nassim Nicholas Taleb, The Black Swan. The Impact of the Highly Improbable (London: Allen
Lane, 2007). See Chapter 4, p. 183.
 5

Gregory the Great (590–604) set forth his profession of faith and understanding of
orthodoxy:

I take up and venerate the four councils, just like the four books of the Holy
Gospel, that is to say the Nicene council, wherein the perverse doctrine of Arius is
destroyed, that of Constantinople also, wherein the error of Eunomius and
Macedonius is refuted, the first of Ephesus also, wherein the impiety of
Nestorius is judged, and that of Chalcedon, wherein the depravity of Eutyches
and Dioscorus are reproved.¹³

Nothing in his statements is surprising, presenting as it does a standard formula

for a Chalcedonian Christian in the sixth century. It refers to the accepted four
ecumenical councils¹⁴ as well as to the heretics condemned by these councils. But
while Eutyches, an archimandrite from Constantinople, had indeed been con-
demned,¹⁵ Dioscorus—paired here with Eutyches—is a different matter. At
Chalcedon, he was held responsible by the majority party for a fanciful bouquet
of misdeeds, but the council only deposed him without passing judging on his
faith.
Nevertheless, Dioscorus was regarded as a ‘heretic’ immediately after the
Council of Chalcedon ended. In a letter from January 452, Pope Leo notes to
the bishops of Gaul with satisfaction that the Council had followed the papal
requests and ‘has cut off from God’s Church these outrageous fictions which are
the views of the Devil. It has cut off this abominable disgrace and likewise
condemned Dioscorus of Alexandria for his impiety, to keep that church from
suffering undeserved captivity under the domination of a heretic.’¹⁶ In a letter to
Theodoret of Cyrrhus, Leo calls Dioscorus a ‘a second Pharaoh’ (secundi
Pharaonis) and thus ensures his commemoration as one of the archvillains of
Western church history.¹⁷

¹³ Gregory, ep. I.24; S. Gregorii Magni Registrum Epistularum Libri I-VII, ed. Dag Norberg
(Turnhout: Brepols, 1982), p. 32; translation taken from: The Letters of Gregory the Great, trans.
John R.C. Martyn, vol. 1 (Toronto: Pontifical Institute of Medieval Studies, 2004), p. 146; cf. also his
letter to queen Theodelinda, in which Gregory professed the same stemma of councils and heretics/
heresies: Gregory, ep. IV.33; S. Gregorii Magni Registrum Epistularum Libri I–VII, Norberg, p. 253.
Here Dioscorus is falsely paired with Nestorius, not with Eutyches.
¹⁴ There is no need here to discuss the ecumenicity of the Council of Constantinople in 553 in the
Latin West; Pope Gregory accepted that as well.
¹⁵ Eutyches had been condemned by a local synod in Constantinople 448 and restored to the Church
by Dioscorus at the Second Council of Ephesus in 449; his condemnation of 448 was taken for granted
in 451. See Chapter 3, pp. 98–107 and 119–21.
¹⁶ Leo, ep. 102; ACO II.4, pp. 53–4; St. Leo the Great: Letters, trans. Edmund Hunt (New York:
Fathers of the Church, 1957), pp. 172–6 here p. 175.
¹⁷ Leo, ep. 120; ACO II.4, pp. 78–81, here 79; the letter or parts of it have been regarded spurious; see
Philippe Blaudeau, ‘Un archevêque d’Alexandrie assassin? Retour sur une incrimination lancée à
l’encontre de Dioscore 1er’, in Christianity in Egypt: Literary Production and Intellectual Trends.
6    

Even in modern scholarship, pejorative judgements of Dioscorus predominate.

In 1894, Amelli D. Ambrogio, in his book on Pope Leo, called Dioscorus the
‘Attila della Chiesa Orientale’.¹⁸ In 1926, Norman Baynes took this characteriza-
tion further, concluding: ‘Dioscoros—the Attila of the Eastern Church, as Amelli
has styled him (though this surely an insult to Attila!).’¹⁹ These two scholars may
be exceptional in using a catchy image but negative judgements of Dioscorus
persist throughout twentieth and twenty-first-century scholarship: in 1921,
Eduard Schwartz saw Dioscorus as agitating with ‘ruthless brutality’ (a judgement
largely accepted by de Vries in 1975 in his study on the Second Council of
Ephesus); Richard Sellers, in his book on the Council of Chalcedon in 1953,
regarded him as ‘one of the “violent men” in the history of the Early Church’; in
1972 William Frend, in his seminal Rise of the Monophysite Movement, pointed to
‘Dioscorus’ tyrannical conduct’; in 2005, Richard Price and Michael Gaddis
judged him as ‘ruthless and ambitious’, with the latter describing him in the
same year as an arrogant ‘tyrant-bishop’; Cornelia Horn and Robert Phenix
attributed to the ‘fearsome’ Dioscorus a ‘chaotic villainy’; and Vasilije Vranic in
his study on Theodoret of Cyrrhus from 2015, drew approvingly upon a quotation
from 1911 that described Dioscorus as ‘violent, rapacious, unscrupulous, and
scandalously immoral’.²⁰ These are all excellent—some even ground-breaking—
studies by scholars whose works and words should be taken seriously.²¹ John
McGuckin’s standard study on Cyril warrants quoting at length:

Studies in Honor of Tito Orlandi, ed. Alberto Camplani (Studie Ephemeridis Augustinianum 125)
(Rome: Augustinianum, 2011), pp. 87–100, here 94–5. But Dioscorus was not the first bishop of
Alexandria to be called ‘pharaoh’; see below, p. 10.
¹⁸ Guerrino Amelli, S. Leone Magno e l’Oriente (Montecassino: Tipo-Litografia Cassinese, 1894),
p. 8. More favourable is Adolf von Harnack, Lehrbuch der Dogmengeschichte, 2nd ed., vol. 2 (Freiburg:
J.C.B. Mohr, 1888), pp. 370–1, who regards Dioscorus as a worthy successor of Athanasius, not a
heretic!
¹⁹ Norman H. Baynes, ‘Alexandria and Constantinople: A Study in Ecclesiastical Diplomacy’, The
Journal of Egyptian Archaeology 12 (1926): pp. 145–56, here 155.
²⁰ Eduard Schwartz, ‘Über die Reichskonzilien von Theodosius bis Justinian’, Zeitschrift der
Savigny-Stiftung für Rechtsgeschichte: Kanonistische Abteilung 42 (1921): pp. 208–53, here 231; see
also Eduard Schwartz, Der Prozess des Eutyches (Munich: Bayerische Akademie der Wissenschaften
1929), p. 54: ‘Brutale Gewaltpolitik’; Wilhelm de Vries, ‘Das Konzil von Ephesus 449, eine
“Räubersynode?” ’, Orientalia Christiana Periodica 41 (1975): pp. 357–98, here 363; Richard
V. Sellers, The Council of Chalcedon: A Historical and Doctrinal Survey (London: SPCK, 1953), p. 30;
W.H.C. Frend, The Rise of the Monophysite Movement: Chapters in the History of the Church in the
Fifth and Sixth Centuries (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1972), p. 6; ACC, vol.1, p. 30;
Michael Gaddis, There is no Crime for Those Who Have Christ: Religious Violence in the Christian
Roman Empire (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2005), pp. 308–9; Cornelia B. Horn and
Robert R. Phenix Jr in their introduction to John Rufus: The Lives of Peter the Iberian, Theodosius of
Jerusalem, and the Monk Romanus (Atlanta: Society of Biblical Literature, 2008), pp. xlv and xlvi;
Vasilije Vranic, The Constancy and Development in the Christology of Theodoret of Cyrrhus (Leiden:
Brill, 2015), p. 57 n. 167.
²¹ Philip Jenkins, Jesus Wars: How Four Patriarchs, Three Queens, and Two Emperors Decided what
Christians would believe for the next 1500 Years (New York: HarperCollins, 2010) and his thought on
p. 210 that Dioscorus perhaps suffered from ‘some kind of personality disorder, which drove him to
extremes of paranoia and uncontrollable rage’ should be taken less seriously.
 7

Dioscorus was devoted to Cyril’s theology which he identified as the sole

standard of orthodoxy, though with much less theological judgment. He
regarded all Cyril’s efforts of rapprochement with the Syrians as the misguided
weakness of an old man who was sick at the time Paul of Emesa came to deal with
him. He thus dismissed a significant part of Cyril’s theology supposedly in the
name of Cyril. Even worse, he was much less politically skilled than his mentor.
He would soon bring the Alexandrian church into a ruinous decline from which
it would never re-emerge as the great international Christian power it had once
been.²²

McGuckin is right that Dioscorus continued Cyril’s theology with less political
acumen, but he judges Dioscorus from the Chalcedonian end of the story. The
lack of detailed studies for the crucial years 444–451 from an Alexandrian
perspective has led scholars to merely assume rather than examine Dioscorus’
status as an epigone of Cyril. It is indicative that scholars have not meditated
further on why and how Dioscorus failed to be as successful as his predecessor.
Why were the sentences of the Second Council of Ephesus abandoned immedi-
ately after the death of Theodosius? Was this because Dioscorus had used physical
violence in 449 to force bishops into agreement, as many bishops at Chalcedon
would go on to claim and as most modern scholars have unquestioningly
assumed? If Dioscorus was an unscrupulous, brutal, and immoral man at the
Second Council of Ephesus in 449, why would he willingly leave Alexandria in 451
and come to his own trial at Chalcedon like sheep to the slaughter—politely
accepting the imperial request to sit down as a culprit?
There are a few exceptions to the prevailing negative judgement of Dioscorus
because opponents of the Council of Chalcedon regarded Dioscorus as a confessor
of faith. The Coptic Church in particular has commemorated him among their
saints since the fifth and sixth centuries up to the present day.²³ Vilakuvelil
C. Samuel, a priest of the Malankara Orthodox Syrian Church, offers in his
book The Council of Chalcedon Re-Examined a revisionist reading with obvious
sympathies for Dioscorus (‘Dioscorus was fairer to Leo than the latter to the
former’²⁴), which, despite its merits, as an evaluation cannot completely satisfy
historians. A similar perception can be found in the only existing monograph on
Dioscorus: Karam Khella’s 1963 dissertation entitled Dioskoros I. von

²² John McGuckin, Saint Cyril of Alexandria and the Christological Controversy: Its History,
Theology, and Texts (Leiden: Brill, 1994), p. 124.
²³ See for example Jacob N. Ghaly, ‘St. Dioscorus of Alexandria: A Coptic Orthodox Perspective’,
St. Nersess Theological Review 3 (1998): pp. 45–53, which does not, however, offer a scholarly review.
The Armenian Church has a more complicated history when it comes to Dioscorus. Krikor
Maksoudian, ‘Reconciliation of Memories: The Maligned Dioscorus’, St. Nersess Theological Review
3 (1998): pp. 78–94.
²⁴ Vilakuvelil Cherian Samuel, The Council of Chalcedon Re-Examined: A Historical and Theological
Survey (Madras: The Diocesan Press, 1977), p. 70.
8    

Alexandrien. Theologie und Kirchenpolitik. The manuscript was left unpublished

after its submission but considerable parts of it were published as a contribution to
a book on Die Kopten in the 1980s.²⁵ The dissertation was printed for the first time
in full but without any revisions or updates in 2017. It is a scholarly flawed study
with numerous mistakes and an uncritical treatment of sources.²⁶
The only critical works on Dioscorus that are not condemnatory are Felix
Haase, ‘Patriarch Dioskur I. von Alexandria. Nach monophysitischen Quellen’
from 1908, and Otto Seeck, in his Geschichte des Untergangs der Antiken Welt
(1920), who characterized Dioscorus (at the Council of Chalcedon in 451) as ‘the
sole man’ among ‘howling crones’ who ‘fought his fight of desperation’, as well as a
study by Geoffrey de Ste. Croix, who credited Dioscorus with ‘courage’.²⁷ Notably,
in recent years, a few studies on Dioscorus’ ‘oriental’ sources have put our
knowledge on firmer footing. Samuel Moawad’s works, in particular, are land-
marks for the origins of the Coptic, Syriac, and Arabic texts on Dioscorus, but
these studies are concerned with the later ecclesiastical traditions and not with the
historical Dioscorus or the Christological and ecclesiastical controversies of the
fifth century.²⁸
Another gap in the scholarship on Dioscorus is the lack of historical studies on
the Council of Chalcedon and the Second Council of Ephesus. The latter would
need a thorough introductory study, which cannot be provided in these pages.²⁹
There is no lack of studies on Chalcedon in general but only recently have
historians started to immerse themselves into detailed treatment of the council.³⁰

²⁵ Karam Khella, Dioskoros I von Alexandrien: Theologie und Kirchenpolitik, (Diss. Kiel, 1963/68);
printed without discussion of sources, bibliography and the chapter on the theology of Dioscorus in:
Die Kopten, ed. Koptische Gemeinde e.V, vol. 2 (Hamburg, [no publisher], 1981), pp. 9–282 and
reprinted in full as Dioskoros I von Alexandrien: Theologie und Kirchenpolitik (Hamburg: Verlag
Theorie und Praxis, [2017]).
²⁶ See my review in sehepunkte 19 (2019): http://www.sehepunkte.de/2019/09/32538.html.
²⁷ Felix Haase, ‘Patriarch Dioskur I. von Alexandria. Nach monophysitischen Quellen’,
Kirchengeschichtliche Abhandlungen 6 (1908): pp. 141–233: most of his analysis and interpretation,
however, is dated; Otto Seeck, Geschichte des Untergangs der antiken Welt, vol. 6 (Stuttgart: Metzler,
1920), p. 274: ‘Der einzige, der sich in dieser Gesellschaft von heulenden alten Weibern als Mann erweist,
ist Dioscorus; dieser aber kämpfte einen Kampf der Verzweiflung und wusste ganz genau, dass, auch
wenn er sich duckte, wie die übrigen, es für ihn keine Gnade gab. Trotzdem ist es bewundernswert, wie er,
von allen Freunden verlassen und bei jedem Worte, das er sagt, von der ganzen Bande angebrüllt, doch
seine kühne Haltung zu bewahren weiss.’ G. E. M. de Ste. Croix, ‘The Council of Chalcedon’, in
Christian Persecution, Martyrdom, and Orthodoxy, ed. Michael Whitby and Joseph Streeter (Oxford:
Oxford University Press, 2006), pp. 259–319, here 314–15.
²⁸ The first to study Dioscorus based on the ‘oriental’ sources was of course Haase, ‘Patriarch
Dioskur I. von Alexandria. Nach monophysitischen Quellen’ but see now: Samuel Moawad,
Untersuchungen zum Panegyrikos auf Makarios von Tkōou und zu seiner Überlieferung (Wiesbaden;
Reichert, 2010); Die Arabische Version der Vita Dioscori, ed. and trans. Samuel Moawad [PO 246]
(Turnhout: Brepols, 2016), and further articles.
²⁹ A review of the manuscript is needed, as well as an inquiry into the questions of who took the
minutes, how were they translated, the number of sessions, etc.
³⁰ In recent years a few historians have picked up on Chalcedon; see Fergus Millar, A Greek Roman
Empire: Power and Belief under Theodosius II (408–450) (Berkeley: University of California Press, 2006)
and Ramsay MacMullen, Voting about God in Early Church Councils (New Haven: Yale University
 9

Most studies therefore fail to address historical questions of how to understand

the Council of Chalcedon, including the motives and strategies of the different
protagonists and so forth. The present book attempts to reconstruct the historical
Dioscorus as a preeminent ecclesiastical politician of the fifth century based on the
surviving evidence and his conflicting commemorations. While sources are not
abundant enough to write a full biography, sufficient textual evidence survive to
allow for reconstructing parts of his career and endeavours as patriarch and place
him within the ecclesiastical history of Alexandria, the influence of which peaked
under his leadership in 449–50.
Dioscorus cannot, however, be fully understood without regard to the politics
of his predecessor. Not only is Cyril’s tenure better documented but it also sets the
stage for subsequent Alexandrian ecclesiastical politics. Cyril was a shrewd polit-
ician who pushed through his agenda against all odds. His actions provoked not
only resistance in Constantinople and the eastern dioceses but also unrest among
his own clergy. It is this backdrop against which Dioscorus as Cyril’s heir acted,
and therefore the first chapter of this book focuses on Cyril’s ecclesiastical politics
and the legacy he left to Dioscorus. More broadly, the goal of this book is to
introduce Dioscorus as major protagonist in his own right and to show that, while
Dioscorus was a ‘Cyrillian’ theologically, he was an ‘anti-Cyrillian’ politically, one
who broke with the Cyrillian administration at the See of Alexandria and
improved ecclesiastical governance of the Alexandrian chapter. This book main-
tains that Dioscorus did not actively engage in the Christological controversy
before 448 but was dragged into these quarrels belatedly. In contrast to scholarly
consensus, this study also shows that Dioscorus was not the mastermind behind
the Second Council of Ephesus but the emperor’s henchman.
At the same time Dioscorus’ speedy downfall must be explained: how could he
have been acclaimed as ‘universal archbishop’ in August 449 only to be deposed
two years later? The Council of Chalcedon was in all likelihood not planned by
Emperor Marcian as a complete turn of events. The emperor intended to bring
about a reconciliation with Rome and actively shaped a new position for the See of
Constantinople, but nothing indicates that he wanted Dioscorus to be accused and
exiled. Further, Dioscorus was deposed from office but not condemned for heresy
at Chalcedon. Although this should be obvious from the acts of Chalcedon, this
misconception can still be found in standard handbooks.³¹ Finally, Dioscorus is
wrongly singled out by scholars as a brutal villain and power-hungry politician,

Press, 2006). See also Hagit Amirav, Authority and Performance: Sociological Perspectives on the
Council of Chalcedon (AD 451) (Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 2015); Leuenberger-Wenger,
Das Konzil von Chalcedon.
³¹ See for example Angelo di Bernardino, Patrology: The Eastern Fathers from the Council of
Chalcedon (451) to John of Damascus (750), trans. Adrian Walford (Cambridge: James Clark, 2006),
p. 335: ‘With the Council of Chalcedon (451) the bishopric of Alexandria lost prestige as the traditional
stronghold of orthodoxy, since at that council the Alexandrian bishop Dioscorus was condemned for
heresy.’
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Learning Objective 2: Comparative analysis and synthesis
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Learning Objective 4: Assessment criteria and rubrics
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Learning Objective 5: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
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Definition: Best practices and recommendations
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
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Note: Ethical considerations and implications
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Note: Research findings and conclusions
• Interdisciplinary approaches
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 9: Current trends and future directions
• Practical applications and examples
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Chapter 2: Practical applications and examples
Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
• Critical analysis and evaluation
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 11: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Fundamental concepts and principles
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- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Literature review and discussion
• Critical analysis and evaluation
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Example 14: Practical applications and examples
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[Figure 15: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 15: Key terms and definitions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 16: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
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• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
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Key Concept: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
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Background 3: Assessment criteria and rubrics
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Best practices and recommendations
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Important: Interdisciplinary approaches
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice Problem 22: Current trends and future directions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 24: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 24: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
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- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 26: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Best practices and recommendations
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• Statistical analysis and interpretation
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Note: Literature review and discussion
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Test 4: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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• Fundamental concepts and principles
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Definition: Research findings and conclusions
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Practice Problem 35: Key terms and definitions
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Practice Problem 36: Interdisciplinary approaches
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Definition: Theoretical framework and methodology
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Practice Problem 39: Experimental procedures and results
• Literature review and discussion
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Introduction 5: Fundamental concepts and principles
Key Concept: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
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Key Concept: Study tips and learning strategies
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[Figure 43: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
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Example 45: Comparative analysis and synthesis
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Note: Experimental procedures and results
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Example 47: Case studies and real-world applications
• Critical analysis and evaluation
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- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 48: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Practical applications and examples
• Literature review and discussion
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Key Concept: Best practices and recommendations
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Background 6: Statistical analysis and interpretation
Definition: Experimental procedures and results
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Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
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[Figure 52: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Learning outcomes and objectives
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[Figure 53: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Current trends and future directions
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Example 54: Fundamental concepts and principles
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Important: Key terms and definitions
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Example 56: Learning outcomes and objectives
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Definition: Practical applications and examples
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Key Concept: Case studies and real-world applications
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[Figure 59: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Current trends and future directions
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Results 7: Learning outcomes and objectives
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Practice Problem 62: Practical applications and examples
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Example 64: Current trends and future directions
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Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
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[Figure 67: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
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Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Case studies and real-world applications
• Research findings and conclusions
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Important: Ethical considerations and implications
• Literature review and discussion
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Abstract 8: Interdisciplinary approaches
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[Figure 72: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Comparative analysis and synthesis
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Practice Problem 73: Ethical considerations and implications
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Definition: Historical development and evolution
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Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
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Remember: Case studies and real-world applications
• Theoretical framework and methodology
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- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
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Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
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Quiz 9: Literature review and discussion
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
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Definition: Current trends and future directions
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Note: Experimental procedures and results
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Case studies and real-world applications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 86: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Practical applications and examples
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 87: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
[Figure 90: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Review 10: Ethical considerations and implications
Key Concept: Current trends and future directions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Interdisciplinary approaches
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 93: Historical development and evolution
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Current trends and future directions
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 95: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 95: Study tips and learning strategies
• Literature review and discussion
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Example 96: Key terms and definitions
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 97: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Key Concept: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Assessment criteria and rubrics
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Definition: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Discussion 11: Theoretical framework and methodology
Practice Problem 100: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 101: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Practice Problem 101: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 102: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Comparative analysis and synthesis
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Important: Current trends and future directions
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 107: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Historical development and evolution
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Theoretical framework and methodology
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Introduction 12: Historical development and evolution
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Key Concept: Ethical considerations and implications
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Research findings and conclusions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 113: Statistical analysis and interpretation
• Practical applications and examples
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Critical analysis and evaluation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Learning outcomes and objectives
• Fundamental concepts and principles
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Important: Research findings and conclusions
• Statistical analysis and interpretation
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 118: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 118: Literature review and discussion
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Best practices and recommendations
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Exercise 13: Case studies and real-world applications
Example 120: Best practices and recommendations
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Practice Problem 121: Practical applications and examples
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Current trends and future directions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Example 123: Assessment criteria and rubrics
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 124: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Definition: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Historical development and evolution
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Remember: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Definition: Problem-solving strategies and techniques
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 127: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Learning outcomes and objectives
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Fundamental concepts and principles
• Interdisciplinary approaches
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Practice 14: Literature review and discussion
Practice Problem 130: Critical analysis and evaluation
• Case studies and real-world applications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 131: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Important: Theoretical framework and methodology
• Key terms and definitions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Study tips and learning strategies
• Experimental procedures and results
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Remember: Research findings and conclusions
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Remember: Historical development and evolution
• Research findings and conclusions
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Note: Comparative analysis and synthesis
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 136: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Note: Key terms and definitions
• Problem-solving strategies and techniques
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
[Figure 137: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Remember: Study tips and learning strategies
• Best practices and recommendations
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
Key Concept: Experimental procedures and results
• Ethical considerations and implications
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
[Figure 139: Diagram/Chart/Graph]
Example 139: Best practices and recommendations
• Study tips and learning strategies
- Sub-point: Additional details and explanations
- Example: Practical application scenario
- Note: Important consideration
Formula: [Mathematical expression or equation]
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