**CHAPTER 1: LINGUISTICS - SCIENTIFIC STUDY OF LANGUAGE**

**1.1. What is Linguistics?**

**Definition:** Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure. It

involves analyzing language form, language meaning, and language in context.

**Key Characteristics of Linguistics as a Science:**

- **Empirical:** Based on observation and data collection

- **Systematic:** Follows methodical approaches to analysis

- **Objective:** Aims to be unbiased in analysis

- **Theoretical:** Seeks to explain linguistic phenomena through models

- **Descriptive:** Describes how language is actually used

**1.2. The Systematic Structure of Language**

Language operates through organized subsystems:

**The Language System Hierarchy:**

1. **Phonetics/Phonology** - Sound systems

2. **Morphology** - Word formation

3. **Syntax** - Sentence structure

4. **Semantics** - Meaning

5. **Pragmatics** - Language use in context

**1.3. Functions of Language**

According to Roman Jakobson's model, language serves six primary functions:

1. **Referential** - Communicating information

2. **Emotive/Expressive** - Expressing feelings

3. **Conative** - Influencing others

4. **Poetic** - Focusing on the message itself

5. **Phatic** - Maintaining social relationships

6. **Metalingual** - Talking about language itself

**1.4. Branches of Linguistics**

**Core Areas:**

- **Theoretical Linguistics** - Develops models of language competence

- **Applied Linguistics** - Addresses practical language issues

- **Comparative Linguistics** - Compares different languages

- **Historical Linguistics** - Studies language change over time

**Interdisciplinary Fields:**

- **Sociolinguistics** - Language in social context

- **Psycholinguistics** - Language and mind

- **Computational Linguistics** - Computer processing of language

- **Neurolinguistics** - Biological basis of language

**PRACTICAL SESSION 1: LANGUAGE ANALYSIS**

**Exercise 1: Language Function Identification**

Identify the primary function in each utterance:

1. "The capital of France is Paris." → Referential

2. "Ouch! That hurt!" → Expressive

3. "Could you pass the salt?" → Conative

4. "The rain in Spain falls mainly on the plain." → Poetic

5. "Hello, how are you today?" → Phatic

**Exercise 2: Linguistic Level Analysis**

Analyze the following sentence at different linguistic levels:

**Sentence:** "The quick brown fox jumps over the lazy dog."

1. **Phonetic:** Write IPA transcription

2. **Morphological:** Identify all morphemes

3. **Syntactic:** Identify sentence pattern (SVO, etc.)

4. **Semantic:** Identify the main proposition

5. **Pragmatic:** When might this sentence be used?

**INDEPENDENT STUDY TASK 1**

**Research Topic:** "The Scientific Nature of Linguistics: Methodology and

Applications"

**Tasks:**

1. **Comparative Analysis:** Compare linguistic methodology with another

scientific field

2. **Data Collection:** Collect 20 examples of language use from different

sources

3. **Presentation:** Create 10-15 slides on linguistics as a science

**Presentation Requirements:**

- PowerPoint or iSpring Suite

- Include concrete examples and data

- Reference academic sources

- Duration: 10-15 minutes

**CHAPTER 2: HUMAN VS. NON-HUMAN COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS**

**2.1. Defining Communication**

**Communication** is the process of exchanging information, ideas, thoughts, or

feelings between individuals or groups through a shared system of symbols, signs,
or behavior.

**Key Elements:**

- Sender, Message, Channel, Receiver, Feedback, Context

**2.2. Human Communication Systems**

**Characteristics of Human Language:**

1. **Vocal-Auditory Channel**

2. **Broadcast Transmission and Directional Reception**

3. **Rapid Fading**

4. **Interchangeability**

5. **Complete Feedback**

6. **Specialization**

7. **Semanticity**

8. **Arbitrariness**

9. **Discreteness**

10. **Displacement**

11. **Productivity**

12. **Traditional Transmission**

13. **Duality of Patterning**

14. **Prevarication**

15. **Reflexiveness**

16. **Learnability**

**2.3. Non-Human Communication Systems**

**Animal Communication Examples:**

- **Bee Dance** - Communicate location of food sources

- **Bird Songs and Calls** - Territory defense, mating

- **Primate Communication** - Vervet monkey alarm calls

- **Dolphin Communication** - Complex whistle system

**2.4. Design Features of Human Language**

**Hockett's Design Features Comparison:**

| **Feature** | **Human Language** | **Bee Dance** | **Vervet Alarms** |

|-------------|-------------------|---------------|-------------------|

| **Displacement** | High | Moderate | None |

| **Productivity** | Unlimited | Limited | None |

| **Traditional Transmission** | Yes | Limited | Genetic |

| **Duality of Patterning** | Yes | No | No |

**2.5. Primacy of Speech Over Writing**

**Why Speech is Primary:**

1. **Historical Priority** - Speech developed 50,000-100,000 years ago

2. **Universal Acquisition** - All children acquire speech naturally

3. **Neurological Basis** - Specific brain areas for speech

4. **Functional Priority** - Most communication through speech

**PRACTICAL SESSION 2: COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS ANALYSIS**

**Exercise 1: Design Feature Analysis**

Analyze communication systems using Hockett's design features:

1. Text Messaging

2. Sign Language

3. Traffic Signals

4. Computer Programming Languages

**Exercise 2: Animal Communication Research**

Watch videos of animal communication and identify:

- Context of communication

- Message content

- Limitations compared to human language

**INDEPENDENT STUDY TASK 2**

**Research Topic:** "The Uniqueness of Human Language: Evidence from

Animal Communication Studies"

**Tasks:**

1. **Case Study Analysis:** Choose one animal species and research their
communication system

2. **Experimental Design:** Design an experiment to test language ability

3. **Critical Evaluation:** Summarize one research paper on animal language

**CHAPTER 3: LEVELS OF LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS: PHONETICS**

**3.1. Introduction to Linguistic Levels**

Language is analyzed at multiple hierarchical levels:

**The Linguistic Hierarchy:**

1. Phonetics - Speech sounds

2. Phonology - Sound systems

3. Morphology - Word structure

4. Syntax - Sentence structure

5. Semantics - Meaning

6. Pragmatics - Language use

**3.2. Phonetics: The Study of Speech Sounds**

**Branches of Phonetics:**

1. **Articulatory Phonetics** - Sound production

2. **Acoustic Phonetics** - Physical properties

3. **Auditory Phonetics** - Sound perception

**3.3. The Speech Production Mechanism**

**Three Essential Components:**

1. **Airstream Mechanism** - Pulmonic egressive

2. **Phonation** - Vocal fold vibration

3. **Articulation** - Modification by vocal organs

**3.4. Classifying Speech Sounds**

**Major Sound Classes:**

- **Vowels** - Open vocal tract, syllabic nuclei

**CHAPTER 4: PHONOLOGY, MORPHOLOGY, SYNTAX, SEMANTICS,

PRAGMATICS**

**4.1. Overview of Linguistic Levels**

Comprehensive introduction to core areas of linguistics.

**4.2. Phonology: The Sound System**

**Key Concepts:**

- Phoneme - Mental representation

- Allophone - Contextual variations

- Phonotactics - Sound combination rules

**4.3. Morphology: Word Structure**

**Key Concepts:**

- Morpheme - Smallest meaningful unit

- Free vs. Bound Morphemes

- Inflectional vs. Derivational Morphology

**4.4. Syntax: Sentence Structure**

**Key Concepts:**

- Phrase Structure Rules

- Constituent Analysis

- Grammatical Relations

**4.5. Semantics: Meaning**

**Key Concepts:**

- Sense vs. Reference

- Lexical Relations

- Compositional Semantics

**4.6. Pragmatics: Language Use**

**Key Concepts:**

- Speech Acts

- Conversational Implicature

- Contextual Meaning
**CHAPTER 5: ARTICULATORY PHONETICS**

**5.1. Introduction to Articulatory Phonetics**

**Definition:** Study of how speech sounds are produced by movement of speech

organs.

**Vocal Tract Components:**

1. Respiratory System - Power source

2. Phonatory System - Voice production

3. Articulatory System - Sound shaping

**5.2. The Speech Production Mechanism**

**Three Processes:**

1. Initiation - Creating airstream

2. Phonation - Vocal fold vibration

3. Articulation - Sound shaping

**5.3. Places of Articulation**

**From Front to Back:**

1. Bilabial - Both lips (/p/, /b/, /m/)

2. Labiodental - Lower lip + upper teeth (/f/, /v/)

3. Dental - Tongue tip + teeth (/θ/, /ð/)

4. Alveolar - Tongue + alveolar ridge (/t/, /d/, /s/, /z/)

5. Post-alveolar - Tongue + back of alveolar ridge (/ʃ/, /ʒ/)

6. Palatal - Tongue + hard palate (/j/)

7. Velar - Tongue + soft palate (/k/, /g/, /ŋ/)

8. Glottal - Glottis (/h/, /ʔ/)

**5.4. Manners of Articulation**

**Degree of Constriction:**

1. Plosive/Stop - Complete closure then release

2. Nasal - Oral closure with nasal airflow

3. Fricative - Partial closure creating turbulence

4. Affricate - Stop + fricative

5. Approximant - Narrowing without turbulence

6. Tap/Flap - Quick tongue contact

**5.5. Vowel Articulation**

**Vowel Parameters:**

1. Tongue Height - High, Mid, Low

2. Tongue Advancement - Front, Central, Back

3. Lip Rounding - Rounded, Unrounded

4. Tenseness - Tense, Lax

**CHAPTER 6: IPA CLASSIFICATION AND SYLLABLE
STRUCTURES**

**6.1. International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)**

**Purpose of IPA:**

- Universal system for representing sounds

- One-to-one correspondence

- Cross-linguistic applicability

**6.2. English Consonant Inventory**

**Plosives:** /p b t d k g/

**Nasals:** /m n ŋ/

**Fricatives:** /f v θ ð s z ʃ ʒ h/

**Affricates:** /tʃ dʒ/

**Approximants:** /l r j w/

**6.3. English Vowel Inventory**

**Monophthongs (Pure Vowels):**

- /i:/ beat, /ɪ/ bit

- /e/ bet, /æ/ bat

- /ɑ:/ father, /ɔ:/ caught

- /ʊ/ foot, /u:/ boot

- /ʌ/ but, /ɜ:/ bird

- /ə/ about

**Diphthongs (Gliding Vowels):**

- /eɪ/ face, /aɪ/ price, /ɔɪ/ choice

- /aʊ/ mouth, /əʊ/ goat

**6.4. Syllable Structure**

**Syllable Components:**

- Onset - Initial consonant(s)

- Rhyme:

- Nucleus - Vowel (obligatory)

- Coda - Final consonant(s)

**Syllable Patterns:**

- CV (Consonant-Vowel): "me"

- CVC: "cat"

- CCVC: "stop"

- CVCC: "jump"

**6.5. Suprasegmental Features**

**Features Beyond Single Sounds:**

1. Stress - Prominence on syllables

2. Intonation - Pitch patterns

3. Tone - Pitch distinguishing meaning

4. Length - Duration of sounds

**CHAPTER 7: PHONEMES AND ALLOPHONES**

**7.1. The Phoneme Concept**

**Definition:** Smallest contrastive unit in sound system that can distinguish

meaning.

**Key Properties:**

- Abstract mental representation

- Contrastive function

- Language-specific

**Minimal Pairs Evidence:**

- /pɪn/ vs /bɪn/ → /p/ and /b/ are separate phonemes

**7.2. Allophones: Phonetic Variations**

**Definition:** Predictable phonetic variants of a phoneme in specific

environments.

**Types of Variation:**

1. Complementary Distribution - Never same environment

2. Free Variation - Can occur in same environment

**7.3. Phonemic vs. Phonetic Level**

**Phonemic Level (Broad Transcription):**

- Uses slashes / /

- Only phonemes

- Example: /pin/

**Phonetic Level (Narrow Transcription):**

- Uses square brackets [ ]

- Allophonic details

- Example: [pʰɪn]

**7.4. Discovering Phonemes**

**Methods:**

1. Minimal Pair Test

2. Complementary Distribution Test

3. Free Variation Test

**7.5. Neutralization**

**Definition:** Phonemic contrast lost in specific environment.

**Example:**

- German final devoicing

- English nasal assimilation

**CHAPTER 8: PHONOLOGICAL PROCESSES AND RULES**

**8.1. Phonological Processes**

**Definition:** Systematic, predictable changes sounds undergo in specific

environments.

**Major Types:**

1. Assimilation - Sounds become more similar

2. Dissimilation - Sounds become less similar

3. Insertion (Epenthesis) - Adding sounds

4. Deletion (Elision) - Removing sounds

5. Metathesis - Reordering sounds

6. Coalescence - Two sounds merge

**8.2. Assimilation Processes**

**Most Common Type - Subtypes:**

1. Regressive Assimilation - Influenced by following sound

2. Progressive Assimilation - Influenced by preceding sound

3. Place Assimilation - Changing place of articulation

4. Manner Assimilation - Changing manner

5. Voicing Assimilation - Changing voicing

**8.3. Other Major Processes**

**Dissimilation:**

- Making adjacent sounds less similar

**Insertion (Epenthesis):**
- Adding sounds to break clusters

**Deletion (Elision):**

- Omitting sounds in rapid speech

**Metathesis:**

- Reversing sound order

**Coalescence:**

- Two sounds merge into one

**8.4. Formalizing Phonological Rules**

**Rule Format:**

A → B / C __ D

(A becomes B when between C and D)

**Examples:**

- Nasal assimilation: /n/ → [m] / __ [+labial]

- Final devoicing: [+voice] → [-voice] / __

**CHAPTER 9: MORPHOLOGY AND WORD FORMATION**

**9.1. Introduction to Morphology**

**Definition:** Study of internal structure of words and rules of word formation.

**Basic Concepts:**

- Morpheme - Smallest meaningful unit

- Morph - Concrete realization

- Allomorph - Variant forms

**9.2. Types of Morphemes**

**Free vs. Bound Morphemes:**

- Free: Can stand alone (cat, happy, run)

- Bound: Cannot stand alone (-s, un-, -ed)

**Root vs. Affix:**

- Root: Core meaning-bearing unit

- Affix: Bound morpheme attached to root

**9.3. Affix Types**

**By Position:**

1. Prefix - Before root (un-happy)

2. Suffix - After root (hope-ful)

3. Infix - Inside root

4. Circumfix - Around root

**By Function:**

1. Derivational - Create new words

2. Inflectional - Grammatical marking

**9.4. Derivational Morphology**

**Functions:**

- Change word class: happy (adj) → happiness (n)

- Change meaning: do → undo

**English Derivational Affixes:**

- Noun-forming: -ness, -ment, -ion

- Verb-forming: -ize, -ify, -en

- Adjective-forming: -ful, -less, -able

- Adverb-forming: -ly
**9.5. Inflectional Morphology**

**English Inflectional Affixes (Only 8):**

1. Nouns: plural -s, possessive -'s

2. Verbs: 3sg -s, past -ed, past participle -ed/-en, present participle -ing

3. Adjectives: comparative -er, superlative -est

**9.6. Word Formation Processes**

**Major Processes:**

1. Compounding - Combining words

2. Conversion - Changing category

3. Clipping - Shortening

4. Blending - Combining parts

5. Backformation - Removing "affix"

6. Acronyms - Initial letters

7. Borrowing - From other languages

8. Coinage - Creating new words

**CHAPTER 10: SYNTAX AND SENTENCE ANALYSIS**

**10.1. Introduction to Syntax**

**Definition:** Study of sentence structure and rules governing word

combination.

**Key Concepts:**

- Grammaticality - Following rules

- Ambiguity - Multiple interpretations

- Productivity - Creating novel sentences

**10.2. Constituent Structure**

**Definition:** Groups of words functioning as units.

**Tests for Constituency:**

1. Substitution - Replaced by single word

2. Movement - Moved as unit

3. Coordination - Coordinated with similar unit

4. Ellipsis - Omitted

**10.3. Phrase Structure Rules**

**Basic Rules for English:**

1. S → NP VP

2. NP → (Det) (AdjP*) N (PP*)

3. VP → V (NP) (PP*) (AdvP)

4. PP → P NP

5. AdjP → (AdvP) Adj

6. AdvP → (AdvP) Adv

**10.4. Syntactic Categories**

**Lexical Categories:**

- Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverb, Preposition

**Phrasal Categories:**

- NP, VP, AdjP, AdvP, PP

**10.5. Tree Diagrams**

**Representing Hierarchical Structure:**

- Nodes represent categories

- Branches show relationships

- Leaves show actual words

**10.6. Transformational Grammar**

**Deep vs. Surface Structure:**

- Deep Structure - Underlying meaning

- Surface Structure - Actual sentence form

**Transformational Rules:**

- Passive transformation

- Question formation

- Relative clause formation

**CHAPTER 11: SEMANTICS AND LEXICAL RELATIONS**

**11.1. Introduction to Semantics**

**Definition:** Study of meaning in language.

**Key Distinctions:**

- Sense - Relationships between words

- Reference - Relationship between words and world

**11.2. Lexical Relations**

**Major Types:**

1. Synonymy - Same meaning

2. Antonymy - Opposite meaning

3. Hyponymy - Category membership

4. Meronymy - Part-whole relationship

5. Homonymy - Same form, different meanings

6. Polysemy - Related meanings

**11.3. Sense and Reference**

**Sense:**

- Mental representation

- Dictionary definition

- Internal to language

**Reference:**

- Actual entities in world

- Context-dependent

- External to language

**11.4. Compositional Semantics**

**Principle of Compositionality:** Sentence meaning determined by parts and

combination.

**Semantic Rules:**

- Function application

- Modification

- Coordination

**11.5. Semantic Features**

**Decomposing Meaning:**

- [+animate], [+human], [+male], [+adult]

- Example: "woman" = [+human, +adult, -male]

**CHAPTER 12: PRAGMATICS AND SPEECH ACTS**

**12.1. Introduction to Pragmatics**

**Definition:** Studies how context influences interpretation of meaning.

**Key Concepts:**

- Context - Situational, social, linguistic

- Inference - Drawing conclusions

- Relevance - Making contextual sense

**12.2. Speech Act Theory**

**Austin's Theory:**

- Locutionary act - Literal utterance

- Illocutionary act - Intended function

- Perlocutionary act - Effect on listener

**Searle's Classification:**

1. Representatives - Stating, asserting

2. Directives - Requesting, ordering

3. Commissives - Promising, pledging

4. Expressives - Thanking, apologizing

5. Declarations - Declaring, pronouncing

**12.3. Conversational Implicature**

**Grice's Cooperative Principle:** Make contribution as required by talk

exchange.
**Maxims:**

1. Quantity - Be appropriately informative

2. Quality - Be truthful

3. Relation - Be relevant

4. Manner - Be clear

**Implicature arises when maxims are flouted.**

**12.4. Politeness Theory**

**Face Needs:**

- Positive face - Desire to be approved

- Negative face - Desire to be unimpeded

**Politeness Strategies:**

- Bald on-record

- Positive politeness

- Negative politeness

- Off-record indirectness
**CHAPTER 13: SOCIOLINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE VARIATION**

**13.1. Introduction to Sociolinguistics**

**Definition:** Studies relationship between language and society.

**Key Concepts:**

- Variation - Different ways of saying same thing

- Change - Language evolution

- Identity - Language expressing social identity

**13.2. Language Varieties**

**Types of Variation:**

1. Regional dialects - Geographical

2. Social dialects - Social class

3. Ethnolects - Ethnic group

4. Genderlects - Gender-based

5. Registers - Situation-based

**13.3. Bilingualism and Multilingualism**

**Types:**

- Individual - Person knows multiple languages

- Societal - Society uses multiple languages

**Diglossia:** Two varieties with separate functions.

**13.4. Code-Switching and Code-Mixing**

**Code-Switching:** Alternating between languages

**Code-Mixing:** Mixing languages within utterance

**Functions:**

- Expressing identity

- Quoting someone

- Topic-related

- Social roles

**13.5. Language Policy and Planning**

**Domains:**

- Status planning - Official language decisions

- Corpus planning - Standardization

- Acquisition planning - Language education

**CHAPTER 14: HISTORICAL LINGUISTICS AND LANGUAGE
FAMILIES**

**14.1. Introduction to Historical Linguistics**

**Definition:** Studies how languages change over time and relationships.

**Key Concepts:**

- Language change - Natural process

- Genetic relationship - Common ancestry

- Reconstruction - Recovering earlier forms

**14.2. Types of Language Change**

**Phonological Change:**

- Sound shifts - Systematic changes

- Assimilation - Sounds become similar

- Lenition - Weakening of sounds

**Morphological Change:**

- Analogy - Regularizing irregular forms

- Grammaticalization - Content words become grammatical

**Syntactic Change:**

- Word order changes

- New constructions

**Semantic Change:**
- Broadening - Meaning expands

- Narrowing - Meaning restricts

- Amelioration - Meaning improves

- Pejoration - Meaning worsens

**14.3. The Comparative Method**

**Steps:**

1. Collect cognates from related languages

2. Establish sound correspondences

3. Reconstruct proto-forms

4. Determine family relationships

**14.4. Language Families**

**Major Families:**

1. Indo-European - English, Spanish, Hindi

2. Sino-Tibetan - Chinese, Burmese

3. Afro-Asiatic - Arabic, Hebrew

4. Austronesian - Indonesian, Malay

5. Dravidian - Tamil, Telugu

**14.5. Language Typology**

**Classification by Structure:**

- Isolating - One morpheme per word

- Agglutinative - Clear morpheme boundaries

- Fusional - Merged morphemes

- Polysynthetic - Whole sentences in one word

**APPENDICES**

**Appendix A: Complete IPA Chart**

- Consonants and vowels with English examples

- Diacritics and suprasegmental symbols

**Appendix B: Morphological Analysis Guide**

- Step-by-step word analysis

- Common affixes and their functions

**Appendix C: Syntactic Tree Diagram Guide**

- Basic phrase structure rules

- Tree drawing conventions

**Appendix D: Semantic Relations Chart**

- Complete classification of lexical relations

- Examples and tests

**Appendix E: Research Project Guidelines**

- Methodology for linguistic research

- Data collection and analysis techniques

**Appendix F: Sample Exam Questions**

- Theoretical questions

- Practical analysis tasks

- Answer keys

**BIBLIOGRAPHY**

**Core Textbooks:**

1. Akmajian, A. et al. (2001). Linguistics: An Introduction

2. Fromkin, V. et al. (2013). An Introduction to Language

3. Yule, G. (2020). The Study of Language

**Reference Works:**

1. Crystal, D. (2008). A Dictionary of Linguistics and Phonetics

2. Trask, R.L. (2007). Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts

**Additional Resources:**

- Journal of Linguistics

- Language Journal

- Linguistic Society of America publications