‫كتاب المشاهدة والتطبيق‬

(‫)مرحلة رابعة‬

Undergraduate Practicum Course

(Fourth Stage)

Dr. Shaimaa Al-Bakri & Dr. Khansaa Hassan Hussein

Linguistic Supervisor

Dr. Abd Al-Karim F. Jamil

2014

)‫ احمد كريم الفتالوي (احمد سابورو‬:‫نشر بواسطة‬

‫اضغط هنا للدخول الى قناتنا‬ ‫احمد سابورو‬

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Phone: 07821116891
Table of Contents

Page
Topics
No.
Chapter 1 Student-Teachers: A starting Point 1
Chapter 2 Learner Characteristics 15
Chapter 3 Aims, Goals, Objectives and Lesson Planning 33
Chapter 4 Teaching Vocabulary 58
Chapter 5 Teaching Grammar 76
Chapter 6 Teaching Listening 95
Chapter 7 Teaching Speaking 114
Chapter 8 Teaching Reading 137
Chapter 9 Teaching Writing 159
Chapter 10 Classroom Management 181
Appendix An Observation Checklist for Student Teachers' Performance 196

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Welcome to student teaching...
Preface a wonderful and exciting journey
toward becoming English language
‫تويﺞ‬$‫ٮ‬
teachers. You are entering the capstone experience of your
‫ﺔ‬A‫ﺣﺎﻣﻌٮ‬/ ‫ﺔ‬A‫ﺔ ﻋﻤﻠٮ‬A‫ٮٮ‬/ ‫ﺪري‬$‫دورة ٮ‬
preparation to teach. Your undergraduate practicum course will
offer you a variety of ideas and opportunities about teaching
.Although we believe that language instructions should be based on
spontaneous communication, real – life language materials, the
development of academic literacy, a caring relationship with
learners, and the encouragement of learner autonomy, the message
throughout this book will that you are a competent and caring
individual whowill be the most familiar with the students and their
English language needs.
Throughout this book, you will be given practical guidelines,
techniques, strategies and variety of activities for making decisions
and specific teaching situations to think about to help you become
comfortable with the process of thinking about language teaching.
The course contains 10 chapters. Each chapter focuses on
aspecific pedagogical area with a variety of pedagogical features.
 Objectives
Each chapter begins with a list of objectives that identify the
expected student-teachers outcomes.

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 Glossary
This feature is included to provide explanations and definitions
for the prominent terms located in each chapter.
 Sources for Learning
For further learning, student –teachers can consult numerous
of related sources.

 Warm-up Activities
In each chapter, this phase involves two sections:
- Breaking Ice
This feature gives student-teachers some ideas about how
P
‫دڡﻌﺔ‬
to provide positive momentum for learners by:
1. Helping young people feel comfortable together
2. Helping new members to integrate into a group.
3. Encouraging cooperation.
4. Encouraging listening to others.
5. Encouraging working together.
6. Developing social skills.
7. Building rapport with leaders.
8. Creating a good atmosphere for learning and
participation.

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- Brainstorming
This feature presents specific questions about the topic of each
[Link] asking questions about what have gained from the
lesson, the ‘brainstorming’section encourages student-teachers to
respect their and others’ point of views.
- Video Task
To elaborate student-teachers understanding of the topic presented
in each chapter, two or three videos are available in student-
teachers CDs.
 The Task
During this phase, and in small groups, six or seven tasks student-
teachers have to perform them.

‫ﻌﺔ‬/‫ٮﺎٮ‬$ ‫اﻟﻤ‬
 The Follow-up Activities
At the end of every chapter and during this phase, there is a ‘self or
peer evaluation checklist’. The purpose of these checklists is to
develop student-teachers’ own self-awareness, so that they can
improve their own teaching performance.

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1 Student Teachers: A Starting Point

Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Infer the main student-teachers’ responsibilities in pre ,during , and after the
practicum.
2. Suggest additional guidelines during student teaching.
3. Suggest a checklist to evaluate student -teachers’ teaching performance.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
Working with each other to do a task. It is a recursive ‫ٮﻜررة‬$ ‫ﻣ‬
process where two or more people or organizations work
together to realize shared goals, (this is more than the
Collaboration ‫ڡﺎﻃﻊ‬$ $‫ٮ‬
intersection of common goals seen in co-operative ventures, ‫ﻣﺸﺎريﻊ‬
but a deep, collective, determination to reach an identical
‫ﺳعى‬
!
objective for example, an endeavor that is creative in nature
by sharing knowledge, learning and building consensus.
The ability to invent or formulate an idea or concept. The
‫ﺼور‬$‫ٮ‬ conceptualization phase of a project occurs in the initial
Conceptualization
design activity when the scope of the project is drafted and a
list of the desired design features and requirements is
created.
Parts of a written or spoken statement that precede or follow
‫ﺎق‬A‫ﺳٮ‬ a specified word or passage and can influence its meaning or
Context effect.
It is also a set of circumstances or facts that surround a
particular event, situation, etc.
Teacher’s quality of being able to adapt what they do in a
Flexibility
lesson, especially when faced with unforeseen problems.
‫ﻤﻜﻦ‬A ‫كﻞ ﻣﺎٮ‬:‫اﻟﻤوارد‬ /
Engaging learners in "sense-making" or reasoning about
‫ﻣﺤﻤﻮﻋﻪ ﻣوارد‬
‫ﺤﺪاﻣﻪ‬P ‫ٮ‬$ ‫اﺳ‬ ‫ٮﻄﺎق‬P ‫ واﺳﻌﻪ اﻟ‬extensive resource sets. Learning environments typically
/ ‫ٮٮ‬$ ‫ﻪ اﻻﺣ‬A‫ٮٮ‬/ ‫ٮﻠ‬$ ‫ﻟ‬
‫ﺎﺣﺎت‬A include four components: an enabling context, resources, a
‫ﻖ اﻻﻫﺪاف‬A‫ڡٮ‬$ ‫ﺤ‬$‫ او ٮ‬Learning
set of tools, and scaffolds. Authentic or realistic contexts are
environment
provided to motivate learners, and typically take the form of
complex, full-scale problems representative of real-world
tasks.
Performance Actions of a person or group when given a learning task.

The final activity in student-teachers’ programmes which is

Practicum intended to provide them with the opportunity to engage in
all the activities. Practicum experiences will take place at

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schools where the student teachers work with programmers
to their degree and licensure needs appropriate.

Looking at what you do in the classroom, thinking about

why you do it, and thinking about if it works - a process of
Reflective self-observation and self-evaluation. By collecting
teaching information about what goes on in our classroom, and by
analyzing and evaluating this information, we identify and
explore our own practices and underlying beliefs.
‫ﻂ‬/‫رٮ‬A ‫ٮ‬
The social force that binds you to‫ﺮس‬the P‫ﻋ‬
courses of action
demanded by that force; "we must instill a sense of duty in
Responsibility
our children"; "every right implies a responsibility; every
opportunity, an obligation; every possession, a duty"
The stage of preparation, planning, etc. It comes before
Warm –up
students perform a task in Task-based Learning.
Follow-up The stage of evaluation and reflection.
Something we ask students to do, such as solving a problem,
Task
making a presentation or creating an advertisement.

1. What is a Practicum

In line with how teaching is conceptualized in the 21st century, the practicum
is a period of time during initial teacher education that student teachers are attached
to schools, in order to experience what it means to teach. It provides an opportunity
for student teachers to practice and at the same time, to reflect about their practice. It
provides a platform for inquiry, for trying ideas within supportive, collaborative
relationships, and for talking about teaching and learning in new ways. It enables
student teachers to acquire beginning teaching competencies. It also helps prepare
them for the realities of teaching by providing them with a clear understanding of the
meaning of their profession and the contexts for schooling.
‫ﻣﺮﺷﺪ‬
During practicum, student teachers are mentored and guided by their School
Teachers and the university Supervisors through focused conversations (if applicable)
and systematic observations. Student teachers will have the opportunities to become
involved with, and actively participate in all aspects of the school’s activities.

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Through these experiences, student teachers will learn to acquire the necessary
values, skills and knowledge for teaching effectively in this new landscape.

2. Value of the Practicum

The practicum programme is an opportunity for student teachers to engage in a

dynamic and iterative cycle of inquiry within a variety practicum settings. It is within
these various communities that our student-teachers are exposed to ideas of teaching
and learning, engage in discussion about these ideas, and are provided with
opportunities to test their professional knowledge and practice in a variety of settings.
The practicum:

1. Allows the student -teachers to learn and grow as teachers through

observing and participating in the day-to- day realities of teaching in school
settings;
2. Provides student -teachers with periods of observation and classroom
interaction in different classrooms ;
3. Allows the student -teachers to appreciate and gain insights regarding
school culture and the professional community in which they work;
4. Provides a context within which student -teachers are able to question,
reflect, and entertain uncertainty as they articulate and examine their own
understandings of teaching, and learning;
5. Enables student -teachers to demonstrate an increased understanding of
their developing self as a teacher.

3. Student-Teachers’ Responsibilities

There are three sets of responsibilities to be done by the student-teachers.

1. Student -teachers’ responsibilities in pre-practicum

The aims of this period are to:

 deepen the quality of learning, in the form of critical thinking or developing a

questioning attitude.
 enable the student-teacher to understand their own learning process.
 facilitate learning from experience.
4

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 increase active involvement in learning and personal ownership of learning.
 increase the ability to reflect and improve the quality of learning.
 enhance problem-solving skills.
 enhance professional practice or the professional self in practice.
 explore the self-personal constructs of meaning and one's view of the world.
 enhance the personal value of the self towards self-empowerment.
 enhance creativity by making better use of intuitive understanding .
 provide an alternative 'voice' for those not good at expressing themselves.
 foster reflective and creative interaction in a group.

The programme is, thus, designed to be used by student teachers who will:

 show enthusiasm towards the programme.

 make real use of the material.
 read the objectives of each chapter so that they will learn how to formulate
their own objectives when they enrolled in the teaching process.
 read the glossary of each chapter.
 seethe required CD for each chapter.
 explore teaching strategies, learning activities and resources.
 engage in different roles and perform all tasks.
 participate in teaching.
 engage in self, peer and group evaluation of his/her and other student-teachers’
performance.
 reflect on your own performance.
 anticipate feedback and suggestions, and take a positive attitude toward them.
 maintain openness toward other points of view.
 incorporate suggestions discussed and agreed upon into your teaching quickly
and consistently.
 ask questions, when needed, to clarify criticism and suggestions. Since your
ability to incorporate suggested changes into your teaching is important, make
sure you understand the suggestions.

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2. Student teachers’ responsibilities during the practicum

Student-teachers are being welcomed into a school by the principal and staff
as associated members of the teaching profession and are expected to take on the
responsibilities assigned by the school principal and the Associate Teacher. You will
be both a learner and a teacher. You will be able to test your knowledge of your
discipline and your skills of teaching technique, but, most important of all, you will
learn much about people, especially about your students and yourself.
Student-teachers are expected to follow the school culture, expectations, procedures,
and daily routines and engage in the daily life of the school.
The student- teacher is expected to take into account the following six Guiding
Principles:

 Knowledge

The student- teacher is expected to be well-grounded in student development, the

content areas that are central to teaching, and assessment strategies.

 Learning Environment

The student - teacher is expected to create and nurture positive physical, social, and
academic learning environments.

 Personalized Learning

The student - teacher is expected to understand their pupils’ ability levels, interests,
and learning styles. The student teacher demonstrates instruction that reflects the
diversity among all learners.

 Community

The student- teacher is expected to understand and to be involved in the academic

learning community. The student teacher builds and develops relationships within
the school, corporation, and community.

 Reflection

The student-teacher is expected to reflect continuously on all aspects of the teaching

experience to identify ways for improvement as an individual, as a part of the school
community, and as part of the teaching profession.

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 Growth

The student- teacher is expected to develop a philosophy of teaching and learning,

which demonstrates continuous professional growth in values, commitments, and
professional judgments.

Knowledge Learning
Growth
environment

Teaching development
Personalized
Reflection
learning

Community

‫اﻟﺴﻠﻮك اﻟﻤﻬﲏ‬
Guidelines for Professional Conduct during student teaching

The following are some general guidelines to be taken into account during
student teaching:
1. Know and follow school rules and procedures.
2. Read the school’s handbooks, and follow all rules and procedures while in the
school. Also be sure to follow instructions for parking and for signing in and out.
3. Be reliable and on time. Before student-teachers begin a placement, they should
carefully review the college and school calendars, along with their personal
calendar, paying close attention to early dismissal and in-service days, holiday
closings, field trip and testing days, as well as college vacations. student-teachers
begin and end student teaching according to the College semester schedule, but
follow the school calendar, not the College calendar, for days off. student-teachers
are expected to be at their school every day, all day.

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‫ﺲ‬/‫ﻣﻼٮ‬
4. Dress professionally. Wear professional-looking attire. First impressions are
lasting and influence how students and staff treat you.
5. Maintain strict confidentiality. Do not discuss individual students outside the
school setting. Most student data is private and should not be released to anyone
but the student, parents, and staff with a legitimate educational interest. Do not
make public lists of students who received the top scores or the names of students
who need to turn in work. Always check school policy to determine whether
pictures or video clips of students can be used for bulletin boards, included in the
‫ﻣﻤﺎرﺳﺔ‬ candidate portfolio, or reproduced in any way.
‫ﺼﺮڡﺎت‬ P ‫ٮ‬$ ‫ اﻟ‬6. Practice professional dispositions. Time in the school should focus on the student
‫ﺔ‬A‫ٮٮ‬P ‫اﻟﻤﻬ‬ teaching experience and practicing professional dispositions.
7. Maintain a professional relationship with students. Here are some suggestions
to maintain a professional relationship with students:
a. Do not meet with students alone in a closed setting. Have another adult
present when meeting with a student privately and keep the door open. Be
aware of and sensitive to physical and emotional boundaries. Everyone’s
boundaries are different.
b. Do not meet with students in non-school settings, especially when other
adults are not present.
c. Never use physical force to punish a student.
8. Accept direction and feedback gracefully. It is important to remember that
student teaching provides a safe, sheltered environment for student-teachers to
develop a realistic picture of their own personal strengths and weaknesses. Student-
teachers should accept all comments and suggestions as sincere efforts to enhance
their professional growth and development.
9. Patience. Be willing to explain the point as many times as necessary.
10. [Link] well-prepared lessons and have a sense of purpose and
direction for the course as a whole.
11. Awareness of need. Be aware of students’ difficulties and problems.
‫يﺰ‬A‫ﻤٮ‬$‫ٮ‬
12. Flexibility and imagination. Use textbooks with discrimination and to bring
other materials to supplement or replace unsuitable or uninteresting textbooks.
13. Variety and balance. Try to provide a varied of grammar, vocabulary, listening,
and speaking practice.

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3. Student teachers’ responsibilities : post -practicum

Post-Practicum is the phase when student-teachers finish and return back to their
colleges or universities. During this phase the student-teachers’ responsibilities can
be inferred as follow:

1. Identify areas of strength and areas of weakness.

2. Share on how their practicum experience helped to develop their teaching
competencies.

4. Habits of highly effective teachers: How to stay fresh in the

Classroom
‫ !ى‬$ ‫ﺎڡ‬/‫ٮٮ‬$ ‫اﺳ‬
Habit 1: Be Proactive

 Act in the classroom , not re-act.

 Every teacher needs a pause button.
 Don’t create problems for yourself.

Habit 2: Begin with the End in Mind

 Teachers need a destination and a compass.

 A Teacher’s Mission Statement-Why did you become a teacher?
 The end should always be “what is best for the students under your care?”
 Planning ahead always makes things better.

Habit 3: Put First Things First

 Establish priorities in the classroom

Habit 4: Seek First to Understand.

 Recognize your prejudices in the classroom and work to overcome them.

 Practice Empathic listening.
 Give honest feedback to students.

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‫ﺂزر‬$‫ٮ‬
Habit 5: Synergize

 Work together with coworkers, parents, students, and administrators.

 Value and celebrate differences.
 Involve people in the problem and work out the solution together.

Habit 6: Sharpen the Saw

 Renew yourself: Physically, socially, mentally, and spiritually.

 Nurture your relationship with students.
 Always grow-be a better teacher tomorrow than you were today.

Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

Cochran-Smith, M., and Lytle, S. (1999).The Teacher research movement: A
decade later. Educational Researcher, 28(7), 15-25.
York-Barr, J., Sommers, W. A., Ghere, G. S., andMontie, J. (2001). Reflective
practice to improve schools: An action guide for educators. Thousand
Oaks, California: Corwin Press.
Tan, O. S. (2003). Problem-Based Learning Innovation. Singapore: Thomson.
Darling-Hammond, L., and Bransford, J. (Eds.). (2005). Preparing Teachers for
a Changing World: What Teachers Should Learn and Be Able to Do. San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Schulz, R. (2005). “The practicum: More than Practice”. Canadian Journal of
Education, 28(1 and 2), 147-167.
Damion R. Cummins.(2009).The Role of Practicum and Intern Supervisees in
Professional Identity Development. New Orleans: B.S., University of
Louisiana.
Ear Icy, P. and Porritt,V. (2010).Effective Practices in Continuing Professional
Development: Lessons from Schools. London: Institute of Education.
Muijs, R.D. and Reynolds, D. (2010) Effective Teaching: Evidence and
Practice. London: Sage.

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Warm-up Activities

 Ice Breaking Activities

These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-
/
‫ﻣواﺣﻪ‬ ‫ﺮ‬A‫ ٮ‬P‫ ﻋ‬confrontational, low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

Interview

Divide the students into pairs. Ask them to take three minutes to interview each other.
Each interviewer has to find 3 interesting facts about their partner. Bring everyone
back to together and ask everyone to present the 3 facts about their partner to the rest
of the group. Watch the time on this one, keep it moving along.
My name is?
Go around the group and ask each student to state his/her name and attach an
adjective that not only describes a dominant characteristic, but also starts with the
same letter of his name e.g. generous Grahame, dynamic Dave. Write them down and
refer to them by this for the rest of the evening.

 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group

 First, note down your own answers alone.

 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.
1. What opportunities does practicum programme give student-teachers?
2. In what cases can practicum activity help student-teachers?
3. What are the student teachers’ responsibilities to the school where they are
placed?
4. Who observes the student teachers' performance?
5. What can observations focus on?
6. Do you think that the student-teachers’ success during the practicum setting
depends on their success in pre-practicum setting? How?

11

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 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers
Video 1.1
What to look for: An explanation of the meaning of practicum.

Video 1.2
What to look for: Student-teachers during the practicum activity.

Tasks

Task 1
Student teachers have responsibilities towards: the school where they are placed, the
School Based Educator (SBE), the College Supervisor, and to themselves. Put the
statements below in their places in the table.

School Based the College

the school themselves
Educator Supervisor

1. Adhere to school/local standards of behavior, including the standard of dress.

2. Contribute to the extracurricular life of the school.
3. Write lesson plans for each lesson and submit for review/approval prior to
teaching.
4. Attend all scheduled meetings and seminars.
5. Share concerns regarding the placement.
6. Be ready to devote the time and energy necessary to be successful.
12

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Task 2
For student teachers, knowledge is the first foundation of teaching and learning.
What are the other foundations?

1. Knowledge
2. …………….
3. …………….
4. …………….
5. …………….

Task 3
Draw a diagram illustrating your responsibilities in per -practicum stage
(during college course of study).

Task 4
Suggest other guidelines for professional conduct during student teaching beside
these:
1. Know and follow school rules and procedures.
2. Read the school’s handbooks, and follow all rules and procedures while in the
school.
3. Be reliable and on time.
4. Dress professionally.
5. Maintain strict confidentiality.
6. Practice professional dispositions.
7. Maintain a professional relationship with students.
8. Accept direction and feedback gracefully.
9. ……………………………………….
10. ………………………………………..
11. …………………………………………..

Task 5
According to what you have studied in this chapter , suggest a checklist to evaluate
student teachers’ teaching.

13

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Task 6

Suggest some qualities of a good teacher

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

……………………………………………………………….

Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,E,F ) and according to what have been studied in this
chapter, student-teachers evaluate the tasks done and as follows:

Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A

Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C

Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E

14

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2 Learner Characteristics
Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Complete diagrams for learners’ characteristics.

2. Compare student- teachers’ answers with each other.
3. Classify the activities according to their types.
4. Define certain terms.
5. Make specific recommendations based on student-teachers’ individual
characteristics

15

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
An emotion characterized by feelings of tension, worried
thoughts and physical changes like increased blood pressure.
‫ﻣﺤﺎوف‬ P People with anxiety disorders usually have recurring
P ‫اڡﲀر او‬
/
‫ٮﻜررة‬$ ‫ﻣﺰﻋﺤﺔ ﻣ‬
Anxiety intrusive thoughts or concerns. They may avoid certain
situations out of worry. They may also have physical
‫اﻋراض‬ symptoms such as sweating, trembling, dizziness or a rapid
‫ﻌرق‬$‫ٮ‬ ‫دوﺣﺔ‬
P
heartbeat.

P Assimilative It goes beyond integrative motivation and refers to a desire to

‫ى‬/! ‫ﻌﺎٮ‬A‫ٮٮ‬$ ‫داڡﻊ اﺳ‬
motivation actually join the new culture.
Learners are those who learn best through hearing things. You
may be an auditory learner if you are someone who likes to
‫ﺳﻤعى‬
! Auditory read to self out loud, is not afraid to speak in class, likes oral
reports, is good at explaining, remembers names, notices
sound effects in movies , enjoys music…
Wanting to learn a language for the purpose of obtaining some

Instrumental concrete goals such as a job, graduation, or the ability to read

motivation academic materials. This form of motivation is thought to be
less likely to lead to success than integrative motivation.
When students want to learn a language to become part of a
P
‫ﲀﻣﲇ‬$‫داڡﻊ ٮ‬ speech community (integrate). People who immigrate to new

Integrate countries are some examples of people who may want to

motivation identify with the community around them. An important
aspect of this form of language learning is using language for
social interaction. This form of motivation is thought to

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produce success in language learners.
Those who learn through experiencing/doing things. You may
‫ﺣﺮكى‬
! be a kinesthetic learner if you are someone who is good at
Kinesthetic sports, can't sit still for long, is not great at spelling, does not
learners
have great handwriting, likes science lab, studies with loud
music on, likes adventure books, movies.
Internal and external factors that stimulate desire and energy in
people to be continually interested and committed to a job, role
or subject, or to make an effort to attain a goal. Motivation
Motivation results from the interaction of both conscious and unconscious
factors such as the (1) intensity of desire or need, (2) incentive
or reward value of the goal, and (3) expectations of the
individual and of his or her peers.
‫ﺼري‬/‫ٮ‬ Those who learn through seeing things. A visual learner is
Visual good at spelling, needs quiet study time, has to think awhile
learners before understanding lecture, is good at spelling, likes colours
and fashion.

1. Types of Learner Characteristics

Language teachers have generally been most concerned with three types of learner
characteristics: affective (or emotional) characteristics, cognitive characteristics, and
metacognitive characteristics.

Emotional Characteristic
Emotional characteristics include students' feelings about language learning and to-
ward their particular target language and culture. Cognitive factors include the dif-
ferent ways that people process information and are considered to be less changeable
than other learner differences.

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 Language Learning Emotions Attitudes and Motivation
Language learners have very different goals for language learning. Older learners often
have clearly defined goals involving earning a living, advanced schooling, or helping
their children with their schoolwork, while younger learners do not think so much
about learning a language but about wanting to fit in with the other kids at school.
Many scholars have found a strong relationship between motivation and language
learning achievement. Gardner and Wallace identified two types of language learning
motivation: instrumental motivation and integrate motivation. Instrumental motivated
learners have a pragmatic reason for learning a language, such as passing a high school
exit examination or getting a better job, while interactively motivated learners want to
learn the language so that they can get to know its people and culture.
Closely tied to the issue of motivation is the issue of learner attitudes toward the new
language and culture. Attitudes toward particular groups typically have a sociological
basis, and most scholars believe that the attitudes and motivation of individual
language learners or groups of learners cannot be understood outside of the particular
social and political context where the language learning is taking place.

Encouraging Positive Attitudes and Motivation

Students will generally have some combination of instrumental, integrative, and
possibly assimilative motivation as well as their own personal motivations for
language learning.
Because of the strong societal forces involved, simply listing the advantages of
language learning is not usually effective in changing student’s attitudes and
motivations toward language learning. Here are some more specific suggestions:
1. Help students develop personal goals for language learning. For example, some
students may not identify with the idea of going to college in the future, but want to
participate in a school activity.
2. Discuss students' ideas about the language and culture. ELLs are particularly
vulnerable to developing stereotypes about Americans whenever they or someone they
know has a negative interaction with English speakers. Help students make
connections with members of the new community. Language buddies, fieldtrips, and e-
mail exchanges are good ways to put students in contact with the new culture.
3. Give students support before and after cultural contacts. Have students discuss their
expectations, how to develop relationships with native speakers and their previous

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cultural experiences. Help students better understand their experiences to avoid the
development of new stereotypes.

 Anxiety
Some students think that they are supposed to understand everything and feel anxious
whenever they miss a word. Although anxiety is usually assorted with listening and
speaking, studies have also found that some students feel anxious when they have to
read or write the second language.
Students who have to function in the second culture may feel even more anxious.
Adolescents are commonly worried about looking silly in front of their peers, and a
new culture has different requirements for acting appropriately.

Approaches for reducing anxiety

The following approaches can be used to help language learners feel less anxious in
either their language or mainstream content classes:
• Acknowledge students' discomfort. Many students are relieved to learn that they are
not the only ones experiencing anxiety.
• Acknowledge students’ feelings of culture shock and offer opportunities for
students to talk about their experiences.
• Help students develop more realistic expectations for language learning.
• Arrange contacts with more advanced students so that students see that people like
them can learn the language.
• Correct errors gently.
• Use humor and games to distract attention away from individual speakers.
• Use small-group and pair activities rather than whole-class activities.
• Have students imagine becoming anxious while speaking and overcoming that
anxiety.

Cognitive Characteristics
‫ وي‬H‫ٮﻌﺪاد ﻟﻌ‬$ ‫اﺳ‬
 Language Aptitude
Several tests of cognitive abilities have been developed that attempt to identify people
who are likely to be successful language learners. The best-known of these tests is the
Modern Language Aptitude Test (Carroll and Sapon,1959), which examines learners in
the areas of sound-symbol association, grammatical sensitivity, and the ability to
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memorize new vocabulary words. Researchers interested in cognitive differences
among language learners have turned their attention from language aptitude to learning
styles, since language teachers must teach all their students and not just those who
score well on language aptitude tests. Importantly, learning styles offer teachers the
possibility of tailoring instruction to the learning strengths of different types of
language learners.
 Learning Styles
Learning styles are persistent and instinctive ways that individuals process information
when faced with a learning situation. The simplest example of a learning style is
sensory mode preference. Some people are naturally visual learners while others are
naturally auditory, visual, or kinesthetic learners.

Auditory Visual Kinesthetic

Have a sharp, clear Develop a strong

Identify sounds related to an
picture of an feeling towards an
experience
experience experience

Do you make
pictures in your
head Do you feel what you
I hear you clearly, are saying?
Do you have visual
I want you to listen . . . images in your head Are you in touch
as you are talking
This sounds good with what I am
and listening to me? saying?
Can you see what I
am saying?

How do you hear this How do you see the How do you feel
situation going? situation? about this situation?

What do you hear that is What do you see I'm getting a handle
stopping you? stopping you? on this material.

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Sounds heavy. This looks good. Let's move together.

Do you see what I Does what I am

am showing you? putting you in touch
with feel right?

Sounds heavy.

Word Selections Word Selections Word Selections

tinkling silent squeal blast colour clear spiral felt body sensations
screaming choking showed vivid notice feel pain touch

Fantasies
Lecture Kinesthetic complain:
Do you love me? Visuals complain:
"Auditory and visual
Auditories don't pay
Auditories complain: people are
attention to them
Kinesthetic don't listen. because they don't insensitive."
make eye contact.

The most widely studied learning style difference associated with language learning is
called field dependence-field independence (FD-FI). Field-independent learners are
better able to see the trees within the forest, while field-dependent learners are better
able to see the forest but not the individual trees. More field-independent learners are
better able to find hidden pictures disguised within a larger picture .Of course, FD-FI
is not an all or nothing proposition, but rather a continuum where some learners tend to
the more field-dependent (FD) side and others to the more field-independent (FI) end.
FI learners are analytic and good at focusing in on details. Engineers tend to be more
field independent. In contrast, more FD individuals are good at holistic tasks and seem
to be particularly suited to "people" professions where perceiving interpersonal cues is
important.

Howard Gardner (1993) theorized that there are multiple intelligences, and that we
all use one or two for the most effective learning. Our culture teachers, tests,

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reinforces and rewards primarily two kinds of intelligence: verbal/linguistic and
logical/mathematical. His theory proposes that there are at least eight other kinds of
intelligence that are equally important.

 Verbal Linguistic intelligence (sensitive to the meaning and order of words as

in a poet): Use activities that involve hearing, listening, impromptu or formal
speaking, tongue twisters, humor, oral or silent reading, documentation,
creative writing, spelling, journal, poetry.

 Logical-mathematical Intelligence(able to handle chains of reasoning and

recognize patterns and orders as in a scientist): Use activities that involve
abstract symbols/formulas, outlining, graphic organizers, numeric sequences,
calculation, deciphering codes, problem solving.
 Musical Intelligence (sensitive to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone as in a
composer): Use activities that involve audio tape, music recitals, singing on
key, whistling, humming, environmental sounds, percussion vibrations,
rhythmic patterns, music composition, and tonal patterns.
 Spatial Intelligence (perceive the world accurately and try to re-create or
transform aspects of that world as in a sculptor or airplane pilot): Use activities
that involve art, pictures, sculpture, drawings, doodling, mind mapping,
patterns/designs, color schemes, active imagination, imagery, block building.
 Bodily Kinesthetic Intelligence(able to use the body skillfully and handle
objects adroitly, as in an athlete or dancer): Use activities that involve role
playing, physical gestures, drama, inventing, ball passing, sports games,
physical exercise, body language, dancing.
 Interpersonal Intelligence (understand people and relationship as in a
salesman or teacher and think by bouncing ideas off of each other (socializes
who are people smart): Use activities that involve group projects, division of
labor, sensing others' motives, receiving/giving feedback, collaboration skills.
 Intrapersonal Intelligence (possess access to one's emotional life as a means
to understand oneself and others exhibited by individuals with accurate views
of themselves): Use activities that involve emotional processing, silent
reflection methods, thinking strategies, concentration skills, higher order
reasoning, "centering" practices, meta-cognitive techniques.

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 Naturalist (connected to the intricacies and subtleties in nature such as Charles
Darwin and Meriwether Lewis of Lewis and Clark fame): Use activities that
involve bringing the outdoors into the class, relating to the natural world,
charting, mapping changes, observing wildlife, keeping journals or logs.
Metacognitive Characteristics

Metacognitive characteristics describe differences in the ways learners approach

language learning and include their beliefs and learning strategies.
 Beliefs about Language Learning
Some learners belief may be helpful while others can be counterproductive to language
learning. Misconceptions can lead to a number of important problems for language
learners and their teachers. First of all, students tend to choose learning strategies that
are consistent with their beliefs about language learning. So learners who believe that
language learning is synonymous with vocabulary learning are likely to spend their
time memorizing words. Learners with unrealistic beliefs about language learning
have also been found to be more anxious than other learners. Misconceptions about
language learning become even more important when students are encouraged to
become more autonomous and take greater responsibility for their own language
learning.
 Helping Students Develop a Realistic Understanding of Language Learning
People are often surprised to learn that common beliefs about language learning they
take for granted are actually the subject of lively debate among language teachers and
scholars. The following are some suggestions for helping students develop more
realistic expectations for language learning.
• Talk with your students about the process of language learning.
• Make discussions about language learning an important part of your classes. When
looking for interesting discussion topics, language teachers often overlook the one
topic that is relevant to everyone in the class: learning the new language!
• Determine your students' beliefs in order to explain the purpose of classroom
activities more effectively.
 Language Learning Strategies
Language learning strategies (LLS) are specific steps that learners take to increase
their language learning. Although LLS are often associated with particular techniques
or even tricks that learners use, such as flashcards or mnemonic devices, the term
refers to a wide range of things that learners do to help themselves learn the language.
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‫ح !ى‬A/ ‫ٮ‬$‫ٮراٮ‬$ ‫ٮﻌﻠﻢ اﻻﺳ‬$ ‫اﻟ‬
Most recently, scholars have emphasized strategic learning over the use of specific
learning strategies. In strategic learning, the emphasis is on considering the specific
learning task and developing approaches that are particularly suited to that task.
Strategic learning involves analyzing the task, analyzing yourself as a learner,
considering the resources that are available, and analyzing the learning situation.
Strategic learning stresses flexibility and appropriateness in strategy use.
The well-known strategy researcher Rebecca Oxford differentiates direct and indirect
LLS.
Direct strategies involve actually using the language and include such
approaches as memory strategies (i.e., word associations and use of imagery),cognitive
strategies (i.e., practicing and analyzing), and compensation strategies(i.e., guessing
words and directing the conversation to a familiar topic).
Indirect strategies support language learning without using the language
directly. These include metacognitive strategies which help learners organize and plan
their learning, affective strategies which help learners manage language learning
emotions, and social strategies which involve interaction with other people. A number
of specific strategies connected to various aspects of language learning such as
listening Communication strategies.
Communication strategies are the steps learners take to be as successful as possible
when communicating in the new language .Teachers often remark that sometimes
students with less language ability are better than others at achieving their
communicative goals because they use their language skills to full advantage.
Communication strategies include such actions as asking a conversational partner to
repeat or talk more slowly, using gestures and pantomime, and repeating important
words or phrases to encourage a partner to explain further.
 Helping Students Develop Effective Language Learning Strategies
Many teachers see strategy training as the most successful when students are encour-
aged to try learning approaches that are consistent with their individual learning styles,
needs, and comfort levels. Here are some specific suggestions:
• Consult with students so that they are not left on their own to choose strategies.
• Let students select some of their own learning materials to encourage them to be
more autonomous.
 Involve families in strategy training. Invite students and families to meetings or to
drop-in homework sessions where you answer questions and model appropriate
strategies.

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2. Activities used for Different Learning Style

The table below illustrates the main activities that can be used with different learning
styles.
Visual,
Four styles Multiple Learning tasks
auditory,
of thinking intelligence
kinesthetic
Diagrams, charts, videos, films,
graphs, posters, concept maps,
visual– pamphlets, textbooks, drawing,
Visual
spatial visualization (creating mental
pictures), collages, colour
highlighting
Discussion, group work, pair work,
debates, interviewing, expositions,
presentations, improvisations,
Auditory Linguistic
listening to guest speakers,
mnemonics, writing notes and essays,
poems, sketches, stories, reading
DART, role-play, dance, model
making, simulations, ‘show me’
Bodily– cards, freeze-frames, improvisation,
Kinesthetic kinesthetic associating ideas with movements,
human graphs, human sentences or
timelines, field trips, games,
Competitions
Puzzles, problem-solving tasks,
Logical–
Abstract predicting or hypothesizing tasks,
Abstract
sequential investigations, sequential tasks,
Musical
summaries, pattern spotting
Chants, rhymes, songs, mnemonics,
Interpersonal
raps, poems, musical interpretations
Collaborative group work, pair or
Intrapersonal team work, interviewing, teaching or
coaching others
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Individual research, learning journals,
reflecting on own learning,
Naturalistic
identifying own questions, self-
evaluation, diaries.
Multisensory experiences, collecting
Abstract and classifying data, analogies with
Random natural world, observation,
experiments, investigations.
Open-ended tasks, improvisation,
Concrete
creative or imaginative responses,
Sequential
personal responses, narrative
responses, brainstorming activities
Specific outcomes to tasks, practical
Concrete tasks, problem solving, investigations,
Random open-ended tasks, experiments, trial-
and-error opportunities, competitions

3. Tips for Helping Students with Different Learning Styles

Different learning styles would seem to imply that teaching approaches should be
matched with students' individual styles. While this is an admirable goal, it is very
hard to individualize instruction for every learning style in most language classes.
Here are a few suggestions for helping students with different learning styles:
• Be aware of learning style differences and pay close attention when using an
activity that is likely to be difficult for a particular type of learner. Visual learners may
have difficulty with listening activities, for example, and field sensitive learners will
likely have difficulty focusing on grammatical concepts.
• Modify activities to make them more accessible to a wider range of learners. For
example, listening activities could include written scripts.
• Include a variety of activity types that are appropriate for a range of learning styles.
If you vary the activity type during your lessons, you will automatically include a
wider range of learners.
• Change your teaching approach whenever you re-teach material, since some
students may not have understood a lesson the first time due to learning style conflicts.

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By changing your teaching approach, you give them a chance to lean in a different
way.
• Pay close attention to learning styles when you work with individual students. You
could vary the order of examples and generalizations, write your examples down, ask
the student to listen, or have him or her act out new words. Over time, you will come
to know which approaches work best with each of your students.
Sources for Learning
For further learning, consult the following sources:
Gardner, H. (1993) .Frames of Mind: the Theory of Multiple Intelligence. Fontana.
ISBN: 000686290X.
Dickinson, C. (1996) .Effective Learning Activities. Network Educational Press.
ISBN: 1855390353.
Hughes, M. and Vass, A. (2001) .Strategies for Closing the Learning Gap.
Network Educational Press. ISBN: 1855390752
Ginnis, P. (2002) .The Teacher’s Toolkit: Raise Classroom Achievement with
Strategies for Every Learner .Crown House Publishing. ISBN: 1899836764.
Torres an , P. The theory of multiple intelligences and language teaching Perugia,
Italy: Guerra
Warm-up Activities
 Ice Breaking Activities
These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-confrontational,
low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

Conversations
Each person is given a sheet of paper with a series of instructions to follow. This is a
good mixing game and conversation starter as each person must speak to everyone
else. For example;
• Count the number of brown eyed boys in the room.
• Find out who has made the longest journey.
• Who has the most unusual hobby?
• Find the weirdest thing anyone has eaten.
• Who has had the most embarrassing experience?

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The question web

You need to have a spoon of string or wool for this game. Ask the students to stand in
a circle. Hold on to the end of the string and throw the ball/spool to one of the young
people to catch. They then choose a question to answer. A list of sample questions is
given below.
Holding the string they then throw it to another member of the group. Eventually this
creates a web as well as learning some interesting things about each other! At the end
of the game you could comment that we all played a part in creating this unique web
and if one person was gone it would look different.
1. If you had a time machine that would work only once, what point in the
future or in history would you visit?
2. If you could go anywhere in the world, where would you go?
3. If you could talk to any one person now living, who would it be and why?
4. If you HAD to give up one of your senses (hearing, seeing, feeling, smelling,
tasting) which would it be and why?
5. If you were an animal, what would you be and why?
6. Name a gift you will never forget?
7. Name one thing you really like about yourself.

 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group
 First, note down your own answers alone.
 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.
1. Which learner characteristic do you think are most important in successful
foreign language learning?
2. Do you think that different characteristics are helpful in different language
learning settings?
3. Do you have any spatial language learning strategies?
4. How can you encourage students’ motivation for language learning?
5. In what ways do you think that students’ belief about language learning will be
compatible with your own ideas about language teaching?

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 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers
Video 2.1
What to look for: A video introduction to the visual, auditory and kinesthetic
learning styles.
Video 2.2
What to look for: How every student has different ways of learning.

Tasks

Task 1
Complete the following diagram

Learner characteristics

Task 2
Tick the appropriate option in the following list about language learning and compare
your answers with your colleagues’ answers.

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Neither
Strongly Strongly
Items Disagree agree nor agree
disagree agree
disagree
1. It is easier for children than adults to learn a
foreign language.
2. Some people have a special ability for
learning foreign language.
3. Some languages are easier to learn than
others
4. I have a spatial ability for learning foreign
language.
5. For good learning, it is important to
practise.
6. It is important to practise with cassettes or
tapes.
7. It is easier to read and write English than to
speak and understand it.
8. People who are good at mathematics are not
good at learning foreign languages.

Task 3
Classify the activities according to the table below
Visual activities Auditory Kinesthetic

 Watching videos.
 Draw a map of events in history or draw scientific process.
 Make outlines of everything!
 Using word association to remember facts and lines.
 Role playing.
 Participating in group discussions.
 Repeating facts with eyes closed.

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 Recording lectures.
 Taking lab classes.
 Studying in short blocks.
 Using audiotapes for language practice
 Studying with others.

Task 4

In your own words, define the following terms:

Anxiety

Motivation

Spatial intelligence

Learning style

Task 5

Suggest appropriate activities to the following students’ styles

1. Verbal Linguistic intelligence

1. .…………………………………………………………..
2.…………………………………………………………..
3.…………………………………………………………..
2. Naturalist
1. …………………………………………………………..
2. …………………………………………………………..
3. …………………………………………………………..
3. Logical-mathematical
1. …………………………………………………………..
2. …………………………………………………………..
3. …………………………………………………………..

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4. Interpersonal intelligence
1. …………………………………………………………..
2. …………………………………………………………..
3. …………………………………………………………..

Task 6
According to the list below, interview your colleague. Then, make specific
recommendations based on your colleague’s individual characteristics
(motivation, learning style, etc.).
1. What is the level of your motivation for language learning?
2. Are you anxious about it?
3. What learning strategies do you use in your learning?
4. What do you find relatively easy and difficult about language learning?
5. If you were a language teacher, what specific advices would you make for
your students?

Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,F,E ) and according to what have been studied in this
chapter, student-teachers evaluate the tasks done and as follow:

Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A

Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C

Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E

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3 Aims, Goals, Objectives and Lesson planning

Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Formulate goals for teaching language skills.

2. Formulate behavioral objectives for certain goals.
3. Design samples of lesson plans.
4. Evaluate what have been designed.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions

These are the potential difficulties which teachers think may

Anticipated arise in a lesson. Usually included in a lesson plan, especially
problems to show observers that the teacher has thought carefully about
what might happen in the lesson.

Bloom's It is a method of classification on differing levels of higher

Taxonomy order thinking for cognitive objectives.
A group or individual creativity technique by which efforts are
Brainstorming made to find a conclusion for a specific problem by gathering a
list of ideas spontaneously contributed by its member(s).

In a lesson plan coherence is where the pattern or shape of the

Coherence lesson makes sense. Instead of being a chaotic mess, there is
some sensible sequence or Thread/s to the lesson.

They are categories when objectives may be classified

Domains according to the primary learning outcomes that take place. The
three domains are: cognitive, psychomotor or affective

The more permanent store in which information can reside in a

Long- term dormant state out of mind and unused until you fetch it back
memory into consciousness. They belong to two broad categories:
declarative and procedural.

They are indications of who talks to or works with whom.

Patterns of
(e.g.T SS means the teacher working with the whole class,
interaction
but S S indicates pair work)

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Aims, Goals, Objectives

Aims, Goals, and Objectives

The following definitions are broadly accepted by groups trying to standardize

curricular terms so that they are not confusing to readers and users

Aims
Aims are general statements that provide direction or intent to educational action.
Aims are usually written in amorphous terms using words like: learn, know,
understand, appreciate, and these are not directly measurable. Aims may serve as
organizing principles of educational direction for more than one grade. Indeed these
organizing principles may encompass the continuum of educational direction for
entire programmes, subject areas or the district.
For example:
Students will understand and become proficient at identifying the different types
of spoken English.
Goals
Goals are statements of educational intention which are more specific than aims.
Goals too may encompass an entire programme, subject area, or multiple grade
levels. They may be in either amorphous language or in more specific behavioral
terms.
Students will be able to identify and use English terms and phrases.

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(This example is a subset of the aim above, but the area becomes more specific.
This goal moves from generic spoken English to the more detailed area of
American slang. The objectives related to this goal should specify how the
students will identify and use new knowledge.).

Objectives
Objectives are usually specific statements of educational intention which delineate
either general or specific outcomes.
Objectives can be written in a number of ways. Currently, most objectives are
written in behavioral terms. Behavioral objectives usually employ observable
verbiage and can be divided into specific domains -- cognitive, affective, and
physical.
How do I write an instructional objective?

Audience The audience is student(s) that the objective is written for.

This is usually written "the student" or "the student" however it could

be written as specific as "The third grade science student". I suggest
that "less is more".
Behaviour The behaviour is the verb that describes what the student (audience)
will be able to do after the instruction.

This is the heart of the objective and must be measurable and

observable. In addition, these verbs must be specific. Verbs such as
know, understand, comprehend, and appreciate are difficult to
measure and are therefore not good choices for objectives.
Condition Conditions are the circumstances under which the objectives must be
completed. What will the instructor allow the student to use in order
to complete the instruction? What equipment or tools can the student
have access to such as a calculator, map, the book, class notes, etc.?
Obviously it would be much more difficult to make calculations
without a calculator than with one.
Degree The degree identifies the standard that the student must meet to reach
acceptable performance. In other words, what degree of accuracy
does the student have to achieve in order that his/her performance be
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judged proficient? The degree of accuracy should be related to real-
world expectations. Degree of accuracy can be related as a time limit
(in 20 minutes), or a number of correct answers (7 out of 10),or a
range of accuracy (90%) or qualitative standard. Example :

1. Working in pairs, students will write four example sentences

using the past perfect tense.

2. Working in small groups, students will construct conversation that

includes three past tense questions and the answers to the questions.
Classifying Objectives

Why Should Teachers Classify Objectives?

Teachers should classify objectives because the type of objectives attempted dictate the
selection of instructional methods, media and evaluation used in the lesson. Objectives
may be classified according to the primary learning outcomes that take place. These
learning outcomes are classified into one of three domains (categories): cognitive,
psychomotor or affective. Let's take a closer look at these categories to see how they
differ.

 Cognitive Domain

The Cognitive Domain receives the most attention in instructional programs and
includes objectives related to information or knowledge. Benjamin Bloom and his
colleagues (1956) developed a widely accepted taxonomy, referred to as Bloom's
Taxonomy. This taxonomy has been adapted by Anderson and Krathwohl (2001) for
relevance in 21st century learning and remains the most significant model used.
Presented here is the revised taxonomy, known as the Revised Bloom's Taxonomy, as
well as links for more reading. Six levels of learning are in the classification. The
lowest level is remembering. The remembering level is followed by five increasingly
difficult levels of mental abilities: understanding, applying, analysing, evaluating
and creating (the highest level). The table below displays the six levels of the revised

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Revised Bloom’s taxonomy

Remembering Objectives written on the remembering level (the lowest

cognitive level) requires the student to recognize specific
information. Below are verbs appropriate for objectives
written at the remembering level.
fill in the
Define Identify Label List
blank

Locate Match memorize Name Recall

Spell State Tell underline State

Understanding Objectives written on the understanding level, although a higher level

of mental ability than remembering, requires the lowest level of
understanding from the student. Below are verbs appropriate for
objectives written at the understanding level.

Convert describe explain interpret Paraphrase

retell in
put in order Restate your rewrite Summarize
words

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Trace translate

Applying Objectives written on the applying level require the student to

implement (use) the information. Below are verbs appropriate for
objectives written at the applying level.

Apply compute conclude construct Demonstrate

Determine Draw find out give an Illustrate
example
Make operate show solve state a rule or
principle
Analysing Objectives written on the analysing level require the student to break
the information into component partsand describe the relationship.
Below are verbs appropriate for objectives written at the analysing
level.

Analyze categorize classify compare Contrast

determine
Debate deduct diagnose Diagram
the factors
Differentiate dissect distinguish examine Infer

Evaluating Objectives written on the evaluating level require the student to make
a judgment about materials or methods . Below are verbs appropriate
for objectives written at the evaluating level.

Appraise choose compare conclude Decide

give your
Defend evaluate judge Justify
opinion
Prioritize Rank Rate select Support
Value

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Creating Objectives written on the creating level require the student to
generate new ideas, products and ways of viewing things. Below
are verbs appropriate for objectives written at the creating level.

Change combine compose construct Create

find an
Design unusual formulate generate Invent
way
Originate Plan predict pretend Produce
Rearrange reconstruct reorganize revise Suggest
Suppose visualize Write
 Affective Domain

The affective domain describes learning objectives that emphasize a feeling tone, an
emotion, or a degree of acceptance or rejection. Affective objectives vary from simple
attention to selected phenomena to complex but internally consistent qualities of
character and conscience. We found a large number of such objectives in the literature
expressed as interests, attitudes, appreciations, values, and emotional sets or biases.
Here are descriptions of each step in the taxonomy, starting at the most basic level.

Receiving is being aware of or sensitive to the existence of certain ideas, material, or

phenomena and being willing to tolerate them. Examples include: to differentiate, to
accept, to listen (for), to respond to.

Responding is committed in some small measure to the ideas, materials, or

phenomena involved by actively responding to them. Examples are: to comply with, to
follow, to commend, to volunteer, to spend leisure time in, to acclaim.

Valuing is willing to be perceived by others as valuing certain ideas, materials, or

phenomena. Examples include: to increase measured proficiency in, to relinquish,
to subsidize, to support, to debate.

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Organization is to relate the value to those already held and bring it into a
harmonious and internally consistent philosophy. Examples are: to discuss, to
theorize, to formulate, to balance, to examine.

Characterization by value or value set is to act consistently in accordance with

the values he or she has internalized. Examples include: to revise, to require, to
be rated high in the value, to avoid, to resist, to manage, to resolve.

 Psychomotor Domain

The psychomotor domain includes physical movement, coordination, and use of the
motor-skill areas. Development of these skills requires practice and is measured in
terms of speed, precision, distance, procedures, or techniques in execution.

1. Observing: Active mental attending of a physical event. For example the learner
watches a more experienced person. Other mental activity, such as reading may
be a part of the observation process.
2. Imitating: Attempted copying of a physical behavior. For example he first steps
in learning a skill. The learner is observed and given direction and feedback on
performance. Movement is not automatic or smooth.
3. Practicing: Trying a specific physical activity over and over. For example the
skill is repeated over and over. The entire sequence is performed repeatedly.
Movement is moving towards becoming automatic and smooth.
4. Adapting :Fine tuning. Making minor adjustments in the physical activity in
order to perfect it. For example the skill is perfected. A mentor or a coach is often
needed to provide an outside perspective on how to improve or adjust as needed for
the situation.
Behaviour verbs appropriate for psychomotor domain are :

 Bend  organizes
 grinds
 calibrates  perform
 handle
 constructs (skillfully)
 heats
 differentiate (by  reach
 manipulates
touch)  relax
 measures
 dismantles  shorten
 mends
 displays  sketches
 mixes
 fastens  stretch
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 fixes  operate  write
 grasp

1. Planning Lessons

Lesson planning is a way of organizing ourselves as teachers. It helps us take long

term teaching objectives and order them in a step by step way which will be most
beneficial for our students. As teachers we have many tasks, by planning in advance,
we can guide our students in an ordered way, a way that makes sense.
There is no one right way to plan your lessons. Each teacher must consider her/his
own teaching style and also the learning styles of the students before making lesson
plans.

Plan format

There are some general areas to consider when planning:

1. Description of the students: This includes anything from a general picture
of the group (its level, age, rang, atmosphere, etc.) to detailed descriptions
of individual students.
2. Aims and objectives: We generally say what we hope to achieve; the more
specific we are, the easier it will be for us-and anyone observing-to see
whether or not we have achieved those aims.
3. Procedures: The meat of the plan is in the description of how it will be
executed. This section can include patterns of interaction. We might write T
SS ( for times when the teacher talks to the whole class),
S S (for pair work) or SSS SSS ( for group work);or we could
write ‘groups’, ‘pairs’, etc., or record these patterns in some other way.
4. Anticipated problems: Teachers frequently make some kind of a list
potential difficulties-and suggestions about what to do if they arise. They
might consider what they would do if a computer or other piece of
equipment failed them-or if some other student based eventuality occurred.

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5. Extra activities/ material: Many teachers make a note of extra activities
they could include if things go quicker than anticipated.
6. Material to be used in the lesson: Especially when they are to be
observed, teachers attach examples of the material they are to use with the
students to their plan.
Guidelines for varying and ordering components of a lesson

Below are some guidelines for the combination of different components:

1. Put the harder tasks earlier

2. Have quieter activities before lively ones
3. Think about transitions
4. Pull the class together at the beginning and the end
5. End on a positive note

Types of teachers’ plans

Experienced teachers develop written plans for the annual, weekly, and daily lesson
plan. A careful lesson planning takes place at both the macro and micro level. This
means that a teacher should start by planning an entire semester, than plan weekly
and daily lesson plans.

1. Annual plan

The following are only suggestions to the layout of your annual plan, and therefore,
you may feel free to adapt, modify or even improve any format resulting from them
to fit your specific needs and the needs of your group(s) of learners.

Section 1

Start by labeling your plan, and providing general information about the subject you
are designing the plan for, school’s name, school year, and grade you will be teaching
in the first section.
ANNUAL TEACHING PLAN

1. GENERAL INFORMATION

Area: English Language School

………………………………….
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School Year: 2013 -2014 Grade …6th.
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Section 2

Take your Curriculum Guidelines to look at the objectives per school year that have
been proposed for each component of the communicative competence. Read the ones
that correspond the target group(s) you are teaching and write them down in the
second section.

Proceed similarly with the objectives per language skill (i.e. listening, speaking,
reading, and writing) and write them down in the same section under a different
numeral.

Section 3

Insert a blank table for your template in a word processing document and list the
months that correspond the present school year (i.e. September to June) in the first
column. Take the curriculum specifications and look at what functions, grammar and
vocabulary make sense to teach in each month. They should be listed at the top of the
table and jotted down under the corresponding columns.

TIME FRAME FUNCTIONS GRAMMAR VOCABULARY

September
October
November
December
January
February
March
April
May
June

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Section 4

Read the Curriculum specifications you have been provided with and summarize
information on the methodological strategies as well as the genres and text types that
have been proposed as tools for developing each language skill with your
corresponding groups of learners.

Section 5

Briefly list the didactic resources (i.e. official textbook/s as well as supplementary
materials and equipment) that are available at your institution or you have made or
provided and which you consider are appropriate to facilitate the students’ learning
process.

5. RESOURCES

 ….
 ….
 ….
 ….

Take either the Curriculum Guidelines document or the Specs3 document and
carefully look at the assessment indicators per skill for your target group. Then
describe briefly the type of evaluation you will carry out with your students (i.e.
diagnostic, formative, and/ or summative) according to National regulations and
when it will be done (at the beginning, middle or end of the first/second term, school
year, etc.), as well as the type of assessment you will carry out (i.e. formal/ informal)
and the type of assessment activities and / or instruments you will use (e.g. quizzes,
presentations, writing rubrics, etc.).

7. EVALUATION

...................................................................................
.....................................................................
...................................................................................
.....................................................................
...................................................................................
.....................................................................
...................................................................................
.....................................................................
...................................................................................
.....................................................................
...................................................................................
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………….....………………
2. Weekly Plan

We use weekly plans to decide when we will teach, what we will teach and how long
we will teach for. When making these decisions, we must think about our own
teaching objectives as well as student needs and capabilities. Thus before planning
you need to ask the following questions:

 What are the most important objectives for this week?

 How will I create interest in the lesson?
 What portions of the lesson will be more enjoyable for the students?
 When are students most alert and ready to concentrate?
 How long can students concentrate on one subject for?
 Are there times when students can study one subject better than another?
 Do I have to make any changes to the lesson in the areas listed below?
1. Classroom Environment
2. Materials
3. Timing and Staging

Weekly plans for each class period may involves

 Resources and materials (e.g. the page numbers in the textbook, the title of the
videotape). and
 Student assignments
Many school districts require beginning teachers to submit weekly lesson
plans to the principal for review, sometimes several days before instruction is
to begin.
Consider student performance during the preceding weeks as you identify content to
be covered and determine the pace of instruction. Identify what you expect the stu-
dents to complete and how you will evaluate student progress. Interruptions and any
special events (e.g., field trips, assemblies, and holidays) should be noted in the
weekly plans.

3. Daily Plan

A lesson is a subdivision of a unit, usually taught in a single class period or, on occa-
sion, two or three successive periods. When we think of lesson planning, we usually

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think about daily planning. Here are some questions we should think about when
developing a daily plan.
 What are the learning objectives for the lesson?
 What materials are necessary for this lesson?
 What teaching methods will help most in attaining the learning objectives?
 What modes of evaluation will be used?

Planning Strategies

There are several planning strategies that you should keep in mind when creating
your lessons.
1. Presentation, Practice, and Production(PPP)
 Presentation: After having selected the target structure, the pronunciation
features, and the new vocabulary, present the new language situations or
context and try to convey meaning.
 Practice: In this phase, make intensive use of the key items already presented.
Use controlled practice but do it in pairs, groups, or as a whole class. The
interaction is teacher to students or student to student.
 Production: This phase emphasizes communication between students using the
target structures and vocabulary. The interactions occur between one student
and another student and between two groups of students.
2. Authentic use, Restricted use, and Clarification and Focus (ARC)
 Authentic use: Start with authentic uses of the language. Set tasks or state
problems that can be solved with the information in the authentic material.
 Restricted use: Relate the authentic uses to practice in using the new
language. This phase is the guided or directed part of the lesson.
 Clarification and focus: After having noted student errors or the need for
more work on target structures or functions, clarify and focus on the points
that have arisen. Decide to direct or guide students in discovering what they
need to focus on by encouraging the use of dictionaries or grammar exercises
from their textbooks.

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3. Test- Teach- Test
 Test: Choose a communicative activity that requires the use of the target
structure or functions. Ask students to do the activity. During the activity,
listen and note errors and difficulties.
 Teach: Clarify and focus on the problems and errors noted during the
students’ activity. Be prepared to present useful language that was not used by
the students.
 Test: Ask students to do another communicative activity similar to the one in
the first stage. The students should be more successful this time as they have
had focused teaching and more practice in using the language needed.
How to make a daily lesson plan?
Written lesson plans might be displayed in various formats, but regardless of the for-
mat, the plans typically have the following information: identifying course
information, objectives for the lesson, procedures, materials, and evaluation.
 Identifying course information
Certain information about the course, subject, and lesson is needed at the top of each
lesson plan. This information can include the name of the teacher, the course title,
the grade level, the room number, the name of the unit, the topic of that particular
lesson, and this date of the lesson.
 Identifying objectives
Each lesson will have one or more objectives. An objective is a statement of the in-
tended learning outcomes. Objectives commonly describe what the student will be
able to do when instruction has been completed.

 Developing the plan

There are no simple formulas for lesson plans, because what constitutes an effective
lesson will depend on many factors, including the content of the lesson, the teacher’s
teaching style, the students’ learning preferences, the class size, and the learners’
proficiency level. A lesson plan will reflect your assumptions about the nature of
teaching and learning, your understanding of the content of the lesson (for example,
what you have learned from your coursework about paragraph organization, the
present perfect tense, or reading for main ideas), your role in the lesson and that of
your learners, and the methodology you plan to implement (for example, cooperative
learning, process writing, or a communicative approach).

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Generally, however, a lesson plan will reflect decisions that you have made about the
following aspects of a lesson:
1. Goals: What the general goals of your lesson are?
2. Activities: What kinds of things your students will do during the lesson,
such as dialog work, free writing, or brainstorming?
3. Sequencing: The order in which activities will be used, including opening
and closing activities?
4. Timing: How much time you will spend on different activities?
5. Grouping: When your class will be taught as a whole and when your
students will work in pairs or groups?
6. Resources: What materials you will use, such as the textbook, worksheets,
or DVDs?

 Reviewing the lesson ( Reflection)

After teaching a lesson, it is important to take time to review how well the lesson
went. This involves asking questions such as the following:
1. Did my students enjoy the lesson?
2. Were there sufficient activities to engage my students throughout the lesson?
3. Which aspects of my lesson were the most successful? Which were the least
successful?
4. Did I manage to achieve what I set out to teach? Were my objectives met? What
evidence do I have for this?
5. What difficulties did my lesson pose?
6. Will I teach my lesson in the same way next time?
In thinking about questions like these after a particularly successful (or unsuccessful)
lesson, it is useful to write a brief report from time to time.

Criteria for evaluating lesson effectiveness

It is important to stop and think after giving a lesson whether it was a good one or
not, and why. This is not in order to indulge in self-congratulation or vain regrets, but
in order to have a basis for your own learning from reflection on experience; this

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lesson was unsatisfactory, what could I have done to improve it? Or: this lesson was
good, what was it exactly that made it so?

Below are some criteria that you may find them useful:

1. The students were active, attentive, enjoying themselves.

2. The class seemed to be learning the material well.
3. The lesson went according to plan.
4. The language was used communicatively throughout.
5. The students were engaging with the foreign language throughout.

Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

Anderson, L. W. and David R. Krathwohl, D. R., et al (2000) A Taxonomy for
Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy of
Educational Objective s. Allyn and Bacon.
Anderson, L. W. and David R. Krathwohl, D. R., et al (Eds..) (2001) A Taxonomy
for Learning, Teaching, and Assessing: A Revision of Bloom's Taxonomy
of Educational Objectives. Allyn and Bacon. Boston, MA (Pearson
Education Group).
Wood ward ,T.(2001). Planning Lessons and Courses. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

Harmer, J. (2007).Planning lessons .In the Practice of English Language Teaching.(

pp. 364-78). Harlow, Essex: Pearson Education.

Gronlund ,N.E., and Brookhart,S.M.(2009).Gronlund’s Writing Instructional

[Link] Saddle River,NJ : Pearson/ Prentice-Hall.

Warm-up Activities

 Ice Breaking
These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-
confrontational, low anxiety atmosphere.

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In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

Name that person

Divide into two teams. Give each person a blank piece of card. Ask them to write five
little known facts about themselves on their card. Include all leaders in this game too.
For example, I have a pet iguana, I was born in Iceland, my favorite food is spinach,
my grandmother is called Doris and my favorite colour is vermillion.
Collect the cards into two team piles. Draw one card from the opposing team pile.
Each team tries to name the person in as few clues as possible. Five points if they get
it on the first clue, then 4, 3, 2, 1, 0. The team with the most points wins. (Note: if
you select the most obscure facts first, it will increase the level of competition and
general head scratching!)

Would you rather..?

Questions may range from silly trivia to more serious content. On the way you might
find out some interesting things about your students! Place a line of tape down the
center of the room. Ask the group to straddle the tape.
When asked 'would you rather?' they have to jump to the left or right as indicated by
the leader. Don't forget to encourage your adult helpers to join in too!
Would you rather..?
• Visit the doctor or the dentist?
• Eat broccoli or carrots?
• Watch TV or listen to music?
• Own a lizard or a snake?
• Have a beach holiday or a mountain holiday?
• Be an apple or a banana?
• Be invisible or be able to read minds?
• Be hairy all over or completely bald?
• Be the most popular or the smartest person you know?
• Make headlines for saving somebody's life or winning a Nobel Prize?
• Go without television or fast food for the rest of your life?

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 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group
 First, note down your own answers alone.
 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.
1. Is it important to write down the objectives of your lesson? Why?
2. How can you write an instructional objective?
3. Why Should Teachers Classify Objectives?
4. What is the difference between aims, goals, and objectives?
5. Can you classify the objectives?
6. Can you define the concept of lesson?
7. Is it important to write down your lesson plan? Why?
8. Is it important to note comments on your lesson plans after the lesson itself is
over? Why?
 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers
Video 3.1
What to look for: What is a Lesson Plan Template?
Video 3.2
What to look for: Writing learning objectives using Bloom's taxonomy
Video 3.3
What to look for: Creative Writing Tips for Students and Teachers : How to Write a Lesson
plan

Tasks

Task 1
Formulate a goal for teaching any skill

Task 2

Use your examples of the goal; try to create three behavioral objectives, one for
each domain. Remember to try to use observable verbs.

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 Cognitive - mind (Benjamin Bloom)
_______________________________________________________________
____________________________________________
_______________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________

 Affective - emotions, feelings, spirit, personal growth, social interaction .

_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________
____________________________________________________

 Physical/psychomotor/kinesthetic/tactile/digital/haptic
(Anita Harrow)
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________
_______________________________________________________

Task 3
Imagine you have just come out of a lesson-whether your own, or one that you have
observed in your CD- and wish to assess how effective it was. By what criteria will
you evaluate it? The box below is a list of criteria.

Can you add more? Can you put them in order of priority?

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a. The learners were active all the time.
b. The learners were attentive all the time.
c. The learners enjoyed the lesson, were motivated.
d. The class seemed to be learning the material well
e. The lesson went according to plan.
f. The language was used communicatively throughout.
g. The learners were engaging with the foreign language
throughout.
h. ………
i. ……....
j. …………

Task 4
Look at the box below. Try to evaluate how good the lesson was, using the criteria
and priorities you have worked on in this chapter. If you have observed together with
other student teachers, come together after the lesson to compare notes.

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This was a heterogeneous class of 35 fifteen – years old.

9.15 the teacher (T) enters, students(Ss) gradually quieted ,sit, take out
books.
9.20 T elicits the topic Ss had been asked to prepare for today , elicits
and discusses some key words, does not write them up.
9.25 T distributes carts, asks Ss to work in pairs and suggest captions
that have to do with the topic.
9.30 T elicits results: only three pairs are willing to suggest ideas. T
suggests they carry on for homework.
9.32 T tells Ss open books at p.40. An article on pollution. T: “What
would you do if you wanted to get the general idea of the article?”
Suggests they read only first sentence of each paragraph.
9.35 Silent reading.
9.38 T does true / false exercise from book based only on these first
sentences.
9.45 T gives homework: read the entire article ,finish finding the
answers to the T/F questions.
9.47 T invites individual student to perform a prepared monologue.
9.52 T initiates discussion on the topic of the monologue.
10.00 The lesson ends , some Ss come up to talk to T.

Task 5
Place the following items into one of the spaces numbered 1-4 on the timetable.

a. Speaking in group they design their ideal home.

b. Students do oral pair work activity – finding out about what they have done.
c. Class discussion about the course so far.
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d. Students, in groups of three, compare how they spent the last week, filling
in a diary for the other group members.

Week 5 Week 6

Talking about experiences the Teacher uses clock to revise telling the
students have had: class discussion. time and talking about the time(4 lesson
Teacher focus on use of present ago).
perfect; clarify from and use. Teacher asks students for any other
1 expressions involving time they know ;
Unit c 6-students do listening task3 write on board ; focus on use of “on, in,
and written ex.7 at”
2
Unit C10” students do written ex. 3
Week 7 Week 8
Vocabulary: around the house. Use
large poster to find out which words 4
they know and which would be Negotiating/ planning the next month.
useful to learn. Students work in groups to write a test
Listening: students must full in this that they will take next lesson.
information on a picture of the Listening: a song. Listen and full in the
house blank spaces in the text.
3
Homework: write a short description
of the house.

Task 6
 In groups, look at any available students ‘textbook.
 Write annual , weekly, and daily plan

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Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,E,F ), student-teachers evaluate the tasks done and as

follow:

Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A

Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C

Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E

All groups evaluate task 6 using the following checklist

Items Yes No
I review the course textbook and programme curriculum before I
begin my long- term lesson planning.
I consider the Foreign Language Standards when developing lesson
plan.
I identify goals for my class guided by my language teaching
philosophy, school, school district, textbook, and students ‘need.
I identify appropriate objectives that suite the lesson.
I develop long- term plans for classes so that my students have
adequate time to learn all the material on the syllabus.
I consult my notes and the Teaching Checklists when I am doing my
daily lesson plans.
I consider my students’ particular learning needs when I plan my
lessons.
The textbook does not control my lesson plans.
I practice my lessons before each class.
I review and revise my lesson plans for pacing and other classroom
management considerations.
I review and revise my lesson plans so that there will be a variety of
activities from the students’ perspective.
I have extra activities planned in case my students finish the lesson
early.
After I have taught a lesson, I make changes to the plan or notes to
myself about how I want to change the lesson the next time I teach it.

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Teaching Vocabulary
Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Give examples for teaching vocabulary.
2. Suggest new techniques for teaching vocabulary.
3. Design a lesson plan for teaching vocabularies.
4. Teach vocabulary.
5. Evaluate student-teachers’ performance.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
Items that mean the opposite. e.g. rich: poor
Antonyms
‫ﻖ‬A‫ڡٮ‬$ ‫د‬
A more subtle aspect of meaning that often needs to
appropriateness be taught is whether a particular item is the
appropriate one to use in a certain context or not.
The associations, or positive or negative feeling it
‫دﻻﻟﻪ‬ evokes, which may or may not be indicated in a
Connotation
dictionary definition. e.g. dog has positive
connotations of friendship and loyalty.
‫ٮﺮﻛﺔ‬$ ‫كﻠﻤﺎت ﻣﺸ‬
Co-hyponyms or co- Items that are the same kind of things; red, blue,
ordinates green are co-ordinates.

‫دﻻﻟﻪ‬
The meaning of a word is what it refers to in the real
Denotation
world. e.g. dog denotes a kind of animal.

‫ﻣرادف‬ Items that serve as specific examples of a general

Hyponyms
concept; dog, lion, mouse are hyponyms of animal.
A single word, a part of a word, or a chain of words
that forms the basic elements of a language's lexicon
Lexical items
(vocabulary). Examples are cat, traffic light, take
care of.
The knowledge that stems from previous
Prior knowledge
experience.
General concepts that cover specific items; animal
Superordinate is the superordinate of dog, lion, mouse.

Items that mean the same, or nearly the same. e.g.

Synonyms clever, smart mean intelligent.

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1. What Needs to Be Taught?

The most important things the students need to know about a lexical item are its
written and spoken form and its most usual meaning. However, there are additional
aspects which also need to be learnt from the pronunciation and spelling. The
students have to know what word sound like and what it looks like.

1. Grammar. The grammar of new items will need to be taught if this is not
obviously covered by general grammatical rules.
2. Collocation. This another piece of information about a new item which it may
be worth reaching.
3. Aspects of meaning: denotation, connotation, appropriateness.
4. Aspects of meaning: Meaning relationships:
a. Synonyms
b. Antonyms
c. Hyponyms
d. hyponyms of animal.
e. Co-hyponyms or co-ordinates
f. Superordinate

2. Stages for Presenting New Vocabularies

To produce new items, the following stages may be useful.

Stage 1:Select items from the vocabulary taught in a foreign language textbook you
know. Think how the meaning of these items would best be presented to students
who are encouraging it for the first time, and note down some ideas.

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Ways of presenting the meaning of new items
- Concise definition (as in a dictionary; often a superordinate with
qualifications: for example; a cat is an animal which …)
- Detailed description ( of appearance, qualities..)
- Examples( hyponyms)
- Illustration ( picture, object)
- Demonstration (acting, mime)
- Context (story or sentence in which the item occurs)
- Synonyms
- Opposite (antonyms)
- Associated ideas

Stage 2:Put in your practical suggestions aside for the moment, study a list of
different techniques of presenting the meaning of new vocabularies.

Stage 3: Identify which one or more of the techniques were used in your own idea for
presentation.

Stage 4: On the basis of the information gathered in stage 3, or your own reflection,
discuss orally or in writing generalizations that can be made about the usefulness of
the different techniques. Bellow, specific questions to consider.

1. Are there techniques that are particularly appropriate for the

presentation of certain types of words?
2. Are there techniques which are likely to be more, or less ,
appropriate for particular students populations?
3. Do you find that you prefer some kinds of techniques and tend to
avoid others? Which? Why?

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3. Tips for Illustrating Meaning Effectively

1. Use pictures or drawings.

For example, instead of explaining what lorry / truck is, show them a picture of
it.
2. Use realia.
For example, instead of explaining what a credit is, show them one.
3. Use mime.
For example, instead of explaining what a happy is, mime it.
4. Use contrasts.
For example, with heavy you could also pic up something which is not heavy
to emphasize the point.
5. Use synonyms of a lower level.
For example, for exhausted you could say ‘a word meaning very tired’.
6. Use spoken gap-fill sentence.
For example: I ate four pieces of cake…. I was very….. .
7. With higher levels, try to use more student-centered approaches to increase
leaner independence.
8. The record should include a guide to the meaning, form and pronunciation.
9. Students should be encouraged to be selective in choosing the words they really
feel are useful to them longer- term.
[Link] need to be encouraged to review what they have learned in whatever
way they find helpful.
[Link] should do review activities in class from time to time- you cannot just
teach something in one lesson and never return to it.

4. Vocabulary Activities

The following are vocabulary activities that you can integrate into your
classroom starting tomorrow.
1. word wall strategy
1. Establish a purpose for using the word wall.
2. Select the words that are targeted for instruction. Select a few words for
teaching and post them on the wall in advance or write them as they are
presented for discussion. Words on the wall need to be spelled correctly and
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‫ﺸكﻞ واﺿﺢ‬/‫ٮ‬

written legibly, as students will be encouraged to use the word wall as a

resource for their reading and writing.
3. Students apply a wide range of strategies to comprehend, interpret, evaluate,
and appreciate texts. They draw on their prior experience, their interactions
with other readers and writers, their knowledge of word meaning and of other
texts, their word identification strategies, and their understanding of textual
features (e.g., sound-letter correspondence, sentence structure, context,
graphics).
4. Students adjust their use of spoken, written, and visual language (e.g.,
conventions, style, vocabulary) to communicate effectively with a variety of
audiences and for different purposes.
5. Before reading, teach the words. Engage students in a lively discussion of the
words. Teachers may decide to write a brief meaning of the word.
6. After reading, students may post words to the word wall. Because word walls
are effective when they are interactive, teachers guide discussion of the
readings to include new and interesting words that students discovered in
their readings. These words, along with their
meanings, may be posted on the word wall.
1. Initiate activity around the word wall. For
the word wall to be effective, members of
the learning community must use them.

2. Making Meaning ‫عى‬ ! ‫ڡ‬$ ‫ﻮ‬$‫ٮ‬

This is a great anticipatory activity to
introduce students to context clues. Identify
4-5 vocabulary words from the text that
students will need to understand in order to
comprehend the text. In order to activate prior knowledge, students will
brainstorm what they already know about the vocabulary term. Do a think-
pair-share if you perceive that they will have difficulty with the new terms.
During the reading, use the think aloud strategy to model how context clues
provide context and give meaning to the vocabulary words.
3. Essential Prefix
Give students an opportunity to create a Prefix Reference Chart in their notes. A

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quick activity at the beginning of the school
year can help students breakdown new words
based on their understanding of prefixes and
root words.

[Link] dsplash

A word splash is a collection of key words or concepts chosen from a passage

or chapter that students are about to read. This strategy gives students a chance
to relate the new words or concepts to the main topic of the reading.

5. Interview a Word
Why not turn vocabulary acquisition into a game? Using the Interview a Word
strategies, students will review and summarize learning to develop concepts
and comprehension.

 Select key words important to understanding a concept or unit.

 Divide class into teams of 2-4 students.
 Give each team a word and list of interview questions.
 Have students “become” the word and write answer to questions.

Without revealing the word, the teacher or a student acts as Interviewer and asks the
questions as team members read their written answers. After the interview, the class
guesses the word.
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6. Word Sorting

Provide a list of vocabulary words from a reading selection and have students sort
them into various categories (e.g., parts of speech, branches of government). Students
can re-sort words into "guess my sort" using categories of their own choosing.

[Link] Puzzles

In this activity, students 'dissect' a word by completing the components of the

vocabulary square worksheet. Not only will students understand the term, they will
also apply their knowledge by creating a visual representation and sentence.

8. Learning Maps

1. Select words for vocabulary instruction. Prepare for vocabulary instruction by

carefully selecting the words to be taught.
2. Choose words by considering the readings and the words that are key to
understanding the text.
3. Project a blank word map on the screen. Model how to construct a word map
and demonstrate to students how to use the word map for building and exploring
word relationships.
4. Write the key words on the word map. In each blank, write and say the key
word that will be taught.
5. Use a think-aloud to model how to explore relationships between words.
6. Students are directed to use the word maps during and after reading to add
information about the key words.
7. Students share their maps with others.

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9. Vocabulary Journals

1. Talk about the purpose of the journal and how to identify words from their
readings to explore a word’s meaning and use

2. Demonstrate how to select words from a reading. Conduct a read-aloud to show

the students which words might be selected for their Vocabulary Journals.
3. Use a think-aloud to model how to construct meanings from words. Engage in a
think-aloud on how to interact with text to construct and build word meaning.
4. Demonstrate to students how to
a. consult other resources such as glossaries and dictionaries to show meanings of
words or search illustrations, diagrams, and subtitles;
b. use the context of the sentence or sentences around the word to explore the
meaning of the word;
c. show word relationships such as synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, etc.; and
d. explore meaning through making connections to the word, such as what they
know that is similar to the meaning of the word or other readings in which the word
might have been used.
5. Record ideas that have been used to explore the meaning of the word. Display
different techniques that were used to represent word meanings and relationships.
6. Encourage students’ systematic use and sharing of Vocabulary Journals. Develop
students’ interest in words by encouraging their use of Vocabulary Journals and
providing a range of contexts where students use their journals.
7. Encourage students to use their Vocabulary Journals as a resource. [Link]
authentic ways to help students use their Vocabulary Journals as a tool for learning.

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[Link] –Testing Techniques

Different vocabulary testing techniques with their examples are selected here .
1. Multiple – choice items : Example
Choose the letter of the item which is the nearest in meaning to the word in
italics:
He was reluctant to answer.
a. Unprepared b. unwilling c. refusing c. slow

2. Matching : Example
Draw lines connecting the pairs of opposites.

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A B
Brave Awake
Female Expensive
Cheap Succeed
Asleep Cowardly
Fail Male

3. Odd one out: Example

Underline the odd one out: goat, horse, cow, spider, sheep, dog, cat.

4. Writing sentences : Example

For each of the following words, write a sentence that makes its meaning clear.

1. Wealth 2. Laughter 3. Decision 4. Brilliant

5. Dictation: Example

You dictate the words from any text, and your students write down what they hear.

6. Sentence completion: Example

Finish the following sentences:

1. I feel depressed when…..

2. It was a great relief when…….
3. I never failed in the exam when…..

[Link] filling: Example

There was ….traffic all the way from the airport to town and, when we eventually ….
At the hotel it was…. late.

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Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

Laufer, B., andHulstijn, J., (2001).“Incidental Vocabulary Acquisition in a Second
Language: the Construct of Task-Induced Involvement”. Applied Linguistics,
22(1), 1-26.

Beck, I. L., McKeown, M. G., and Kucan, L. (2008). Creating Robust vocabulary:
Frequently Asked Questions and Extended Examples. New York: Guilford.

Burden, P.R. and Byrd,D.M. (2010). Methods for Effective Teaching. New York:
Peason Press.
Scrivener,J. (2012). Classroom Management [Link]: Cambridge
University Press.

Warm-up Activities

 Ice Breaking
These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-
confrontational, low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

Word link

This is a word association game. Ask the group to sit in a circle. The first person
starts with any word they wish i.e. red. The next person repeats the first word and
adds another word which links to the first i.e. tomato. The next person repeats the
previous word and add another word link i.e. soup, and so on. To keep this moving,
only allow five seconds for each word link.

Add words

Simple, completely ridiculous and a lot of fun. The first person says a word, for
example 'The'. The second person says the first word and ADDS a second word of

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their choice, and so on. At the end you might have a complete sentence! For example,
'The aardvark spiralled into the puddle of custard clutching his skateboard while
whistling his favorite Bjork melody.' The fun thing is putting twists in the sentence so
that the others have a hard time coming up with a word that fits. ADD WORDS can
be played a few times without being boring.

Name grid

Divide the young people into groups of four. Each group needs paper and pens. Ask
them to draw a grid on which they write their forenames. For example,

S I M O N

W E N D Y

R O B E R T

A N N E

Give each team three minutes to write down as many words (three letters or more)
that they can make only using the letters in their names. Letters must adjoin each
other in the grid, but do not have to be in a straight line.
When the time is up each team adds up their score.
3 or 4 letter words = 1 point
5 letter word = 2 points
6 letter word = 3 points

 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group

 First note down your own answers alone

 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.

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1. How many times do you need to re-encounter new items in order to be sure of
remembering?
2. What are the most important criteria for selection of the vocabulary to teach a
class?
3. How might you get an idea of how much vocabulary overall your students know?
4. Can you state three or four different activities shown here that can be used to
review or deepen vocabulary knowledge?

 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers
Video 4.1
What to look for: how to teach vocabulary.

Video 4.2
What to look for: Watch how teacher makes a vocabulary lesson interactive. In this
video, great classroom strategies are used.

Tasks

Task 1
Tick the option that you think can help students better understand meaning in
context?

Pointing out collocations when they occur.

Designing activities that focus attention on the collocations of particular
lexical items.
Setting text gap-fill exercises.
Getting learners to predict likely meanings or lexical items before seeing
or hearing a text.

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Task 2
What is the relationship between the words within each group below?

a. hot cold
b. on off
c. stroll amble
d. drink lemonade
e. flower pot spade seeds weedkiller
Task 3
For each lexical item in the following random list different ways that you could help
your students begin to learn the meaning.
1. Add new teaching ideas beside them.
2. Continue the list with teaching ideas for the following words
Wednesday; chilly; overtake; tunnel

Wink facial expression

Swimming watch a video where someone is swimming
House draw it on the board
chase get students to act it
Hope read out the dictionary definition
put up with Translate
Reduction draw a diagram or graph

Task 4
Here is a procedure for vocabulary lesson . Put stages in a likely working
order.

 Have students “become” the word and write answer to questions.

 Divide class into teams of 2-4 students.
 Give each team a word and list of interview questions.
 Select key words important to understanding a concept or unit.
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Task 5
List ten or more items of vocabulary that students will practice when they do

Practice

1. Write or discuss the answers to these questions.

these a. How much do you know about each of the planets in our
exercises.
system?
b. How far do you think man will get in space Discovery in the
next hundred years?
c. Do you really need to know what other planets and systems
are like?
2. You are an astronaut reporting back to earth from outer space.
Describe what you can see as you float through space.
Task 6
Task 6
Look at the following list of words and answer the questions which follow:

Attractive beautiful chubby emaciated fat flabby good-looking

handsome lean muscular nubile obese plain pretty shapely
sinewy skinny slim stout thin ugly underweight well-built

a. At what level would it be appropriate for students to concentrate on these

vocabulary item?
b. How could you get students to understand the meaning and connotation of the
words?
c. What kind of situations can you think of to get students using the new words?

Task 7
Look at any local student’s textbook and do as required.

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1. In groups of six, design a plan that will give students written or oral
practice in using the given words.
2. Select one member from each group to teach the selected activity.

Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,E,F ), student-teachers evaluate the tasks done and as

follow:

Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A

Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C

Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E

All groups evaluate task 7 using the following checklist

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How does the physical environment show that vocabulary is
important?
 Are there collaboratively made word lists on the wall?
 Is there a word wall?
 Is there a list of vocabulary strategies?
 Are content specific vocabulary words clearly evident?
 Do students keep a vocabulary journal?
 Are word play and word awareness a part of every day?
How does the student-teacher show that words are important?
 Are there two or more read aloud a day complete with discussion of
interesting words?
 Is there a structure for students to collect words they find to be
interesting?
 Is there a sense of excitement about word learning?
 Are interesting words explored in all dimensions of the curriculum?
Are strategies for exploring words modeled and practiced?
 Do learners engage in word sorts and word mapping?
 Are students encouraged to monitor their own attempts to use new
words in daily conversation and in writing?
 Are strategies for understanding words modeled and demonstrated?
 Are word relationships and connections made evident?
Do the students have tools for word learning?
 Are they self-selecting vocabulary words to study?
 Are they comfortable with a dictionary and a thesaurus?
 Do they know how to use root words, prefixes, suffixes, and context
to determine word meaning?
 Are they encouraged to use rich vocabulary in class discussions?

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5 Teaching Grammar
Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Suggest new activities for teaching grammar.

2. Design a lesson plan.
3. Teach grammar.
4. Evaluate student-teachers’ performance.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
Authentic use of These oral or written activities focus on real-life
grammar communication. They focus on fluency.
Situations where students use language to
Communicative
communicate real meaning, rather than just practicing
activities
language.
“Contextualizing” your example means explaining the
contextualized
situation so that a reader can fully make sense of your
example
specific examples.
Way applies a general rule to particular instances
while inductive way involves inference from the
particular to the general. Deductive learning occurs
Deductive approach
when teacher gives the rule in an explicit way and then
encourages learners to apply it by giving examples and
leads them to practice.
as an approach contains all the conscious facts the
learner has about the language and the criterion for
admission to this category in the ability to articulate
Explicit grammar facts. Explicit approach can help generate a new
language. It encourages learners to make sentences,
follow patterns and establish structures for learning. It
clarifies meaning and encourages to notice.
The way words are put together to make correct
Grammar
sentences.
A specific instance of grammar is usually called a
Grammatical structure. Example of structure would be the past
structure tense, noun plurals, the comparison of adjectives, and
so on.
Works differently from deductive by giving examples
Inductive approach in order to get learners notice the rules.

Implicit grammar A kind of linguistic knowledge which means intuitive

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information upon which the language learner operates
in order to produce responses in the target language. In
this approach, learner uses but does not reflect on the
rule. S/he can decide the speech is or is not in
accordance with rule.
These oral or written activities give students practice
of a new grammatical structure. They are carefully
designed to restrict the language needed and require
Restricted use
the use of the new grammatical structure only. They
activities
focus on the form and intend to give language
practice. Activities focus limited options for
communication; and accuracy.
1. What Needs to Be Taught

There is some debate as to whether we should worry about grammatical accuracy

when it does not interfere with effective communication of a message. For
example, should we correct a student who drops the third person -s suffix in the
present simple (saying she like instead of she likes)? And should we correct a
student who uses which instead of who in relative clauses saying the person which
instead of the person who)? Or should we insist on accuracy only when it affects
meaning, for example correcting a student who uses a present tense verb where a
past tense is needed?

Practically, most of us teach the conventional grammatical forms and meanings of

English because that is what the course books we are using do, or because that is
what the exams test, or because that is what the school policy, the parents or the
students themselves demand.

 Three Dimensions of Teaching Grammar

1. Form (how is it formed?) Accuracy: syntax
2. Meaning (what does it mean?) Meaningfulness: semantics
3. Use (When/why is it used?)

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 Approaches to Grammar

The main approaches for teaching grammar are:

1. Prescriptive Grammar
2. Descriptive Grammar
3. Functional Grammar
4. Formal Grammar
5. Discourse Grammar

1. Prescriptive Grammar
•Concerned with rules about the structure of a language
• Focus on what is right/correct and wrong/incorrect
• Prescriptive rules make a valued judgment about ‘correct’ way to speak and write
rather than the way people actually speak and writee.g., Musics are my favorite
subject (X).
Mass noun is not countable.
2. Descriptive Grammar
Concerned with how people actually use a language and then attempts to analyze it
and formulate rules about the structure. However, people can still use this
prescriptively. They tend to follow what these rules say.
[Link] grammar
• Focus on meaning and functions of language as conveyors of information rather
than just on forms
•Contextual in orientation--looking at how language is used for different purposes in
different contexts.
4. Formal grammar
Boys (subject: noun) throw (verb) stones (object: noun)
• Functional grammar
Boys (actor/agent) throw (process) stone (patient)
a. John lost his wallet. (Stress occurs in the last lexical item because it is new
information.)
b. John lost it. (Main stress in different position because pronominal element is given
information)

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[Link] grammar

Discovers recurrent patterns

•Inductive methodology and data-driven analysis
• Looks at forms from functional approaches using actual data and large stretches of
discourse.
• By looking at grammatical forms as they occur in actual discourse (both spoken and
written), we can find many more patterns and help students understand the usages
and formulate their own analyses of these forms to account for larger number of
patterns.

 Using Authentic Materials

Authentic materials include:
TV Commercials, TV drama clips, movie clips.
Face-to face/ telephone conversations, talk shows, interviews, debates news
broadcasts, newspapers, magazines, Cartoons, songs, pictures, etc.
Contextual in orientation:
•Focus on how the grammar feature is used.
•Can provide larger stretches of discourse, not discreet phrases or sentences.
•Can show more naturally occurring data rather than made up sentences.
•Can capture prosodic features and non-verbal cues.
2. Stages for Effective Grammar Presentation

This section provides a framework for utilizing your own experience in order to learn
more about effective grammar presentation and improve practice.

Stage 1: present and explain a grammar structure to a class. The presentation

should not take more than five minutes. Choose a structure you feel fairly
confident about, and present it to a group of colleagues. The presentation
should be recorded in some way.
Stage 2: You may need to look up a grammar book to check your explanation.
Stage 3: Ask a colleague to tell you immediately afterwards how clear they
thought your presentation was, and if they have any particular comments.
Stage 4: In the light of the critical discussion of presentation, write out for
yourself a set of guidelines for presenting and explaining grammar.

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Stage 5: compare what you have written with what have said in any other
references.
Stage 6: Do stage 1 again, using another structure. Note briefly any changes
you notice in your own teaching as a result of the process you have been done.

Guidelines on presenting a new grammatical structure

1. In general, a good presentation should include both oral and written forms,
and both form and meaning.
2. It is important for students to have plenty of contextualized examples of the
structures and to understand them. Visual materials can also contribute to
understanding.
3. The answers to this will depend on your situation and students. On the
whole older or more analytically-minded students will benefit more from
the use of terminology.
4. Again this is very much depends on your own situation and judgement.
5. Your explanation should cover the great majority of instances for students
are likely to encounter; obvious expectations should be noted, but too much
detail may only confuse.

3. Grammar Practice Activities

In order to give students intensive oral or written practice of specific language points,
we can use activities carefully designed to restrict the language needed and require
the use of the target items.

1. Written exercises

Written exercises are a common and useful way of giving students concentrated
practice of language items.
Example
Here is a textbook exercise. What area of language is it working on?
1 .. computer is certainly ........................... 2 ... great invention, one of….3….
wonders of .............. 4 .. modern world. But late on…. 5….. cold Friday
afternoon, towards... 6.....end of ................ 7 ... miserable December, I'm beginning
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to wish that I'd never bought one. All I want to do is write 8….. letter to 9
Aunt Diana. But….. 10 machine seems to have….. 11..... different idea
altogether. After….12 .. two hours' work all I have to show are…..13…torn piece
of paper filled with .. 14 black, inky smudges and…. 15… computer screen that
happily tells me There is ........................... 16....error. Please Restart.' Give me
....17… ..................... pen and..................... 18 . pad of 19 paper! If this is .....20
modern world I'll vote for ........................ 21 . Stone Age!

Ideas for doing this example

• Do it as individuals - then compare and discuss answers with others.
• Work in pairs to do exercise,
• Work in small groups.
• Work in teams - make a competition out of it.
• Do it together on the board - teacher-led.
• Do it together on the board - student-led.
• Hand out an out-of-order list of answers to match to the questions.
• Do it orally in a language laboratory.
• Dictate the sentences leaving spaces where the missing words are.
• Do it at great speed (give them, say, three minutes to do the whole exercise).
Then shuffle papers and give to small groups to discuss and mark.
• Cut up the sentences and give one to each student - negotiate arrangement and
answers.
• Hand out the exercise with your answers already written in - some right, some
wrong. The students must correct your work.

2. Elicited dialogues
With this activity, students will get many chances to repeat the dialogues in class
and thus increase their familiarity with these items.
Step 1 - before the class
Write a short dialogue. You can now make a short dialogue, set in a specific
situation, that includes a few examples of this language item.
For example:
Lazy boy on sofa; girl in doorway.
GIRL: Could you help me, Mike?
BOY: What do you want?
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GIRL: Bring me that suitcase, please.
BOY: Oh –I’m too tired!
GIRL: It's too heavy for me to carry.
BOY: (trying and failing)And it's too heavy for me too! What's in it?
GIRL: Your birthday present!
Step 2 - in class
1 . Use board pictures (or some other way) to establish the context rind the
characters.
2 . By using mime or gestures or questions or picture cues, try to elicit from the
students each line of the dialogue you have prepared.
3 . When the students say sentences in response to the eliciting, you need to
select a suitable one, correcting it if necessary.
4 . You must now establish this line of dialogue (i.e. every student in the class
needs to be able to say it and remember it). This will probably be done through
choral an individual drilling and correction; the students are given lots of chances
to repeat it, with you helping them to say it fluently and accurately with the best
possible pronunciation (especially intonation!).
5 . The procedure of 2, 3, 4 is repeated for each line.
6 . There are also frequent repetitions of the whole dialogue to date (in pairs,
perhaps, or by dividing the room into two halves).
Step 3:When the dialogue is complete, follow-on activities could include writing it
out, acting it out, continuing it, etc.
3. Self-directed discovery
With this approach, the teacher needs to ensure that the learners have sufficient
information and experience to be able to work out their own rules and
explanations, and perhaps work out their own goals and learning strategies as well.
The obvious danger here is that teachers will abdicate their real responsibilities.

 Guided discovery
In which you can:
• set problems, tasks and activities that raise relevant points;
• ask questions that focus on the meaning (concept questions);
• ask questions that focus on the context (context questions);
• ask questions that focus on the form;
• elicit answers;
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• offer appropriate examples;
• offer tools to help clarify meaning, e.g. time lines, substitution tables;
(but perhaps encouraging the students to use them to solve the problems);
• encourage thorough working out of difficulties;
• guide their process of discovery along fruitful lines;
• encourage different students to add their ideas;
• help them to stay focused if they go down side-tracks;
• raise their awareness as to what they have learned.
Guided discovery: some ideas and examples
The following list gives some further examples of guided discovery.
1. Questions about form
So what word goes in this space? How many words are there in the sentence.? How
do you spell that? Is that a verb? What comes after the verb? What's the name of this
tense?
2. Questions about function
Do they know each other? Is this formal or informal? Where do you think they
are speaking? Is this polite? Why does he say that? How does he feel?
3. Problems and puzzles
Put these words in the right order. Fill in the spaces. How many sentences can you
make from these words? Change this into the past simple tense. Write this sentence
again with exactly the same meaning, but only using seven words. Rewrite the
sentence using this word.
4. Reflecting on use
Write down some of the sentences you used. Write down some of the sentences you
heard. Why did you use that tense? What was the answer? What was the idea you
wanted to express? Where was the problem? Which of those two sentences is
correct?

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4. Grammar Planning Effective Lessons

Here are four common and effective lesson types:

Lesson type 1
1. The teacher presents information about an item of language.
[Link] students then work on oral practice of examples of these items.
3. The students do a written exercise to practice these items.
[Link] students are given the opportunity to use these items, along with the other
language they know, in communicative activities.
This procedure uses the three ARC (authentic use, restricted activities, and
clarification) components in this order CRRA.
Lesson type 2
1. The teacher selects an activity requiring use of specific language points. The
students do the activity. While they are speaking the teacher listens in discreetly
and notes down problems.

2. After they have finished, the teacher uses the sentences she noted down to
focus on and clarify difficulties and teach potentially useful language items that
were avoided during the activity.

3. The teacher follows on with a similar activity to the first one. The students now
have better resources to deal with some of the problems they may have faced.

This procedure uses the three components in this order: RCR (Restricted use;
Clarification and focus; Restricted use). It starts by encouraging students to use
the language they know and only then focuses in on specific problems or
difficulties. Note that the teacher did not select the specific sentences to work on
until she listened to the students talking. Sometimes this approach is
characterized as 'Test-Teach-Test\ A small but significant variation would be to
change one or both of the R activities for A; this is the lesson type 3.
Lesson type 3

[Link] teacher selects a communicative activity. The students do the activity. While
they are speaking, the teacher listens in discreetly and notes down problems.

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2. After they have finished, the teacher uses the sentences she noted down to
focus on and clarify difficulties and teach potentially useful language items that
were avoided during the activity.

3. The teacher follows on with a similar communicative activity to the first one.
The students now have better resources to deal with some of the communication
problems they may have faced.

Here, the order is ACA (Authentic use; Clarification and focus; Authentic use). I
have now categorized the first and third activities as 'authentic' rather than
'restricted 'use because the teacher did not require or invite the students to use
specific items of language.

Lesson type 4
The fourth type of lesson is based on textual or taped material, often in a course
book. This material has been specially selected to include a lot of examples of the
target language items.
1. The students read the text (or listen to the tape).
2. The teacher focuses them in on specific language points.
3. The students do a follow-on exercise or communicative activity.

5. Testing Grammar

It has been said that pupils would do the exercises with pleasure and in a funny way.
But it is quite difficult to test grammar in the same way. However, it is difficult, it is
possible. There are several types of tests. Teacher can test students’ ability to speak
or write, his reading or listening skills. Of course, written tests take less time and they
are easier to administer. That is why most tests are based on written skills. This could
cause some problems, because so much teaching in the classroom is based on oral
work. Teacher should remember this fact and try to make the tests suitable for
students. Good test shows both teacher and learner how well they are all doing.
Teacher who writes tests should bear in mind the following rules :

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 Do not test what you have not taught.
 Do not test general knowledge.
 Do not introduce new techniques in tests.
 Do not just test accuracy.
 Do not forget to test the test.
[Link] during accuracy work

The first set of techniques we need to be aware of is devoted to showing

incorrectness. These techniques are only really beneficial for what we are
assuming to be language 'slips' rather than embedded or systematic errors. When
we show incorrectness, we are hoping that the students will be able to correct
themselves once the problem has been pointed out. It they cannot do this;
however, we will need to move on to alternative techniques.
•Showing incorrectness: this can be done in a number of different ways:
Repeating: here we can ask the student to repeat what they have said, perhaps
by saying Again? which, coupled with intonation and expression, will indicate
that something is not clear.
Echoing: this can be a precise way of pin-pointing an error. We repeat what
the student has said, emphasising the part of the utterance that was wrong, e.g.
Flight 309 GO to Paris? (said with a questioning intonation) or She SAID me?
It is an extremely efficient way of showing incorrectness during accuracy
work.
Statement and question: we can, of course, simply say Good try, but that's not
quite right or Do people think that's correct? to indicate that something hasnot
quite worked.
Expression: when we know our classes well, a simple facial expression or a
gesture (for example, a wobbling hand) may be enough to indicate that
something doesn't quite work. This needs to be done with care as the wrong
expression or gesture can, in certain circumstances, appear to be mocking or
cruel.
Hinting: a quick way of helping students to activate rules they already know
(but which they have temporarily 'mislaid') is to give a quiet hint. We might
just say the word tense to make them think that perhaps they should have used

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the past simple rather than the present perfect. We could say countable to make
them think about a concord mistake they have made, or tell to indicate they
have chosen the wrong word.
Reformulation: a correction technique which is widely used both for accuracy
and fluency work is for the teacher to repeat back a corrected version of what
the student has said, reformulating the sentence, but without making a big issue
of it. For example:
STUDENT: She said me I was late.

TEACHER: Oh, so she told you were late, did she?

STUDENT: Oh yes, I mean she told me. So I was very unhappy .

Such reformulation is just a quick reminder of how the language should sound.
It does not put the student under pressure, but clearly points the way to future
correctness.
 Getting it right: if students are unable to correct themselves or respond to
reformulation, we need to focus on the correct version in more detail. We can
say the correct version, emphasising the part where there is a problem before
saying the sentence normally or we can say the incorrect part correctly(e.g. Not
go'. Listen, goes'). If necessary, we can explain the grammar (e.g. We say I go,
you go, we go, but for he, she or it, we say goes ).

Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

Swan, M. (2005). Practical English Usage. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Ur, P. (2009). Grammar Practice Activities (2nd ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge

University Press.

Burden, P.R. and Byrd ,D.M. (2010). Methods for Effective Teaching. New York:
Pearson Press.
Scrivener. (2012). Classroom Management Technique s. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.

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Warm-up Activities

 Ice Breaking Activities

These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-
confrontational, low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

One minute please!

The aim of the game is to talk for one minute on a given subject. You announce the
topic and a member of the group is randomly selected to speak for one minute. Use a
pack of cards to randomly select i.e. person who draws the lowest number. Choose
subjects to stimulate the imagination and which may be amusing. Put a stopwatch on
each person to see how long they last before drying up! Subjects might include, my
earliest memories, my favorite computer game, why beans are good for you, 10
things you can do with potatoes, Alligator wrestling, pre-millennialism (no, not
really!)

Newspaper puzzle

Divide into teams of five or six people and give each group a copy of the SAME
newspaper. Ask them to spread the newspaper out in front of each team. Describe a
particular advert, article, fact or picture from the paper and the group has to find it,
rip it out and bring it to you. The first team to bring it gets a point. Continue calling
out items and the winning team is the one with the most points. Watch the paper fly.

 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group
 First, note down your own answers alone.
 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.
1. Can you recall the main stages for effective grammar presentation?

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2. What is meant by “In general, a good presentation should include both oral and
written forms, and both form and meaning”?
3. What do you think written exercises includes?
4. Can you recall at least four useful guidelines when explaining a new grammar
point to the class?
5. What kind of practice can help students transfer knowledge of a grammatical
rule so that they can use it fluently in their own production?

 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers
Video 5.1
What to look for: This video gives you some useful tips on how to teach grammar.
Video 5.2
What to look for: The structure of a grammar lesson in a 10 minute video.

Tasks

Task 1
In order to gain effective grammar presentation and improve practice, certain stages
are stated. Put these stages in their correct order .

Stage Do stage 1 again, using another structure. Note briefly any changes you
notice in your own teaching as a result of the process you have been done.
Stage Ask a colleague to tell you immediately afterwards how clear they
thought your presentation was, and if they have any particular comments.
Stage present and explain a grammar structure to a class. The presentation
should not take more than five minutes. Choose a structure you feel fairly
confident about, and present it to a group of colleagues. The presentation
should be recorded in some way.
Stage In the light of the critical discussion of presentation, write out for
yourself a set of guidelines for presenting and explaining grammar.
Stage compare what you have written with what have said in any other
references.
Stage You may need to look up a grammar book to check your explanation.

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Task 2
Suggest steps for the following grammatical activities:

Written exercises

Elicited dialogues

Split sentences

Questionnaires

Task 3
Complete the following diagram:

Self- directed discovery

Guided discovery ideas

Task 4
Look at the following activities and identify whether they are authentic or restricted
use activities.
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Authenti restricted
Activities
c use use
1. Drill
Teacher: He is going to buy a car
Pupils: He is going to buy a car.
Teacher: TV
Pupils: He is going to buy a TV.
Teacher: Camera
Pupils: He is going to buy a camera.
2. jazz Chant
What are you going to do at two? What are you
going to do?
Where are you going to be at three? Where are you
going to be?
Who are you going to see? What are you going to
say?

3. Conversation
The teacher is talking to his class about Christmas
and asks them about their Christmas presents for
their families. “What are you going to buy or make
for …?”
4. Discussion
The teacher is talking to his class about the
technology and they all speculate about what is
going to happen
5. Exercise in textbook / workbook
The students have to do an exercise on the future
tenses and fill in gaps.

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Task 5
In this chapter four types of lessen plan have been suggested. In groups, try to design
another type of lessen plan. Then, from each group, a volunteer teaches the new
lesson plan.

Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,E,F ), student-teachers evaluate the tasks done and as

follow:

Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A

Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C

Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E

All groups evaluate task 6 using the following checklist:

Items Yes No
1. Examples .

Were enough examples provided of the structure in a

meaningful context? Am I sure the students understood their
meanings?
[Link] structure itself.

Was the structure presented in both speech and writing,

both form and meaning?
3. Terminology.

Did I call the structure by its (grammar-book) name? If so,

was this helpful? If not, would it have helped if I had? What
other grammatical terminology was (would have been)
useful?

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[Link].

Was the structure explained in the students' mother tongue,

or in the target language, or in a combination of the two?
Could/should a different combination have been used?
5. Explanation.
Was the information given about the grammatical structure
at the right level: reasonably accurate but not too detailed?
[Link].

Was I speaking (and writing) clearly and at an appropriate

speed?

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6 Teaching Listening
Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Give examples for teaching listening.
[Link] new activities for teaching listening.
[Link] a lesson plan for teaching listening.
[Link] listening.
[Link] student-teachers’ performance.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
A type of listening behavior where the listener seeks
certain information which will appreciate, for example
that which helps meet his/her needs and goals. One uses
Appreciative
appreciative listening when listening to good music,
listening
poetry or maybe even the stirring words of a great leader.

One of the five major types of listening. The focus of

comprehensive listening is on what the message means to
Comprehensive
the listeners and how they understand it in different
listening
ways.

The mode of examining how we are listening so as to

exploit our exact understanding of what another person is
Critical listening saying. This form of listening involves analysis, critical
thinking as well as judgment.

Activating prior knowledge refers to the practice of

beginning a lesson by bringing up topics with which the
students already have some familiarity. By putting the
upcoming lesson material into a familiar context for the
Prior knowledge
students, the teacher is giving them a context into which
they can then assimilate the new information and
understanding.

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The situation in which a person is placed into a scenario
and is directly responsible for the changes that occur as a
result of their decisions. Simulation in business learners
can perform building company, meeting, negotiation and
Simulation
product presentation with the help of simulated
environments. Problem solving skills cause and effect,
and decisions give the user a sense of purpose in their
quest to tackle the real situation they are "playing with".

1. What Needs to Be Taught

Teaching listening is one of the most difficult tasks for any teacher. This is because
successful listening skills are acquired over time and with lots of practice. It is
frustrating for students because there are no rules as in grammar teaching.

Teachers can help students become effective listeners by making them aware of the
different kinds of listening, the different purposes for listening, and the qualities of
good listeners. Some kinds of listening are identified:

1. Comprehensive listening: Students listen for the content of the message.

2. Critical listening: Students judge the message.
3. Appreciative listening: Students listen for enjoyment.
4. Therapeutic listening: Students listen to support others but not judge them.

2. How to teach listening

1. The purposes of listening tasks should not be primarily to test the students or to set
traps for the students to fall into.

2. Be aware of different listening strategies.

3. Select appropriate material.

4. Have a listening purpose.

a. Listening for gist

b. Listening for specific information

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c. Listening to establish context

d. Listening to provide information for later discussion, role play, or information

exchange.

3. Preparing a listening task

To prepare task, answer the following questions:

1. What is the purpose of the task?

2. What listening skills will be practiced?
3. Is the task suitable for the learners’ level?
4. What language do students need in order to do the task?
5. How can I create interest in the listening text?

[Link] listening process

It is important for the teacher to provide numerous opportunities for students to

practice listening skills and to become actively engaged in the listening process. The
three phases of the listening are: pre- listening, during listening, and after listening.

Pre

During
Post

1. Pre-listening phase
Pre-listening activities are required to establish what is already known about the
topic, to build necessary background, and to set purpose for listening. Students need
to understand that the act of listening requires not just hearing but thinking, as well as
a good deal of interest and information which both speakers and listeners must have
in common.

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 Strategies to prepare for listening skill
There are several strategies that students and their teachers can use to prepare for a
listening experience. They can:

a. Activate existing knowledge

Student should be encouraged to ask question: What do I already know about this
topic? From this teachers and students can determine what information they need in
order to get the most from the message. Students can brainstorm, discuss, read, view
film or photos, and write and share journal entries.

b. Build prior knowledge

Teachers can provide the appropriate background information including information
about the speaker, topic of the presentation, purpose of the presentation, and the
concepts and vocabulary that are likely to be embedded in the presentation.
c. Review standards for listening
Teachers should stress the importance of the audience’s role in a listening situation.
There is an interactive relationship between audience and speaker, each affecting the
other.
d. Establish purpose
Generally there are four purposes for listening:
1. Listening for gist ( global understanding)
2. Listening for specific information.
3. Listening to establish a context ( where is this , what is happening? Who is
speaking to whom?).

e. Use a Listening Guide

A guide may provide an overview of the presentation, its main ideas, questions to be
answered while listening, a summary of the presentation, or an outline.

2. During listening phase

The purpose of the while listening activities is to help the learners develop the skills
of eliciting messages from the spoken language. Good while-listening activities help
learners find their way through the listening text and build upon the expectations
raised by pre-listening activity.
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 Strategies for while-listening phase
There are a number of strategies that can be used in the while-listening stage.
[Link] / checking items in pictures
This activity is meant to ask the students to respond to various stimuli
(questions / statements) by marking things on the picture, after they carry out some
pre-listening activity using a picture. Some activities, which can be used in this kind
of while-listening stage, are among others identifying people and things, marking
items mentioned by the speakers, marking errors, checking details, marking choice
etc.
b. Matching pictures with what is heard
In this activity, the students hear a description or a conversation and have to decide,
from the selection offered, which picture is the right one. They try to interpret what
they hear and match it with the picture.

[Link] picture sets

In this activity, the students are given two or three of, usually three or four pictures.
The students then listen to a story and try to decide which sets of pictures represent
the story.

d. Putting pictures in order

In this type of while-listening activity, the students are presented a number of pictures
and then they try to arrange the pictures in the correct order according to the listening
text.

e. Picture drawing
In this activity the teacher describes a picture and the students attempt to draw it. On
some occasions, the teacher can invite the students to work in pairs, one describing a
picture and the other trying to draw it.
f. Carrying out an action
The teacher instructs the class to do a series of actions. They can be more
interesting by turning up into some sort of game.
g. Making models / arranging items in patterns

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This is another ‘following instruction activity’. Each student (or pair or group of
students) is given items with which to build the model or make the pattern. The
teacher can then either give instructions him / her or play a tape and the students must
try to produce the model / pattern.
h. Completing grids
In this activity, the teacher can provide or ask the students to draw a grid, i.e. a block
of boxes with each column and row labeled. The students then enter their ‘answer’ in
the correct boxes on the grid depending on what they discover from the listening text.
This is usually used for information gap activities.
i. Form / chart completion
This is another kind of multiple-purpose grid and there is a great deal of it that can be
used with information gap activities based on forms, charts etc. In this activity the
students are required to take information from listening text and use it in various
kinds of written (or drawn) completion exercises.
j. Labeling
In this activity, the students label diagrams / pictures to enable them to learn and
remember the various parts of a leaf or an engine or whatever. Listening to a short
talk or lecture in English and labeling familiar diagrams using English words is a
good way of mastering the lexis of a subject with which the students are already
familiar in their own language.

k. Using lists
This activity consists of making a list, often a shopping list or a list of places to visit.
This is a useful activity when there is not too much for the students to write and if the
information is not given to rapidly.

l. True-false
In this activity, the students are provided with some statements to decide whether
they true or false according to the listening text. True-false exercises should be
designed in such a way that they can be completed at specific points while listening.
m. Multiple-choice questions
Multiple-choice questions are an exercise given to the students in which several
options of answers are provided. The students are requested to choose one of the

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correct answers. Like true-false questions, multiple-choice questions should be
designed in such a way that they do not create problems.
n. Text completion (gap filling)
This is another variety of information transfer exercise. It should be designed with
few gaps. When there are too many gaps to fill, it is advisable to help the students to
complete some before beginning to listen.
o. Spotting mistakes
This activity can be based on a picture, a printed text or simply facts established
orally at the pre-listening stage. The teacher can use a clear picture in a book as the
focus of the activity. The teacher then talks about the picture, making some deliberate
mistakes and the students are required to indicate each time that they spot a mistake.
p. Predicting
In this activity, the teacher presents the students an opportunity to speculate on what
they might expect to hear in any given situation. One of the best ways of giving the
students an opportunity to practice predicting what will be said next is for the teacher,
when telling a story or reading a listening text, to pause from time to time for long
enough for the students to try to fill the gaps.

3. The post-listening phase

Post-listening activities are activities related to a particular listening text, which are
done after the listening is completed. Some post-listening activities are extensions of
the work done at the pre-listening and while-listening stages and some relate only
loosely to the listening text itself. Post-listening activities can be much longer than
while-listening activities because at this stage the students have time to think, to
discuss, to write.

 Strategies for post-listening phase

The following are some ideas can be used during this phase:
a. Form / chart completion
There are often occasions on which the completion of form / charts of some
sections can only be done at a more leisurely pace after listening. Because the
recording of factual information after listening depends largely upon memory rather
than on listening skills, it is best if post-listening chart completion does not depend
on large quantity of information from the listening text.

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b. Extending lists
In this activity, the students are asked to make a list or tick / check a list while
listening and then to add to it after the listening is finished. It provides a way of
collecting word sets and / or extending word sets already known to the students.
c. Sequencing / ‘grading’
This activity requires the students to sort out the various items as they listen and then
to complete the activity after they have heard the whole passage / story. The students
may be asked to put in order, for example, for the most liked to the least liked, six
jobs that the speaker has to do.
d. Extending notes into written response
Brief notes made at the while-listening stage can be extended into written texts. The
written text which is required can be anything from one-sentence answers to specific
questions to long pieces of prose. It is a good idea for students to listen again after the
post-listening writing stage to check their answers.
e. Summarizing
Summarizing can be done by extending notes made at the while-listening stage or by
simply depending on memory. If the students are to depend on memory, it is
generally best to use a story as the listening text, as the sequence of a story adds one
hope that the interests make remembering easier.
f. Using information from the listening text for problem solving and decision
making activities
Students can be asked to collect information from a listening text and apply the
information to the solution of a problem or as a basis for a decision.
g. Jigsaw listening
In this activity the students are divided into a small number of groups and each group
listens to a different listening text, although all the text are on the same topic, and
then the groups exchange information to build up the complete story.
h. Identifying relationships between speakers
It is sometimes useful, at the post-listening activity, to consider what features of the
listening text made the relationships between the speakers clear. If the teacher wants
to hold a post-listening discussion about relationship, he or she can give the students
notice by giving a question or two before listening.
i. Establishing the mood / attitude / behavior of the speaker
In this activity, the listener tries to interpret what is said, rather than just looking for
the overt meaning. It is not just the words that are important but how they are spoken.

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A certain expression can be spoken with various stress and intonation to show
different moods or attitudes, such as, sarcastic, anger, sorrow, excitement, or
boredom etc.
j. Role play / simulation
Role play and simulation can be based on a listening text. The attraction of using
listening as an input is that it can provide students with a selection of language
appropriate to the roles and situations which are to be developed.
They help students transfer some of the language learned from listening into their
spoken repertoire.
k. Dictation
Dictation is meant to get students to concentrate on the listening text, or parts of it,
and the emphasis is on spelling and writing correct English sentences, but on the
sorting out the meaning of the words spoken. What is wanted is that the students’
version indicates comprehension of the utterances, and writing them down is one way
of showing this comprehension.
5. Sample lesson plan

There is now fixed formula for a good lesson. It is always good to plan. Try a
number of techniques and strategies; find out what suits your students and your own
approach. Consider the following lesson plan.

Name: -------- (student teacher) Date: --------

Level: -----------------Time: 45 minutes

Learning Objective(s)

1. Listening for specific information( news broadcast)

2. Grammar / structure: Past continuous and simple past practice to check whether
students can use what has been previously taught.

Personal Teaching objective(s)

To use more authentic material in the classroom.

Vocabulary : Essential vocabulary in news reports.

Anticipated knowledge and problems

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Cultural unfamiliarity with some items in recording.

Solutions : Avoid using these items in student tasks.

Materials : Recording of radio news broadcast ( 5 minutes in length);worksheets.

Procedures Timing Interaction
Prepare students for listening task
Brainstorming in pairs: What has been in the
news?
student to student
Write on the board what is relevant or needed.
3 minutes teacher to students
Elicit items that will be needed but not included.
3 minutes students to teacher
3 minutes
Listening tasks and feedback
Show worksheet and give instructions, then check
students to teacher
understanding.
2 minutes
Students study task
student to student
Allocate tasks
2 minutes students to teacher
Play tape.
2 minutes students listen
A’s and B’s pool information to compete
5 minutes student to student
worksheets.
2 minutes tape to students
Play recording again.
7 minutes students to teacher
Confirm students’ answers.
2 minutes
Preparation for role play
students to
Divide class into groups to play the roles.
5 minutes students
Group A prepares to act as money scandal
5 minutes students to
characters.
students
Group B prepares to act as plane crash survivors.

Role play
1 minute
Pair students from each group ( A+B,A+B…).
3 minutes students to teacher
Students A interview students B re: plane crash
3 minutes student to teacher
Students B interview students A re: money
student to teacher
scandal.
3 minutes
Feedback
teacher to student
Make correction of errors heard.
7 minutes?
Time permitting…
Discuss actual current topics in the media and what
media students use.

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6. Assessment of Listening Skill

Listening is one of the most difficult aspects of the language arts to assess. It cannot
be easily observed and can be measured only through inference. However, there are
both informal and formal strategies and instruments that teachers can use to help
them in their assessments.

1. Informal Assessment

The most effective assessment of listening may be teachers’ observations and

students’ self- assessments. Students initially may not be aware of how well they
listen and, therefore, need teacher guidance.

Self-assessments should be followed with one-on-one discussions about student

progress. Teachers can also videotape students while they are listening and follow up
with discussion.

2. Formal Assessment

More formal listening assessments can be prepared by teachers based on objectives

and perceived needs. Some examples follow.

1. Excerpts from different genres of literature ( e,g, prose, poetry, play) can be used
as follows:
- Prepare a set of ten questions on the excerpt.
- Set a purpose for the listening activity ( e.g. “listen to determine the setting of the
following passage.” )
- Have students listen to the excerpt ( pre-taped or teacher – read).
- Have students respond in writing to the prepared questions.
- A score of 70% or better on basic recall and basic informational questions
indicates that the student has comprehended the passage.
2. Students can paraphrase, summarize, analyze, make notes, complete a listening
guide, or write a response to a spoken or multimedia presentation. The assessment

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tasks can be as simple as listing significant ideas and arguments, answering a series
of questions, or identifying connotative meanings of key words.
3. Some examples of other types of listening assessments include:
- After placing ten details on the board, the teacher reads a ten-minute story aloud.
After listening to the story, students are asked to jot down the four or five details that
are most important to the outcome. The responses provide insights into students’
listening ability.
-Students listen to a story and, afterwards, write down three key qualities of the
character and their reason for selecting these. While listening to the story a second
time, the students listen for and record details that prove their assertions about the
character.

Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

Doff, A and Becket, C. (1991). Listening1. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Harmer, J. (1991) The Practice of English Language Teaching. London:
Longman.
Ur, P. (2006). A Course in Language Teaching. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press.
Burden, P.R. and Byrd , D.M. (2010). Methods for Effective Teaching. New York:
Pearson Press.
Scrivener . (2012). Classroom Management Techniques. Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
[Link] This is a fantastic site for finding listening activities put
together by Randal and his family.
[Link] - This site is run by the State of California for their
adult education programs. It has audio and video pieces and activities for the
students to complete.
[Link] site has online courses by professors
and lectures from universities around the world. It is also known as [Link].

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Warm-up Activities

 Ice Breaking
These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-
confrontational, low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

Line up

Ask students to line up. Works best with 8-10 in a line. If you’ve got a bigger group,
split them up and challenge each line to complete the task first. Ask the group to form
a new line in order of….

• Height, from smallest to tallest.

• Birthdays, from January through to December.

• Shoe size, from smallest to largest.

• Alphabetical first names (A-Z).

• Alphabetical mothers first names.

• Alphabetical grandmother's first names!

• Anything else you think up.

Who am I?

Prepare a self-adhesive label or post-it note for each young person in your group.
Write on it the name of a well-known or famous person. This can be an historical
character or current sportsman, musician, TV personality, celebrity etc. Have a good
mix of men and women. Keeping the names hidden, stick the post-it notes on the
foreheads of everyone in the group. They must then ask questions of the others to
find out their identity.

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Each person takes a turn to ask questions and figure out who they are. For example,
Am I alive? Am I female? Am I in a band? Only yes or no questions can be asked. If
the answer is no, their turn is over. If the answer is yes, they can ask another question
and keep going until they get a no, or guess who they are. Keep playing until
everyone has guessed, or if time is short, stop after the first few correct answers.

 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group
 First, note down your own answers alone.
 Share with other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.
1. Why is listening comprehension important in language learning?
2. How useful is it to have students listen to each other for listening
comprehension practice?
3. Can you give at least two activities for teaching listening?
4. State some ways we can improve the more traditional types of listening
activates?
5. Can you think of an active stage to follow a listening activity?

 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers.

Video 6.1
What to look for: The video entitled "Teaching Listening" is part of the Best
Practices Video Series designed for training student teachers, teachers, and teacher
supervisors in 2001.
Video 6.2
What to look for: Listening skills are not passive!
Video 6.3
What to look for: Three quick listening games, designed to "trick" some of the
listeners into giving a "wrong" response.

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Tasks

Task1
Put these tasks in order (Hint- E, H and G are used twice)
A. Play the tape for the first time.
B. Warm up (set the scene).
C. Play the tape for the second time.
D. Teach key vocabulary.
E. Pair up students and ask them to compare their answers.
F. Give follow-up activities.
G. Have students report back to the whole class. Check and confirm their answers.
H. Monitor student activities.
I. Set questions/ tasks for general or gist comprehension.
J. Set questions tasks for detailed comprehension.
Task 2
Read purposes and match them to the stages
1. ____ To give students a reason for listening.
2. ____ To use the information.
3. ____ To equip the students with essential vocabulary for managing the task
successfully.
4. ____ To motivate students to listen and to create interest in the topic or theme of
the tape.
5. ____ To make students feel secure and confident towards doing the task.
6. ____ To confirm students’ answers as acceptable or not.
7. ____ To monitor progress.
8. ____ To focus students on specific aspects of the listening text.

Task 3
Design a listening activity. Use a song as the material.
Make sure you include the pre, while, and post activities in your design.

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Task 4
Design a listening activity based on the basic competence of students. Carefully
choose the activities we have discussed as the pre, while, and post activities.

Task 5
Design a test for listening skill

Informal assessment Formal assessment

………………………….. …………………………..
………………………….. …………………………..
………………………….. …………………………..
………………………….. …………………………..

Task 6
Read the story in the box.

Once there was a boy called Mazin, a poor fisherman’s son. As he

was going home one evening, he saw an old man lying by the side
of the road, seriously ill. The boy was very kind, and he helped the
old man to the nearest hospital. The old man thanked the boy and
asked him for his father was a poor fisherman, so he said, “My name
is Samir and my father is a teacher”. A few days later, the old man
died in hospital, and left all his money to “Samir, a local teacher’s
son who helped me in my hour of need”. Of course, because Mazin
had lied, he did not receive any of the old man’s money.

1. Mark five places in the story where you could stop and ask students to predict what
will happen next.
2. What question would you ask each time?
3. Practice telling the story to your partner.
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Task 7
Read the following tape script and answer the questions which follow it.
Assistant: Can I help you?
Sam: Yes, please. I’m looking for some sun cream.
Assistant: What kind do you want?
Sam: I’m not really sure.
Assistant: Well, the thing to do is to decide what factor you need.
Sam: What factor?
Assistant: Yes, choose the right factor and it’ll protect you from UV
rays.
Sam: Ultra violet rays?
Assistant: Yeah .

[Link] level do you think this tape script could be used with?
[Link] would you engage students with the topic? What preparation would you do
with the students before they listened to this extract?
[Link] general listening task would be appropriate for this tape script?
[Link] you think of an active stage to follow this listening activity?

Task 8
From any local student’s textbook, each group selects and discusses a listening
activity. Then students will form new groups to report information to the members of
the new group about how to write plan and teach a selected activity.
Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,E,F ), student-teachers evaluate the tasks done and as

follow:

Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A

Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C

Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E

All groups evaluate task 8 using the following checklist

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Active listening skill Check of observed Comments
Focuses on the purpose of listening (e.g., to
questions, give examples, et cetera)

Looks at speaker
Controls personal activity level
Makes notes on main points
Draws reasonable conclusions from
material heard
Asks for clarification or examples when
appropriate
Withholds judgment on ideas till
presentation is completed
Uses respectful language in any
feedback/questions
Discerns exaggeration, bias, prejudice, or
emotional hype I n language

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7 Teaching Speaking
Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Evaluate the communicativeness of oral activities.

2. Create a context for structured communication activities.
3. Design a lesson plan for teaching speaking.
4. Design tests for linguistically oriented, communication-oriented, and situation-
based task.
5. Teach speaking.
6. Evaluate student-teachers’ performance.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
A pedagogical approach that allows for the construction of
meaning grounded in real-life situations and the learners own
Authentic personal experience .In which Students are able to explore,
learning discuss and meaningfully construct concepts and relationships
environment in contexts that involve real-world problems and projects that
are relevant to the learner.

The students' main purpose is to complete a task, such as

Communicative obtaining information, developing a travel plan, or creating a
output video. To complete the task, they may use the language that the
instructor has just presented, but they also may draw on any
other vocabulary, grammar, and communication strategies that
they know.
A technique in language teaching where students are missing
information necessary to complete a task or solve a problem,
Information gap and must communicate with their classmates to fill in the gaps.
It is often used in communicative language teaching and task-
based language learning.
linguistic The system of linguistic knowledge possessed by native
competence speakers of a language. It is in contrast to the concept of
linguistic performance, the way the language system is used in
communication.
It comes in the form of teacher talk, listening activities, reading
passages, and the language heard and read outside of class. It
Language input
gives students the material they need to begin producing
language themselves.
Structured output A type of communication that is found only in language
classrooms. Because production is limited to preselected items,
structured output is not truly communicative.

The ability to interpret the social meaning of the choice of

Sociolinguistic
linguistic varieties and to use language with the appropriate
competence
social meaning for the communication situation.

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[Link] Needs to Be Taught

Speaking is an interactive process of constructing meaning that involves producing

and receiving and processing information. Its form and meaning are dependent on the
context in which it occurs, including the participants themselves, their collective
experiences, the physical environment, and the purposes for speaking. It is often
spontaneous, open-ended, and evolving. Language functions (or patterns) that tend to
recur in certain discourse situations (e.g., declining an invitation or requesting time
off from work), can be identified and charted. Speaking requires that students not
only know how to produce specific points of language such as grammar,
pronunciation, or vocabulary (linguistic competence), but also that they understand
when, why, and in what ways to produce language (sociolinguistic competence).
Finally, speech has its own skills, structures, and conventions different from written
language.
A speaker’s skills and speech habits have an impact on the success of any exchange.
Speakers must be able to anticipate and then produce the expected patterns of specific
discourse situations. They must also manage discrete elements such as turn-taking,
rephrasing, providing feedback, or redirecting. The student must choose the correct
vocabulary to describe the item sought, rephrase or emphasize words to clarify the
description if the clerk does not understand, and use appropriate facial expressions to
indicate satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the service. Other skills and knowledge
that instruction might address include the following:
 producing the sounds, stress patterns, rhythmic structures, and intonations of
the language;
 using grammar structures accurately;
 assessing characteristics of the target audience, including shared knowledge or
shared points of reference, status and power relations of participants, interest
levels, or differences in perspectives;
 selecting vocabulary that is understandable and appropriate for the audience,
the topic being discussed, and the setting in which the speech act occurs;
 applying strategies to enhance comprehensibility, such as emphasizing key
words, rephrasing, or checking for listener comprehension;
 using gestures or body language; and

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 paying attention to the success of the interaction and adjusting components of
speech such as vocabulary, rate of speech, and complexity of grammar
structures to maximize listener comprehension and involvement.
[Link] for Developing Speaking Activities

Teachers should try to make speaking activities as unthreatening and natural as

possible.

1. Encourage students to talk about themselves and to communicate their own

ideas, from the beginning.

2. Get to know your students. Be on the lookout for informal opportunities to

talk with your students.
3. Be selective in error correction, especially during "real" communication
activities (as contrasted with "structured" activities).
4. Deal with errors gently. Many students report that fear of error correction is
the chief reason they feel anxious in their language class.
5. Personalize oral activities. Your knowledge of your students' interests
should be used extensively in oral activities. Instead of using fictitious names
and places, use your students' names and familiar places.
6. Show genuine interest in what your students have to say.

7. Devise interesting oral activities.

8. Teach communication strategies.

3. Strategies for Developing Speaking Skills

Effective teachers teach students speaking strategies through three stages:

1. Eliciting

A teacher who can elicit or draw out appropriate verbal language from students rather
than tell them what to say gets students more actively involved, increases their
motivation, and enhances their learning satisfaction. Eliciting can be done in the
following ways:
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 Ask questions. Use wh-questions( what, who, where, why, when, and how)
rather than yes/no questions.
 Give instructions that require verbal interaction.
Examples are: “Describe what you can see in this
picture,” or “Tell the person next to you where
you live.”
 Use real objects (realia)
 Use visual aids (drawings, flashcards, videos,
etc.).
 Give definitions.
 Use synonyms and antonyms.
 Use gestures and mime( many verbs can be used
like sad, happy, angry).
 Use prompts, cues, and questions in social
situations.
 Fill gaps in tables, scales or diagrams.
 Review key vocabulary.
 Use translation.


2. Restricted oral practice

When doing restricted oral practice, make use of eliciting techniques. You should
also give the cue or the model sentence before you ask a particular student to
respond. The following are types of restricted oral practice.
 Repetition.
T: He lives in Vietnam.
St:He lives in Vietnam.

 Echo Questions.
St A: She went home two days ago.
St B: Two days ago
St A: Yes, two days ago.
 Questions and Answers
T: Where does he live?
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St. In Vietnam.

 Simple Substitution.
T: Do you have a car?
St: Do you have a car?
T: A computer
St: Do you have a computer?

 Chaining.
T: If I’d know
St: If I’d know
T: you were here
St: you were here
T: I wouldn’t have gone away.
St: I wouldn’t have gone away.
T: If I’d known you were here, I wouldn’t have gone away.
St: If I’d known you were here, I wouldn’t have gone away.

3. Developing oral fluency

Teachers need to be clear about the goals and techniques that promote fluency in
speaking practice and activities. To encourage learners to communicate, you must
adopt an attitude that encourages fluency development and saves accuracy for
another lesson. Keep in mind the following when preparing speaking activities to
develop fluency:

 Choose high-interest topics.

 Pre-teach.
 Stimulate interest.
 Set the scene for discussion.
 Give students time to think and prepare.
 Make a participation plan.
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 Organize the time.
 Make a recording

4. Types of Speaking Activities

1. Information Gap Activities.

 Filling the gaps in a schedule or timetable: Partner A holds an airline

timetable with some of the arrival and departure times missing. Partner B has
the same timetable but with different blank spaces. The two partners are not
permitted to see each other's timetables and must fill in the blanks by asking
each other appropriate questions. The features of language that are practiced
would include questions beginning with "when" or "at what time." Answers
would be limited mostly to time expressions like "at 8:15" or "at ten in the
evening."
 Completing the picture: The two partners have similar pictures, each with
different missing details, and they cooperate to find all the missing details. In
another variation, no items are missing, but similar items differ in appearance.
For example, in one picture, a man walking along the street may be wearing an
overcoat, while in the other the man is wearing a jacket. The features of
grammar and vocabulary that are practiced are determined by the content of the
pictures and the items that are missing or different. Differences in the activities
depicted lead to practice of different verbs. Differences in number, size, and
shape lead to adjective practice. Differing locations would probably be
described with prepositional phrases.

2. Jigsaw Activities

In one fairly simple jigsaw activity, students work in groups of four. Each
student in the group receives one panel from a comic strip. Partners may not
show each other their panels. Together the four panels present this narrative: a
man takes a container of ice cream from the freezer; he serves himself several
scoops of ice cream; he sits in front of the TV eating his ice cream; he returns
with the empty bowl to the kitchen and finds that he left the container of ice
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cream, now melting, on the kitchen counter. These pictures have a clear
narrative line and the partners are not likely to disagree about the appropriate
sequencing. You can make the task more demanding, however, by using
pictures that lend themselves to alternative sequences, so that the partners have
to negotiate among themselves to agree on a satisfactory sequence.

3. Role Plays

Students usually find role playing enjoyable, but students who lack self-
confidence or have lower proficiency levels may find them intimidating at first.
To succeed with role plays:

 Prepare carefully: Introduce the activity by describing the situation and

making sure that all of the students understand it
 Set a goal or outcome: Be sure the students understand what the product of
the role play should be, whether a plan, a schedule, a group opinion, or some
other product
 Use role cards: Give each student a card that describes the person or role to be
played. For lower-level students, the cards can include words or expressions
that that person might use.
 Brainstorm: Before you start the role play, have students brainstorm as a class
to predict what vocabulary, grammar, and idiomatic expressions they might
use.
 Keep groups small: Less-confident students will feel more able to participate
if they do not have to compete with many voices.
 Give students time to prepare: Let them work individually to outline their
ideas and the language they will need to express them.
 Be present as a resource, not a monitor: Stay in communicative mode to
answer students' questions. Do not correct their pronunciation or grammar
unless they specifically ask you about it.
 Allow students to work at their own levels: Each student has individual
language skills, an individual approach to working in groups, and a specific
role to play in the activity. Do not expect all students to contribute equally to
the discussion, or to use every grammar point you have taught.
 Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the outcome of their
role plays.
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 Do linguistic follow-up: After the role play is over, give feedback on grammar
or pronunciation problems you have heard. This can wait until another class
period when you plan to review pronunciation or grammar anyway.

4. Discussions

To succeed with discussions:

 Prepare the students: Give them input (both topical information and language
forms) so that they will have something to say and the language with which to
say it.
 Offer choices: Let students suggest the topic for discussion or choose from
several options.
 Set a goal or outcome: This can be a group product, such as a letter to the
editor, or individual reports on the views of others in the group.
 Use small groups: instead of whole-class discussion: Large groups can make
participation difficult.
 Keep it short: Give students a defined period of time, not more than 8-10
minutes, for discussion. Allow them to stop sooner if they run out of things to
say.
 Allow students to participate in their own way: Not every student will feel
comfortable talking about every topic. Do not expect all of them to contribute
equally to the conversation.
 Do topical follow-up: Have students report to the class on the results of their
discussion.
 Do linguistic follow-up: After the discussion is over, give feedback on
grammar or pronunciation problems you have heard.

5. Strategies for Teaching Culture through Stories Telling

Teachers can differentiate at least three classroom elements based on student

readiness, interest, or learning profile:
(1) content
what the student needs to learn or how the student will get access to the information;

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(2) process activities in which the student engages in order to make sense of or
master the content;
(3) learning environment the way the classroom works and feels.
Examples:
content include the following issues:
(1) using reading materials at varying readability levels;
(2) putting text materials on tape;
(3) using spelling or vocabulary lists at readiness levels of students;
(4) presenting ideas through both auditory and visual means;
(5) using reading discussion and
(6) meeting with small groups to reteach an idea or skill for struggling learners, or to
extend the thinking or skills of advanced learners.

Steps for planning your culture lesson

STEP 1
Make a list of possible activities you could use in your lesson.
Some examples are:
•Read and retell stories from the countries where the target language is spoken.
•Watch videos, miniclip s and movies from each of these countries.
•Learn about individuals from these countries.
•Introduce the products and practices of these countries.
STEP 2
• Use main vocabulary structures.
STEP 3
•Establish the problem through a short story.
•USE locations as the “Main” places that stand for your cultural background .
•Compare with students/use a parallel story/verify details continually

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• choose the place, names and important info that you want to throw into your story.
STEP 4
•Use parallel characters and compare to the information in the reading skill.
6. Planning a Lesson

1. Set Lesson objectives

Stating objectives allows both teacher and students to know when the objectives have
been reached. To set lesson objectives:

1. Identify a topic for the lesson.

2. Identify specific linguistic content, such as vocabulary and points of grammar or
language use, to be introduced or reviewed.
3. Identify specific communication tasks to be completed by students.
4. Identify specific learning strategies to be introduced or reviewed in connection
with the lesson.
5. Create objective statements for the linguistic content, communication tasks, and
learning strategies that state what you will do and what students will do during the
lesson.

2. Structure the Lesson

An effective lesson has five parts:

Preparati
Presentation Practice
on

Expansion Evaluation

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a. Preparation

As the class begins, give students a broad outline of the day’s goals and activities so
they know what to expect. Help them focus by eliciting their existing knowledge of
the day’s topics.

 Use discussion or homework review to elicit knowledge related to the grammar

and language use points to be covered
 Use comparison with the native language to elicit strategies that students may
already be using
 Use discussion of what students do and/or like to do to elicit their knowledge
of the topic they will address in communication activities.

b. Presentation/Modeling

Presentation provides the language input that gives students the foundation for their
knowledge of the language. Input comes from the teacher and from course textbooks.
An important part of the presentation is structured output, in which students practice
the form that the teacher has presented. Structured output is designed to make
students comfortable producing specific language items recently introduced.

c. Practice

In this part of the lesson, the focus shifts from the teacher as presenter to the students
as completers of a designated task. Students work in pairs or small groups on a topic-
based task with a specific outcome. Completion of the task may require the bridging
of an information gap. The teacher observes the groups’ acts as a resource when
students have questions that they cannot resolve themselves.

d. Evaluation

Evaluation is useful for four reasons:

 It reinforces the material that was presented earlier in the lesson

 It provides an opportunity for students to raise questions of usage and style

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 It enables the instructor to monitor individual student comprehension and
learning
 It provides closure to the lesson

e. Expansion

Expansion activities include out-of-class observation assignments, in which the

instructor asks students to find examples of something or to use a strategy and then
report back.

3. Identify Materials and Activities

The materials for a specific lesson will fall into two categories: those that are
required, such as course textbooks and lab materials, and authentic materials that the
teacher incorporates into classroom activities.

Example: Lesson plan for speaking skill practice

Name: ………. ( student teacher) Date: ……

Level: intermediate Time:40 minutes

Learning objectives: Through a communicative information gap activity, students

will be practicing physical descriptions using the target structures “s/he’s____” and
“s/he has ______.” With the high degree of accuracy and fluency by the end of
lesson; also to be reviewed and practiced is the expression, “what’s _______ look
like?”

Personal teaching objectives: An efficient set-up to guarantee high accuracy during

the activity and sufficient correction of target language structures.

Anticipated knowledge and problems: I expected students to have some language of

physical description already, but I will check it nevertheless.

Solutions: Highlight examples of common adjectives and their word order early on.

Materials: photocopies of information-gap activity, cards for each student.

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Procedures Timing Interaction

Student to
10 minutes student
Warm-up personalization

1. Produce photo of my mother and show to one student;

others must ask questions about her physical appearance.
2. Elicit, “what does she look like?”
3. Mentor carefully for target structures of physical
description. Students in pairs turn to their partners and
ask each other about their parents.

Review of word order

1. Use examples from the above activity to highlight order

of adjectives: long, blond hair short, brown hair.. 8 minutes
2. Highlight on board: size+ colour
Teacher to
Set-up Activity students
1. Divide students into groups of four.
2. Assign roles(A,B,C,D),and give out corresponding cards. 8 minutes
3. Check [Link] over cards, and explain goal of activity.
4. Get one group to demonstrate to others Teacherto
5. Monitor closely and correct target structures. student

Activity

1. Give feedback.
2. let student check in their groups to see if they were
correct. 10minutes

Wrap-up Students to
1. Quick review. students
2. Congratulate students on a job well done.

Teacher to
5 minutes
students

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7. Assessing Speaking Skill

In assessing oral skills, we can use different test items according the relevant
purposes or target information to be tested.

1. Linguistically oriented: vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation. Structured

speaking tasks are typically used to evaluate linguistic features, particularly
pronunciation and grammar. Short-answer questions and reactions to phrases
can also be used to evaluate overall understanding and comprehensibility.
2. Communication-oriented: the overall communication activity in the task such
as telling a narrative or expressing and defending an opinion, discussing factors
that support the chosen opinion and argue against others, comparing and
contracting things through which advanced oral skills for description is needed.
3. Situation-based task design: this belongs to the task-based approach to
defining the test construct. Here are some examples in that show the types of
test items and their functions:

 Description tasks

Example 1—A one-to-one interview: Describe to me the room or area where you
work.

Example 2—A pair task in an interview test (two pictures are provided):

Describe your pictures to each other and then talk about what is similar in your
pictures and what is different.

 Narrative tasks

Example 3:A tape-based test (Six pictures should be provided)

Please look at the six pictures below. Tell the story based on these pictures starting
from picture number 1 and going through picture number 6. Take one minute to look
at the pictures.

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The narrative is a monologue, and as the test is tape-based the examinees have to tell
it in one long stretch without any feedback from a listener.

Example 4:A face-to-face paired interaction test

You each have a set of pictures. Together they make a story. Each of you tells one
part of the story.

Narrative tasks are also frequently used in speaking tests. They show how well the
examinees can recount a sequence of events, usually in one time frame, either present
or past. Most often, the tasks are based on picture sequences, where the content of the
pictures guides what will be said.

 Instruction tasks

Example 5:A one-to-one interview test

Imagine that we are standing in front of your house. Tell me how to get to the shop
from there.

 Comparing and contrasting tasks

Example 6:Interaction outline for a pair task in a paired interview test

Candidate A compare and contrast two or three of these photographs, saying what
kind of clothing the people are wearing and why the protection might be necessary.

 Explaining and predicting tasks

Example 7: A taped-based test

Explaining the contents of a graph or explaining a process is a fairly common task in

many professional and study settings. To do well on the task, the speakers need to set
the scene and identify parts of the information or stages in the process that they are
explaining and present them in a coherent order. They also need to explain the
significance of the important parts or stages, so that the listeners understand what the
explanation is about and why it is the being given.

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 Role-plays and simulations

Role-plays simulate different kinds of communication situations that the target group
of the test could plausibly meet outside the test. They can be completed between two
examinees or between an examinee and a tester.

Example 8:A job interview

The employer—inquiring information about candidate’s abilities, qualifications, and

character

The candidate—providing information about himself and inquiring information about

the company

8. Feedback during fluency work

The way in which we respond to students when they speak in a fluency activity will
have a significant bearing not only on how well they perform at the time , but also
on how they behave in fluency activities in the future. We need to respond to the
content, and not just to the language form; we need to be able to untangle problems
which our students have encountered or are encountering, but we may well decide
to do this after the event, not during it. Our tolerance of error in fluency sessions
will be much greater than it is during more controlled sessions. Nevertheless, there
are times when we may wish to intervene during fluency activities just as there are
ways we can respond to our students once such activities are over.
Gentle correction can be offered in a number of ways. We might simply
reformulate what the student has said in the expectation that they will pick up our
reformulation , even though it hardly interrupts their speech, e.g.

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STUDENT1: And when I go on holiday, I enjoy to ski in the winter and I like to surf
in the summer. Yes, they are my favorites.

TEACHER: Yes, I enjoy skiing, too.

STUDENT 1: Ah, yes, I enjoy skiing.

STUDENT 2: I don't enjoy skiing. It's too cold. What I like is .

It is even possible that when students are making an attempt to say something they
are not sure of, such reformulation or suggestion may help them to learn something
new.
We can use a number of other techniques for showing incorrectness, too, such as
echoing and expression, or even saying I shouldn't say X, say Y, etc. But because
we do it gently, and because we do not move on to a 'getting it right' stage, our
intervention is less disruptive than a more accuracy-based procedure would be.

Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

O’Malley, M., & Pierce, L.V. (1996).Authentic assessment for English language
learners: Practical approaches for teachers. New York: Addison-Wesley
Publishing.
Burns, A., & Joyce, H. (1997).Focus on Speaking .Sydney: National Center for
English Language Teaching and Research.
Luoma, S. (2004).Developing speaking Tasks. In Assessing speaking (pp. 139-169).
Cambridge: CUP
Horwitz ,E.K.(2008). Becoming a Language [Link] York: Pearson Press.
Burden, P.R. and Byrd , D.M. (2010). Methods for Effective Teaching. New York:
Pearson Press.
Scrivener,J. (2012). Classroom Management [Link]: Cambridge
University Press.

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Warm-up Activities

 Ice Breaking
These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-
confrontational, low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

M&M’s

The M&M’s game involves asking students how many pieces of M&M’s they want.
The teacher does not tell them what is for but states, ”Just take as many as you think
you need” After everyone has taken ,the teacher explains that the pieces of M&M’s
indicate the amount of items a student must reveal about him or herself.

Object stories

Collect together a number of objects and place in a canvas bag. The objects can
include everyday items i.e. a pencil, key-ring, mobile phone, but also include some
more unusual ones i.e. a fossil, holiday photograph, wig! Pass the bag around the
group and invite each young person to dip their hand into the bag (without looking)
and pull out one of the objects. The leader begins a story which includes his object.
After 20 seconds, the next person takes up the story and adds another 20 seconds,
incorporating the object they are holding. And so on, until everyone has made a
contribution to your epic literary tale.

 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group
 First, note down your own answers alone.
 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.
1. What do you understand by speaking in a lesson?
2. Do you think it is relatively easy for a teacher to set up a speaking activity?
Why? Why not?
3. What do you think is the teacher's role before, during, and after a speaking
activity?
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4. If the students are speaking, should the teacher correct their mistakes
sometimes? never? always?
5. What kinds of speaking activities could you do in a lesson?

 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers.
Video 7.1
What to look for: A video from British Council - John Kay talking about Teaching
Speaking Techniques
Video 7.2
What to look for: When students work on tasks in pairs or small groups, they use
language at every step: planning, executing, and presenting.

Tasks

Task 1
How would you elicit the following words:

To jog Bald
To feed someone A banana
Jealous Depressed
A refund A costume
Above and below A lion

Task 2
Think of simple ways to elicit examples of the following:

Make an apology

Warning someone of danger

Congratulating someone

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Task 3
1. Choose a section in any local student’s textbook. Work with a partner to develop a
way to elicit some of the vocabulary from the students.
2. Create a restricted oral practice exercise.

Task 4
Create a context for a structured communication activity you find in a textbook. A
context is a plausible reason for someone to say what the exercise says they should
say. Consider this conversation:

John: Hello, I'm John.

Mary Hi John, I'm Mary.
John: How are you?
Mary Fine thanks and you?
John: Fine.
Mary Well, good bye.
John: Good bye.

Task 5
What kind of activity might be suitable for the following topics and level?
•....................
a visit to a friend
•...................

•...................
the issue of advising
•...................

•...................
leisur activities
•...................

Task 6
Develop an oral fluency task. Consider:
 Who is the audience? What is the level?
 What is the topic? Why did you choose this topic?
 What language needs to be pre-taught?

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 What are the goals and objectives of the activity?
 How will you stimulate interest?
 How will the students be arranged?
Task 7
Work in groups :
 Choose five to six vocabulary words that will go with the short grammar
lesson. A few words should be from the exercise on the paper, and some
will be some you add yourself.
 Discuss how to elicit these words from the audience. Don’t write them on
the board, you want to get the audience saying and thinking about the words
and their meanings in an active way.
 Plan how you will do restricted oral practice with your group.
 Now discuss and plan a communicative activity for your students to
complete after you have drilled them with restricted oral practice.

Task 8
Design tests for:

1. Linguistically oriented
2 .Communication-oriented
3. Situation-based task
Task 9
In groups of four (A, B, C, D)
1. Go back to the Developing Reading Techniques
2. Each group has to select and read an activity.
3. In each group, plan and take notes on each part of the selected activity.
4. Have to form new groups with a member from each group represented (In all
groups, those who carry number 1 would be together, and those who carry number
2 would be together ...etc.).
5. Report information and teach to the members of the new group.

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Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,E,F), student-teachers evaluate the tasks done in this

chapter and as follow:
Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A
Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C
Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E
All groups evaluate task 9 using the following checklist.

Items Yes No
T. devotes an adequate amount of class time to authentic
communication
T. gets to know students' backgrounds and interests so that
he can plan appropriate conversational tasks.
When s/he asks a question, s/he gives students adequate time
to think about their responses.
T. shows interest in what students are trying to say.
T. scaffolds students' conversation attempts.
T. corrects errors gently.
T. helps students develop reasonable expectations for
speaking and help them understand that speaking is not
translation.
T. encourages students to use communication strategies

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8 Teaching Reading
Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

[Link] a context for structured communication activities.

[Link] the degree of comprehensibility of the authentic materials with the
constructed reading materials.
[Link] reading strategies that would be helpful for each reading type.

[Link] a lesson plan for teaching reading.

[Link] reading.
[Link] student-teachers’ performance.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
A model of reading ability. It is primarily concerned
with the recognition of individual letters, phonemes and
words. This model believes that the reading process
begins with individual recognition of letter and
Bottom up
phonemic counterparts. This knowledge then leads to
the recognition of individual words of the text presented
to the reader.

An approach to foreign language reading. When

learners read extensively, they read very easy,
enjoyable books to build their reading speed and
Extensive reading
fluency. Another way to say this is a student learn to
read by actually reading rather than examining texts
by studying the vocabulary, grammar and phrases.
Reading for a high degree of comprehension and
Intensive reading retention over a long period of time.

The level of understanding of a text/message. This

Reading understanding comes from the interaction between the
comprehension words that are written and how they trigger knowledge
outside the text/message
Another reading technique used to quickly locate
something specific in a text. The reader glances through
the text, focusing on key words and sentences that relate
to the information being sought. A reader may scan a
Scanning text such as a phone book to find a phone number, a
recipe to see what ingredients are needed, or a reading
passage to identify the setting or the name of a
character.

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A technique readers use when they want a quick and
general sense of what is covered by a text, whether it is
fiction or nonfiction. The reader looks for key words
(character names, subject specific vocabulary, and so
Skimming
on), headings, diagrams, pictures, words in bold print,
and opening and closing paragraphs. The purpose of
skimming is to identify the author’s main ideas at a high
rate of speed.
Background knowledge – also prior knowledge – is
supposed to consist of two main components: “our
Schema of the assimilated direct experiences of life and its manifold
reading process activities, and our assimilated verbal experiences and
encounters”. Schemata are accepted as interlocking
mental structures representing readers’ knowledge of
ordinary events.

Model of reading gives a complete picture in and of

itself. In reality, it seems that the reading process is a
conglomeration of the two models. After all, what
Top down
reader would be able get to the higher level thinking
skills involved in the top-down model without going
through the learning stages of the bottom-up model.
The processes in the mind that occur automatically and
are not available to introspection, and include thought
processes, memory, affect, and motivation. Even though
Unconscious
these processes exist well under the surface of
thinking process
conscious awareness they are theorized to exert an
impact on behavior.

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1. What Needs to Be Taught

Reading is a conscious and unconscious thinking process. The reader applies many
strategies to reconstruct the meaning that the author is assumed to have intended.
The reader does this by comparing information in the text to his or her background
knowledge and prior experience.

In order to read well in English, then, students need to do the following:

1. Develop a schema of the reading process that includes the idea that reading is
more than translating—reading is thinking.

2. Talk about their reading, and explain how they make sense of a text.

3. Read extensively for pleasure in English, and discuss their reading with someone
who can model the literate behaviors expected in an English-language context.

4. Break the habit of reading every word by reading faster.

5. Learn to vary their reading rate to suit their purpose in reading.

6. Employ top-down processes effectively by learning to make connections

between what they already know and what they are reading.

7. Learn reading and thinking skills that fluent readers of English employ
unconsciously to strengthen both top- down and bottom-up processing abilities.

8. Enhance bottom-up processing by acquiring the most useful vocabulary and by

learning strategies for guessing meaning in context.

9. Focused, interactive lessons on specific reading skills.

10. Training and practice in fluency development (skimming, scanning, previewing)

and reading rate improvement.

11. Vocabulary activities that include direct instruction in high-frequency words,

multiple opportunities are also important for students.

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2. Guidelines for Developing Reading Activities
Teachers should try to make reading activities as unthreatening and natural as
possible.

1. Have appropriate expectations for reading comprehension. Students will have

different levels of understanding depending on whether they are doing intensive
or extensive reading.
2. Help your students develop realistic tasks. Misunderstanding the task can lead
students to adopt ineffective strategies.
3. Help students become aware of the background information they need to
understand a particular reading.
4. Have students look over the title, headings, and any graphics associated reading
and anticipate what it might be about.
5. Have students preview the text by giving them
preliminary questions.
6. In the case of content textbooks, have students
use end-of-chapter question as preview
questions.
7. Help students develop effective dictionary
strategies and to distinguish important from
unimportant words.
8. Ask inference rather than fact-recall questions. Inference questions are as
important in assessing reading comprehension as they were m listening
comprehension.
9. Provide authentic materials as often as possible. The Internet is a great source
of authentic reading materials.
10. Allow ample opportunities for rereading. Students should be given the opportu-
nity to reread materials several times.
[Link] a multimedia approach to reading. Many of today's technologies allow for
the development of reading comprehension and listening comprehension si-
multaneously.

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3. Strategies for Developing Reading Skills

1. Integrating Reading Strategies

Teachers can help their students become effective readers by teaching them how to
use strategies before, during, and after reading.

Before reading: Plan for the reading task

 Set a purpose or decide in advance what to read for

 Decide if more linguistic or background knowledge is needed
 Determine whether to enter the text from the top down or from the bottom up.

During and after reading: Monitor comprehension

 Verify predictions and check for inaccurate guesses.

 Decide what is and is not important to understand.
 Reread to check comprehension .
 Ask for help.

After reading : Evaluate comprehension and strategy use

 Evaluate comprehension in a particular task or area.

 Evaluate overall progress in reading and in particular types of reading tasks.
 Decide if the strategies used were appropriate for the purpose and for the task.
 Modify strategies if necessary.

2. Using Authentic Materials and Approaches

For students to develop communicative competence in reading, classroom and

homework reading activities must resemble (or be) real-life reading tasks that involve
meaningful communication. They must therefore be authentic in three ways.

1. The reading material must be authentic: It must be the kind of material that
students will need and want to be able to read when traveling, studying abroad, or
using the language in other contexts outside the classroom.

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2. The reading purpose must be authentic: Students must be reading for reasons that
make sense and have relevance to them. "Because the teacher assigned it" is not an
authentic reason for reading a text.

3. The reading approach must be authentic: Students should read the text in a way
that matches the reading purpose, the type of text, and the way people normally read.
This means that reading aloud will take place only in situations where it would take
place outside the classroom, such as reading for pleasure.

4. Developing Reading Techniques

1. Skimming for Key Words

1. The teacher provides the class with a short reading passage on chart paper or an
overhead, or distributes individual copies to students.
2. The teacher then explains the term skimming . Students are asked to read the
passage quickly, without stopping, to read every word, and to note any key words
that help them understand what the passage is about. The teacher explains that often
these words are found in headings, diagrams, pictures, and words in bold type.
3. Students identify the key words that helped them understand the passage.
4. The group discusses how these key words were found and in what way they
facilitated understanding.

2. Scanning to Locate Specific Information

1. The teacher provides the class with a short reading passage on chart paper or an
overhead, or distributes individual copies to students.
2. The teacher explains the term scanning to the students.
3. Students find key words in the passage that provide specific information about the
topic. They may want to highlight or underline these key words if they have their
own copies of the passage.
Alternatively, the teacher asks students to scan the text to find a specific word or
sentence.
[Link] group discusses how they found these key words and how these words helped
them find the information they needed.

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3. Smart
1. The teacher models the technique for students during shared reading by choosing
several paragraphs with a few words or ideas that the students might find challenging.
2. Working in small groups (guided reading) or with a partner, students silently read a
text.
3. Students reread the text with question marks after they have finished reading the
paragraph or section. They then try fix-up strategies.
4. If they are still confused, students determine what might be the problem (e.g.,
vocabulary or concepts). They discuss the confusing part with their partner or small
group, and then together determine how to solve the problem (e.g., use a dictionary).
5. After the problem is solved, the question mark is changed to a check mark or the
sticky note is removed.
4. The Story/Text Rebuilding Technique
1. The teacher chooses a piece of text that is unfamiliar to students, copying and
cutting it into meaningful segments and then modeling the text-rebuilding process.
2. The teacher chooses another piece of text that is unfamiliar to the students, copying
and cutting it into meaningful segments.
3. The teacher distributes the segments to groups of three to five students each. All
groups may work with the same piece of segmented text, or different groups may
work with different texts, depending on the purpose of the activity.
4. Students work together to determine where their text parts fit into the sequence or
organization of the whole piece.
5. Students share their thinking about why the segments go together in a particular
order.
6. Once the text is rebuilt, students reread the completed text to determine if it makes
sense and why. There is not necessarily a single correct way to rebuild the text. As
long as the text makes sense grammatically (syntactically) and is meaningful
(semantically) it is acceptable.
7. The teacher reads the original text aloud to the students. How do the students’
versions compare with the original? Do they prefer their version? Why or why not?
5. Story Grammar
1. During shared reading time, the teacher helps students to identify and understand
the elements of a story by first defining the key story-grammar terms.
2. The teacher reads a familiar story to the class.

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3. Students are asked to use the story grammar definitions to identify the various
parts of the story. The teacher records their responses in chart form on chart paper or
an overhead.
4. Students then apply this technique on their own after a read aloud or an
independent reading session, or in small groups after a guided reading lesson.
5. The teacher monitors students’ understanding and use of this technique to support
comprehension.
6. Literary News Reports
1. The teacher brainstorms with students the types of information that appear
in a news report. Elements include headline, dateline, byline, and body of
the report. A newspaper article or report is shown to students to demonstrate.
2. The class then identifies the order of the contents of a
news report: the lead, the specific details arranged from
most to least important, and the ending.
The teacher models the technique using a familiar story.
The group then completes a literary news report together.
4. Students work in pairs or small groups to create literary
news reports based on a read-aloud, shared, or guided
reading text. They then share their reports with other
groups.

6. Readers Theater
1. Small groups of up to five students rewrite a story, poem, song, or chant as a short
play with a narrator. This could be a piece that they’ve read together during shared or
guided reading or through a read-aloud.
2. Students rehearse the selection until they are
confident and comfortable about their parts.
3. Students perform their reading in front of an
audience. Since there are few actions, the goal is

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for the audience to be able to visualize the story, based only on the reading
performance.

8. Interviews
1. Students plan in advance the questions they will ask, writing them down if
necessary.
2. Working in pairs, one partner plays the interviewer while the other acts in role as
the character (or other individual being interviewed). They then switch roles.
3. Character role-plays/interviews may also be presented to other groups of students.

5. Types of reading lessons

1. Intensive reading
We read intensively when we are concerned about detail. The text may have
particular interest for us because it contains needed information. The reasons for the
intensive reading are to:
 find important information of text
 understand exact meaning
 feel the emotions the author wants the reader to feel
 examine the use of specific grammatical features, like verb tense or forms
 infer meaning of new vocabulary and gain understanding of new words in
context.
 learn about discourse markers.
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The main steps for teaching an intensive lesson are:

Step 1:Create interest: Before you give learners the text, personalize the subject by
relating it to their own experience or their plans.

Step 2: Pre-teach key vocabulary: Select words that are likely to be unknown
and/or uses of words that may not be clear.

Step 3:Give a reading task: Give the students a few questions that you are going to
use to check understanding after the reading. Standard questions that could be used
for any text are:

What is the text about?

What is the writer’s purpose?
Did you find the text interesting?

Step 4:Give follow-up activities: Follow-up activities for reading can involve
everything from completing tables ,word search , and questionnaires to acting out
roles and writing stories. They should focus on detailed understanding.

Teacher’s role in Intensive Reading Lessons

Organizer- give purpose and clear instructions.

Observer- do not interrupt student reading, observer the students quietly.

Feedback Organizer- apply different methods for giving

feedback. (Peer to Peer, Group, Teacher Led, Answer Sheets Comparison.)Prompter-

point out vocabulary, grammar structures, key phrases.

2. Extensive reading

 Extensive reading means reading fluently to the gest or general understanding

of a text. It is often done individually for the purpose of enjoyment with little
teacher involvement. Thus, texts need to be within the learner’s competence
and ideally students should select the materials themselves.

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Teacher’s role in Extensive reading Lessons

 Promote reading and the benefits

 Occasionally read for the students
 Show them how reading can be exciting
 Organize reading programs.
 Create clear guidelines for reading

When to do extensive reading?

Extensive reading can be done:

 In class for a short amount of time every day, a few days a week, or once a
week.
 Before / After school
 Reading lunches
 After tests and quizzes
 In class at the end of the chapter or unit.
 At the start of each semester every day for a week or two, then on their

6. Steps for teaching Culture through Reading skill

Of all the changes that have affected language teaching theory and method in recent
years, the greatest may be the transformation in the role of culture in language
teaching. This change reflects a broader transformation in the way that culture itself
is taught and understood.

Here are some of the activities about how to teach culture through reading a story
students can do before reading while reading after reading

 Read the topic.

 Discuss the topic.
 Interview their classmates.
 Review what they already know about the topic .
 Take a quiz about the topic.
 Predict the content of the reading.
 Match pictures with paragraphs.
 Mark the text for the topic or main idea.
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 Find evidence for a particular point of view.
 Look for answers to the pre-reading quiz.
 Take notes or make an outline.
 Write captions for pictures .
 React to the culture background .
 Check their predictions.
 Identify facts vs. opinions.
 Compare issues cross-culturally.
 Write or correct a summary .
 Look for examples that support a point.

7. Planning a Lesson

1. When planning reading lesson: Consider:

 What will you address in the introduction?
 How will you invite students to access background information?
 What text organization characteristics or text features will you point or
discuss?
 Which concepts/vocabulary will you cover in advance, and which will you
leave for students to discover?
Example: lesson plan for reading skills practice
Name:…………..(student teacher) Date: ……
Level: Intermediate Time: …….
Learning objectives: Students will be developing the sub-skills of reading for
gist and reading for details; they will practise formulating questions on a reading
text to review question form order, and they will discuss and make cultural
comparisons on the topic of tipping as a way of developing their fluency.

Personal teaching objectives : To use my visuals and the reading material,

exploiting both.

Anticipated knowledge and problems : No problems anticipated; no language

difficulties.
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Procedures Timing
Interaction
Lead in/ personalization
…..eating out, hotels/motels, favorite, 5 minutes teacher to
food/restaurant students,
students to
teacher

Pre-teach essential vocabulary

a. Distribute handout with key 5 minutes
vocabulary words and their definitions. students to
b. Wire focus question for following step students,
on board. student to
c. Brisk feedback, but deal with student
pronunciation difficulties on key
words.

First reading 3 minutes students

Set focus task: “Find names of nine
professions.” Students scan text
Second reading 2 minutes teacher to
b. Set comprehension task( true/false students,
statements) students to
c. Check exercises. students
d. Check instructions.
e. Have students work I pairs
f. Monitor their works.
g. Quick feedback. 2 minutes,
Third reading 10 teacher to
a. Set grammar task. Divide students into minutes students,
groups. student to
b. Check instructions. student
c. Have students work in pairs
d. Monitor their works. 10
e. Quick feedback on errors. minutes

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student to
Follow-up student
a. Discussion and personalization.
b. Monitor for outstanding errors; note
errors for wrap-up.

Wrap-up
a. Write errors on board and elicit
problems or corrections
b. “That is it. Well done, and have a good
day!”

8. Assessing Reading Skill

Classroom reading assessments can make use of informal reading inventories or
miscue analysis (reading aloud one-on-one with an evaluator who notes errors on a
record sheet and then determines what progress a student has made or what
instructional support is needed by the student).
Several types of informal assessment options are available to teachers, including the
following:
1. Observations
2. Self-reporting measures
3. Progress charts
4. Performance inventories
5. Participation and engagement records
6. Portfolios
Each general type of informal assessment category can be carried out by means of
several specific tasks and in different formats and as follow:
1. Have students read aloud in class and evaluate their reading.
2. Keep a record of student responses to questions in class after a reading.
3. Keep notes on student participation in class discussions on a reading.
4. Observe what reading material is read during free reading or SSR.
5. Observe how much time students spend on tasks during free reading.
6. Have students do paired readings and observe.
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7. Observe students reading with an audiotape or listen to an audiotaped reading.
8. Have students recommend books.
9. Ask students about their reading progress.
10. Ask students about their goals for reading with various texts and tasks.
11. Record how far a student reads on an extended reading task.
12. Have a student read and then have a discussion on the text (one-on-one).
13. Have a student read aloud for the teacher / tester and make notes, or use a
checklist or note miscues on the text (one-on-one).
14. Have students do think-aloud while reading (one-on-one).

Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

Evans, K. S. (2001). Literature Discussion Groups in the Intermediate Grades:

Dilemmas and Possibilities. Newark, DE: International Reading Association.
Anderson, Neil J. (2005). Fluency in L2 Reading and Speaking. TESOL 2005
colloquium. Birch, Barbara
Horwitz,E.K.(2008). Becoming a Language [Link] York: Peason Press.
Burden, P.R. and Byrd,D.M. (2010). Methods for Effective Teaching. New York:
Peason Press.
Scrivener,J. (2012). Classroom Management [Link]: Cambridge
University Press.
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
exercises

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Warm-up Activities

 Ice Breaking
These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-confrontational,
low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

Tall stories

The leader starts a story with a sentence that ends in SUDDENLY. The next person
then has to add to the story with his own sentence that ends in SUDDENLY.
Continue the story until everyone has contributed. The story becomes crazier as each
student adds their sentence. Tape it and play it back. For example; 'Yesterday I went
to the zoo and was passing the elephant enclosure when SUDDENLY.....'
Fact or fiction?

Ask everyone to write on a piece of paper THREE things about themselves which
may not be known to the others in the group. Two are true and one is not. Taking
turns they read out the three ‘facts’ about themselves and the rest of the group votes
which are true and false. There are always surprises. This simple activity is always
fun, and helps the group and leaders get to know more about each other.
 Brainstorming

If you are working in a group

 First, note down your own answers alone.
 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.

1. Discuss how you have experienced extensive reading as a student.

2. How do you get your students to do extensive reading?
3. Brainstorm ideas for how you can implement extensive reading in your schools?
What will you need?
4. Should students be given tasks before or after they read the text? Why?

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5. Do you think it is necessary or desirable for your students to understand all the
vocabulary in a text? If not, how do you decide what they need to know?

 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers.
Video 8.1
What to look for: Teaching Reading programme. The teacher explains to the
students how to focus on details presented in the narrative next.
Video 8.2
What to look for: The teacher begins by modeling for students a process for
engaging with text, which creates a framework to move them toward active,
independent and deep comprehension of the material. We then watch students, in
their guided reading.
Tasks

Task 1
Take any textbook. Look for differences in the amount of the context, redundancies,
and inherent meaning support (titles, pictures, headings, etc.) in the materials.
Compare the degree of comprehensibility of the authentic materials with the
constructed materials. What reading strategies would be helpful for each reading
type?
Task 2
List the last five different reading tasks you have done in column 1, and then say
if the same kinds of reading would be useful for the students or not.

Types or reading Useful? Why/ Why not?

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Task 3
Consider the text

In the early 1990s, there was a terrible war in Yugoslavia. Many people died,
both soldiers and civilians. The city of Sarajevo was for many months one of
the most dangerous places in the world. It was constantly under attack and its
civilian inhabitants had to live with no electricity and little water. Only a few
shops stayed open to sell food.

1. What levels do you think they might be suitable for?

2. What kind of reading tasks could you do with them?
3. How would you get students engaged with the topics of the texts?
4. What would you do after students had read the texts?
Task 4
Match the skills with the reading aims.

You are an 18-years old history student.

Reading for detailed comprehension in a school history magazine you see an
article about Cold War.

You are trying to deside what movie to

Reading for pleasure take your seven year old niece to see . You
check your local newspaper.

When you are in the dentist's waiting

Skimming room , you see an article about your
favourite singer in a magazine.

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Task 5
What kind of activity might be suitable for the following situations?
1. During shared reading time, the teacher helps students to identify and understand
the elements of a story by first defining the key story-grammar terms.
2. Working in pairs, one partner plays the interviewer while the other acts in role as
the character. They then switch roles.
3. Students work in pairs or small groups to create literary news reports based on a
read-aloud, shared, or guided reading text. They then share their reports with other
groups.
Task 6
Work with your partners and create a reading lesson. Develop each step of the lesson.
Then, each of you will teach one part of the lesson.
a. Step 1: Create interest.
b. Step 2: Preview vocabulary.
c. Step 3: Give a reading task.
d. Step 4: Give follow-up activities.
e. Get ready to teach
Task 7
1. Consider the following text.
Read the text and make sure you understand the answers to the following questions.
a. Who is David Wilde?
b. What did he read about?
c. What did do then?
d. Where was the first UK performance of his new music?
e. Who played it?

David Wilde, an English composer, read a story in his newspaper which moved him
deeply. It was about a man called VedranSmailovic, who played his cello in the street
in the middle of a war to honour the dead.
David Wilde was so inspired by the story that he wrote a special piece for solo cello
which he called The cellist of Ssrajevo. It was performed by the cellist Yo-Yo Ma at
the Manchester Cello Festival in April 1994.
Incredibly, VedranSmailovic had survived the war and was in the audience that night
to hear it. When Yo-Yo Ma finshied playing, the two men embraced in front of a
cheering audience.
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2. Explain the way a reading lesson is organized.
3. Identify which skills will be used.
4. Identify the goal or purpose of the reading.
5. Suggest which activities should be used.

Task 8
In groups of four (A, B, C, D,E, and F)

1. Go back to the Developing Reading Techniques

2. Each group has to select and read an activity.

3. In each group, plan and take notes on each part of the selected activity.

4. Have to form new groups with a member from each group represented (In all
groups, those who carry number 1 would be together, and those who carry number
2 would be together ...etc.).

5. Report information and teach to the members of the new group.

Follow-up Activities

In groups of seven (A,B,C,D,E,F), student-teachers evaluate the tasks done in this

chapter and as follow:
Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A
Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C
Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E
All groups evaluate tasks 8 using the following checklist.

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Items Yes No
T. devotes an adequate amount of class time to reading.
T. assesses students' reading abilities and needs.
T. provides a range of reading materials that correspond to
students-interests, LI reading abilities, and L2 reading
needs.
T. assesses students' prior knowledge to determine the
information they will need for each reading text.
T. uses intensive, extensive, and reading strategies and has
appropriate goals for each type of reading.
T. provides opportunities for rereading.
T. helps students develop reasonable expectations for
reading.
T. helps students identify sources for reading materials that
are available to them.
T. includes reading in assessment and testing procedures.

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9 Teaching Writing
Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Name different types of activities

2. Compare the structure and style of various types of writing
3. Omit, change, and add some criteria for the evaluation of writing activities.
4. Design communicative writing activities.
5. Teach writing.
6. Evaluate student-teachers’ performance.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
Response that focuses on evaluation of how well a student has
Evaluative
done. Might be related to a grade. Might be used primarily on a
Response
final product or portfolio.
Sharing of information about the student's performance.
Positive feedback serves to sustain behavior that is appropriate
and effective. Negative or corrective feedback serves to change
Feedback
behaviour that is inappropriate or ineffective. The feedback
should be specific enough that the student understands which
behaviour is appropriate and which ones need to be changed.
Response that aims primarily to help students develop their
writing. Might focus on confidence-building, on engaging the
Formative student in a conversation about her ideas or writing choices so
Response as to help student to see him/herself as a successful and
promising writer. Might focus on helping student develop a
particular writing project, from one draft to next.
Process approaches to writing tend to focus more on the varied
classroom activities which promote the development of
Process wring language use: brainstorming, group discussion, re-writing.
Such an approach can have any number of stages, though a
typical sequence of activities could proceed.
This is a traditional approach, in which students are
Product
encouraged to mimic a model text, which is usually presented
writing
and analyzed at an early stage.

1. What Needs to Be Taught

Writing is fundamentally different from the other skills, not only because it is
visual as contrasted with oral/aural, or productive as contrasted with receptive, but
also because of how it is produced and the way it communicates.
The teaching of writing has assumed much greater importance in recent years with
the arrival of new forms of rapid written communication. This means that we need
to pay more attention to helping students learn how to write well than previous
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generations of teachers did. What actually students need to develop their writing
skill are:
• Good teachers who model the writing process and demonstrate its usefulness.
• Opportunities to talk about their writing.
• Regular, meaningful opportunities to practise writing in subject-specific
contexts.
• Prior knowledge about language, subject content, and the world.
• Knowledge of different writing forms and their characteristics.
• expanded sight vocabularies for subject-specific writing.
• Strategies to become independent writers in any context.

2. Guidelines for Developing Writing Activities

Teachers should try to make writing activities as unthreatening and natural as

possible.

1. Have realistic expectations for writing. New teachers are often surprised and
little dismayed at their students' writing ability. It is important to remember that
students are able to use words and phrases to participate in conversations, but that
written text requires full sentences.
2. Include a variety of writing activity types. Try to include a variety of structure
communicative, expressive, and academic writing activities and help students
understand the requirements of each type of writing.
 The type of writing assignment should dictate the type of error correction
and teacher response. Explicit corrections are more appropriate for structured
and academic writing than for communicative and expressive writing, but it is al-
ways important to respond to the students' ideas.
 Help your students develop realistic expectations about writing. Since student
have more time when they write than when they speak, they are going to be even
more likely to try to translate from their native language.
 Help students consider and organize their thoughts before writing. Encourage
students to brainstorm, outline, and plan their writing before they get started just as
with reading, it is a good idea to include pre-writing activities to remind students of
information they already know that might be useful for a particular assignment.

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3. Point out specific conventions of the writing genre. Do not assume that students
will know what to include in their writing, and give them clear guidelines about
necessary components.
4. Try group writing. We tend to associate group work with oral activities rather
than written ones, but small-group writing activities can also be effective. Group
interaction and negotiation helps students determine what they want to say and to
phrase their ideas more comprehensibly.
5. Use electronic communication. Electronic writing can make writing more moti-
vating and even fun for students. By communicating with a real person (you, their
classmates, native - speaking peers) they have an authentic reason to write.
6. Coordinate writing assignments with the materials students are reading and
content material they are learning. Due to differences in writing conventions or
limited first language literacy, many students will have little idea of how a written
text should be organized. Having students read authentic texts with a similar structure
gives students a model for their work.
7. Give students guide questions. Another way to help students organize their ideas
into a particular writing format is to guide them through the writing with targeted
questions.
8. Help students develop effective dictionary strategies. Have a class discussion
about how to use dictionaries and other writing strategies.
9. Encourage revision. Encourage students to think of writing as a process and build
revision into writing assignments.
10. Be aware of the role of affect in writing. Many people feel uncomfortable
writing in their first language, and when writing in a second language they must deal
with the additional problem of their limited language proficiency.

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3. Strategies for Developing Writing Skills

The writing process involves generating ideas, developing and organizing the ideas,
and revising and editing them. Effective writers cycle through these stages until they
are satisfied that the writing achieves its purpose.

1. Generating Ideas
In all subject areas, students need to develop skills for getting what they know about
a topic down on paper, and generating ideas or finding additional facts. They also
need skills to check whether their writing is on-topic and fulfills its purpose. Further,
they need to be able to explain the writing assignment and the process they are
following to effectively complete the assignment.

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What teachers do What students do
Before
Before
• (Optional) Suggest topics for rapid
• Plan a topic for rapid writing or invite
writing that are related to the subject of
the students to suggest topics.
study.
• Explain that the purpose of rapid
writing is to allow students to record
what they know about the topic, subject,
or activity, without worrying about
repetition, spelling, grammar, or any
other errors.
• Give directions for rapid writing.

During
During
• Give directions.
• Give the signal to begin.
At the starting signal, write or type as
• Time the students.
quickly as possible without stopping or
• Give the signal for students to stop
making any corrections.
writing. (You may want to give them a
one-minute warning.)
After
• Debrief.
• Ask students to count the number of
words they have written.
After
• Ask who has at least ___ words, until
only one or two hands remain up.
•Count and record the number of words.
• Discuss the topic, based on what the
• Discuss the topic by reading aloud parts
students have written. Encourage
of what they have written.
students who donot usually participate.
• In pairs, explain the thinking behind the
• Focus the students’ attention on how
categories used.
their rapid writing can be the starting
• One student from each group reads the
point for more polished pieces.
• Alternatively, as a follow-up direct
students to begin classifying and
organizing their ideas.
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• Alternatively, organize students into
small groups to share their rapid writing
and to compose a short collaborative
paragraph on the topic.

2. Developing and Organizing Ideas

Students need to know how to organize what they have learned about any topic or
assignment into a well-structured whole. In longer writing assignments, they need to
know how to create a strong, focused introduction that catches the reader’s interest;
how to link ideas in logically connected paragraphs that contain enough supporting
detail; and how to conclude with a strong ending.

What teachers do What students do

Before Before
•Select a current subject-specific • Recall what they already know
writing task. about the topic and writing task.
• Prepare an overhead • Make connections to own notes.
transparency sample or chart-paper • Note the links and connections that
sample of possible ideas and the teacher makes among ideas and
information gathered on the topic information. Consider the
(e.g., point-form notes for a report similarities and differences of their
on the uses of lasers in the medical own thinking.
field). •Recall past use of a webbing
•Using a marker, model for strategy to record or organize
students how to make connections thinking.
among the ideas and information
(e.g., number, circle, colour- code,
draw arrows).
•Using a strategy such as webbing
or map ping makes it easier to see
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connections and relationships.
• Use a web to demonstrate the
process of rereading notes and
arranging key points to show the
connections and relationships.
During During
• Ask students to contribute to the • Contribute to the discussion.
web by identifying important ideas • Note the similarities and
and key information and by differences in responses.
suggesting how to place the points
to create a web.
• Ask students questions to clarify
the decisions. For example:
- What does this mean?
- Is this important? Why?
- Is there another way to sort my
notes?
• Model for students how to use the
web to create a possible outline or
template for writing a first draft.
Consider the generalizations and/or
categories that emerge from the
connections and relationships, to
help identify subtopics, headings
and structure.

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After After
•Have students refer to their notes •Reread notes and identify important
for the writing task. information and ideas.
•Ask students to create a web by •Use the question prompts to re-
sorting and organizing their ideas phrase notes, identify key points, and
and information. group the ideas and information to
• If appropriate, consider having create a web.
students who are writing on a • Share and compare webs.
similar topic work in pairs to create • Make the connection between the
a web for their combined notes. web and possible ways of organizing
the information and ideas into a
template for writing.

3. Revising and Editing

Students need individual and group skills to assess their own work and the work of
others for content, clarity, form and style, and for errors in grammar, punctuation and
spelling. Ultimately, students have individual responsibility for the accuracy of their
work, but they need to know how to help each other improve.

What teachers do What students do

Before Before
• Prepare two paragraphs on a subject- • Read the paragraphs and summarize
related topic. • Have groups read the the main idea and details.
paragraphs and discuss which is more • Contribute to discussion by identifying
effective. Ask students to share the strengths and weaknesses of each
responses and justify their reasoning paragraph (e.g., “strong topic sentence,”
(each version has strengths and “supporting details are logical,” “uses
weaknesses). evidence to support main idea,” “uses
• Have students make suggestions for strong words to convince me,” “not
improving the writing (e.g., Add, enough facts and examples”).
Remove, Move, Substitute) and • Reread the revision prompts and ask
determine possible revising questions questions about the prompts.

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such as: - Does it make sense?
- Is the topic clear?
- Is the main idea clear?
- Are there enough reasons/details to
support the main idea?
- Are there examples to support the
reasons/details?
- Are there details not connected to the
topic and main idea?
- Is there a closing sentence or
conclusion?
• Record the revision prompts.
During During
•Prepare a copy (overhead transparency, • Recall writing that they have revised
chart paper) of a draft-writing task on a or wanted to revise. Identify the sorts of
current topic. Include revision notes changes they wanted to make.
such as cross-outs, scribbles, stick-on • Make connections between their
notes, margin notes, arrows, and inserts. revising strategies and the strategies
• Use a revision strategy to demonstrate demonstrated by the teacher.
revising and reorganizing ideas in a • Decide which strategies they might try
piece of writing; e.g.: using to revise their writing.
- Add something to the writing.
- Remove something that confuses or
repeats.
- Move a section of the text.
- Substitute a word, phrase, sentence or
example.
• Note that some writers reread their
writing and then use numbers to indicate
how they want to reorganize their
writing. Other writers use scissors to cut
up their draft writing to reorganize the
ideas and information, and then tape it
together as a new draft.

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After After
• Have students refer to a draft writing • Listen to partner’s writing and
task that they want to revise. paraphrase or summarize the content.
• Ask pairs to read their drafts aloud, • Note changes, misunderstandings, and
and use the revision question prompts to omissions, and then clarify the partner’s
provide feedback to their partner’s paraphrase.
writing. • Decide which revision strategies to use
• Ask students to use the feedback and to improve own writing.
the ARMS or cut-and-paste strategy to
revise their draft.

4. Developing Writing Activities

1. Structured writing activities

Activity 1"Class Survey"
Prepare a survey questionnaire with questions about
your students' interests, hobbies, favorite TV shows,
favorite colors, etc., and have students fill it out.
Groups of student could then summarize
different parts of the survey and submit a
written "report" to the class.
Activity 2 "Recipe Swap"
After reading or using a recipe in class, have
students write their own recipes and share
them with the class. The recipes could be
gathered together as a class cookbook using a
formatted recipe card.
Activity 3 "Put It in Writing!"
Give students a Mad Lib story format, and have each one fill it in. Have students
share their Mad Libs in a group of two or three other students for editing. Have

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students revise their Mad Libs and then gather all the papers to share with the
class. You could read them to the class for listening comprehension practice or
prepare booklets or overhead transparencies for students to read.
2. Communicative writing activities
Activity 1 "Dear Blabby"
Have students write letters about their "problems" to the well-known advice
columnist "Dear Blabby" . Put all the student letters into a bag, and have each
student draw someone else's letter and write advice for that person's problem.

Activity 2 "Take My Advice"

Have students write a letter to new students who will be your class next year.
Ask them to tell the new students anything they need to know about the class
and any advice they have for them.
(NOTE: This activity has many variations. For example, students could write
advice letters to younger siblings or new teachers in their school.)

Activity 3"Stream of Consciousness Writing"

Ask students to get out pen and paper. Give students an amount of time starting
with one minute and working up to five minutes to write in their target
language. (NOTE: This activity is designed to help students get past their
tendency to think more about their grammar than about what they want to say.

Activity 4"Dear Diary"

Journal writing is a natural extension of Friday Specials and should be

responded to in the same way. Ask students to write at least one paragraph in a
personal journal or diary on a regular basis. I asked students to write in their
journals four or five times a week so that the assignment wouldn't become
burdensome.

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5. Planning a Lesson

There are five basic steps that can be used to outline the writing process. Here are a
few ideas:

1. Prewriting – This is the planning stage. You might want to practice ways to
brainstorm ideas, share different types of graphic organizers they can use, do a
lesson on using an outline, or model using writing prompts to get started.

1. Drafting- This is the first draft or the rough draft. This is where you will
probably spend the most time teaching about introductions, paragraphs,
conclusions, etc.
2. Revising and Editing – Revising is changing your writing to make it better.
You might want to do a lesson on word choice here. Editing is correcting
errors such as spelling, punctuation, and grammar mistakes. Lessons teaching
students how to edit and use editing checklists would be beneficial.
3. Rewriting – Lessons on transferring text carefully or using something to track
what you’ve completed would be good ones to reinforce this stage.
4. Publishing – You can keep it simple and have students type their work or
come up with creative ways to publish and display their work. Just be sure
they understand that presenting and sharing what they’ve written is an
important step.

Example: Lesson plan for writing skill practise

LESSON PLAN ( Writing Process)

Theme: World of Knowledge
Topic: Plants
Learning Standards:
3.1.1 Able to write in neat legible print with correct spelling :
(b) simple sentences
3.2.2 Able to write with guidance
(a) simple sentences
Learning objectives: By the end of the lesson, pupils will:
(i) write simple sentences based on the words heard spell the words correctly
Cross-curricular elements: Constructivism
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Steps:
Pre-Writing
1. Teacher shows a picture of mango tree and gets pupils to talk about it.
2. Teacher writes down the pupils’ ideas on the whiteboard.
3. Teacher emphasizes on how to write the simple sentence.
While-Writing
4. Teacher explains how to play the game called ‘Broken Message’.
5. Pupils are divided in group of five and play the games.
6. Pupils present their answers.
7. Teacher checks their answers.
Post-Writing
8. Pupils exchange their messages with another group.
9. Pupils write the messages in their exercise books.

6. Assessing Writing Skill

Assessment of student writing is a process. Assessment of student writing and

performance in the class should occur at many different stages throughout the course
and could come in many different forms. One of the major purposes of writing
assessment is to provide feedback to students. At various points in the assessment
process, teachers usually take on different roles such as motivator, collaborator,
critic, evaluator, etc.

Suggestions for Assessing Student Writing

1. Be sure to know what you want students to be able to do and why.

2. Plan and implement activities that support students in meeting the learning
goals. How will you support students in meeting these goals? What writing activities
will you allow time for? How can you help students meet these learning goals?

3. Begin giving feedback early in the writing process. Give multiple types of
feedback early in the writing process. For example, talking with students about ideas,
write written responses on drafts, have students respond to their peers' drafts in
process, etc.

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4. Structure opportunities for feedback at various points in the writing process.
Students should also have opportunities to receive feedback on their writing at
various stages in the writing process.

5. Be open with students about your expectations and the purposes of the
assignments. Be explicit about your goals for them as writers and why those goals
are important to their learning. Additionally, talk with students about methods of
assessment.

6. Do not burden students with excessive feedback. Providing too much feedback
can leave students feeling daunted and uncertain where to start in terms of revision.
Try to choose one or two things to focus on when responding to a draft. Offer
students concrete possibilities or strategies for revision.

7. Allow students to maintain control over their paper. Instead of acting as an

editor, suggest options or open-ended alternatives the student can choose for their
revision path. Help students learn to assess their own writing and the advice they get
about it.

8. Purposes of Responding We provide different kinds of response at different

moments. But we might also fall into a kind of "default" mode, working to get
through the papers without making a conscious choice about how and why we want
to respond to a given assignment. So it might be helpful to identify the two major
kinds of response we provide: formative response and evaluative response.

7. Feedback on written work

The way we give feedback on writing will depend on the kind of writing task the
students have undertaken, and the effect one wishes to create. When students do
workbook exercises based on controlled testing activities, one will mark his/her
efforts right or wrong, possibly penciling in the correct answer for them to study. A
lot will depend on whether one is intervening in the writing process (where students
are composing various written drafts before producing a final version or whether
one is marking a finished product. During the writing process one will be
responding rather than correcting.

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Responding
When we respond, we say how the text appears to us and how successful we think it
has been (we give a medal, in other words) before suggesting how it could be
improved (the mission).Such responses are vital at various stages of the writing
process cycle .The comments we offer students need to appear helpful and not
censorious. Sometimes they will be in the margin of the students' work or, on a
computer, they can be written as viewable comments either by using an editing
programme or by writing in comments in a different colour.

So far we have discussed the teacher's feedback to students. But we can also
encourage students to give feedback to each other. Such peer review has an extremely
positive effect on group cohesion. It encourages students to monitor each other and,
as a result, helps them to become better at self-monitoring.

Correcting

Gentle correction and different rubrics can be used to make objectives or semi-
objectives decisions about students’ writings ( see appendix B). Corrections and
giving feedback can be offered in a number of ways. Many teachers use correction
codes to indicate that students have made mistakes in their written work. These
codes can be written into the body of the text itself or in the margin. This makes
correction much neater and less threatening than random marks and comments.
Different teachers use different symbols, but the table below shows some of the
more common ones.

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Symbol Meaning Example error
5 A spelling error The asnwer is obvious
WO A mistake in word order I like verv much it.
G A grammar mistake I am going to buy some furnitures.
T Wrong verb tense I have seen him yesterday.
Concord mistake (e.g. the
C People is angry.
subjectand verb agreement)
X Something has been left out. He told X that he was sorry.
WW Wrong word I am interested on jazz music.
{} Something is not necessary. He was not {too} strong enough.
?M The meaning is unclear. That is a verv excited photograph.
P A punctuation mistake. Do you like london.
Hi Mr Franklin, Thank you for your
F/l Too formal or informal.
letter ...

Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

Hedge, T. (2000). Teaching and Learning in the Language Classroom. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Bean, John C. Engaging Ideas: The Professor’s Guide to Integrating Writing,
Critical Thinking, and Active Learning in the Classroom. ( 2001). San
Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Cheng, Y. (2002). Factors associated with Foreign Language Writing Anxiety.

Foreign Language Annuals, 35, 647-656.

Booth, Wayne C., Joseph M. Williams, & Gregory G. Colomb.( 2003). The Craft of
Research.2nd ed. Chicago, IL: U of Chicago Press.

Chiang, S. (2003).The Importance of Cohesive Conditions to Perceptions of

Writing Quality at the Early Stages of Foreign Language [Link], 31,
47184.

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Graff, G., and Cathy B. ( 2005).They Say/I Say: The Moves that Matter in
Academic Writing. New York: W.W. Norton.

Follow-up Activities

 Ice Breaking
These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-
confrontational, low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

Once upon a time

Ask each student to think of either the name of a person, a place or a thing. Invite
them to share this with the rest of the group. Select one of your group to begin a
story. However, within 10 seconds they must mention the person, place or thing they
have thought of. After 10 seconds (use a stopwatch or kitchen timer) the story is
continued by the next person who must also mention their person, place or thing
within the 10 seconds. Continue until everyone has made a contribution. The stories
can get really weird, but that is part of the fun! Tape the story for playback at the next
parents meeting!

Around the world

The leader begins by saying the name of any country, city, river, ocean or mountain
that can be found in an atlas. The young person next to him must then say another
name that begins with the last letter of the word just given. Each person has a definite
time limit (e.g. three seconds) and no names can be repeated. For example - First
person: London, Second Person: Niagara Falls, Third Person: Switzerland

 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group
 First,note down your own answers alone
 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.

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1. Do you think it is relatively easy for a teacher to set up a writing activity? Why?
Why not?
2. What do you think is the teacher's role in a writing activity?
3. How does purposeful writing differ from the simple recording of speech?
4. What makes writing difficult for students? And what makes it easier than
speaking?

 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers.
Video 9.1
What to look for: For handouts, explanations of common writing challenges, etc.

Video 9.2
What to look for: how to provide rubrics, exercises, commentary, and news about
efforts to teach critical thinking.

Tasks

Task 1
Look at the writing activity below for students and answer the questions which
follow.

Report writing

Work in groups and complete the following tasks:

1. Write a multiple-choice questionnaire to find out about people’s

attitudes to one of the following:
Mobile phones
Computers
Housework
Marriage
2. Do the questionnaire in class and collate the result.
3. Write a report to summarize your feelings. Use expressions from
the survey highlights above.

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a. What age and level is it appropriate for?
b. Would you feel confident using it as a teacher? Why? Why not?
c. What would you need to do before stating the activity to ensure that it was a
success?
d. What do you think might have come before it and after it in the textbook from
which it was taken?
Task 2
Are the criteria shown below acceptable to you? Would you omit or change any of
them, add more?

1. Would my students find the activity motivating, stimulating

and interesting to do?
2. Is it an appropriate level for them? Or would they find it too
easy/ difficult/ childish / sophisticated?
3. Is the kind of writing relevant to their needs?
4. Would I need to do some preliminary teaching in predation
for this activity?
5. In general, do I like this activity? Would I use it?

Task 3
Beside what you have been studied in this chapter; try to suggest other
communicative writing activities.
Task 4
Find a writing lesson in any textbook. Make a lesson plan, using your own lesson
planning methodology.

Task 5
After you have created your lesson, create a rubric for grading the lesson.

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Task 6
Read the student letter and use the symbols mentioned in this chapter to
mark where the mistakes are in each sentence.

Dear Alan,

Thank you for your invitation that I have received today. I enjoy myself and
accept the invitation, but I’m afraid because I don’t know very well the people
who are invited to the party. I would like to know if I have the possibility of
bringing a friend, he is very kindly, charming boy. I know him since ten years.
My problem is that I don’t know if I must put on a dress could you tell me? At
what time the party starts? Please not too late because I must come on feet and
the party is so far the house. I’m looking forward to see you Saturday night.

Bye Bye,

Mario

Task 7
In groups of four (A, B, C, D,E ,F)

1. Go back to the Developing Writing activities section.

[Link] group has to select and read an activity.

[Link] each group, plan and take notes on each part of the selected activity.
[Link] to form new groups with a member from each group represented (In all
groups, those who carry number 1 would be together, and those who carry number 2
would be together ...etc.).
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[Link] information and teach to the members of the new group.

Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,E,F), student-teachers evaluate the tasks done in this

chapter and as follow:
Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A
Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C
Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E
All groups evaluate task 7 using the following checklist.
Items Yes No
T. devotes an adequate amount of class time to writing.
T. provides opportunities for peer editing and revision.
T. assesses students' writing needs.
T. encourages students to plan what they want to say before they
begin to write.
T. encourages students to plan what they want to say before they
begin to write.
T. encourages students to plan what they want to say before they
begin to write.
T. uses structured communicative, expressive, and academic
writing assignments according to my students' writing abilities
and needs.
T. helps my students understand that writing in a foreign
language is not translation from their LI.
T. responds to the ideas expressed by students in their writing
assignments.
T. includes writing in my assessment and testing procedures.

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10 Classroom Management
Objectives

This chapter provides information that will help you to:

1. Suggest appropriate techniques for teachers’ classroom management

responsibilities.
2. Design strategies by which teachers could work on becoming more authentic.

3. Formulate some effective approaches that teacher can use to reward

appropriate behaviour.
4. Teach how to establish and maintain rapport in the classroom.
5. Evaluate student-teachers performance.

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Glossary

Terms Definitions
Approachable Possible to approach; accessible.
Behaving in a way that is appropriately real,
appropriately- letting the students see something of
Authentic
your genuine reactions to things, your moods and
teacher
your natural behaviour, rather than covering
everything up in a performance.
When one class woks with another, doing surveys,
Class-to-class
questionnaires…etc.
Term used by teachers to describe the process of
ensuring that classroom lessons run smoothly despite
Classroom
disruptive behavior by students. The term also
management
implies the prevention of disruptive behaviour.

Collaborative The process in which students work together to

writing produce a piece of writing.
Materials which do not exist in the book/s which we
are currently using with a group of learners.
Supplementary materials may be of various types. A
Supplementary song, an authentic film, a cut-out from a magazine or
materials newspaper, a poem, a game, a project etc. may
become ‘extra’ tools in the hands of the trained
teacher who wishes to teach effectively and
professionally

1. Teacher’s Areas of Responsibility

There are several areas of teachers’ responsibility for classroom management and
discipline. An effective classroom manager handles the following seven areas of
responsibility:

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1. Select a philosophical model of classroom management and discipline. Teach
with love and logic, cooperative discipline, discipline with dignity, and assertive
discipline. The techniques that you use to manage student behaviour should be
consistent with your beliefs about how students learn and develop.
2. Organize the physical environment. The way the desks, tables, and other class-
room materials are arranged affects instruction and influences order in the
classroom. To create an effective learning-environment, you will need to organize
several aspects of the physical space, which are discussed later in this chapter.
3. Manage student behaviour. Guidelines are needed to promote order in the class-
room. Rules and procedures support teaching and learning and provide students with
clear expectations and well-defined norms. This, in turn, helps to create a safe,
secure atmosphere for learning.
4. Create a respectful, supportive learning environment. There are many facets
to creating a favourable learning environment, but it is vital for a positive learning
community:
a. Teachers can take a number of actions to establish a cooperative, responsible
classroom by developing positive teacher-student relationships, promoting stu-
dents' self-esteem, and building group cohesiveness.
b. Teachers can focus student attention on appropriate classroom behaviour by help-
ing students to assume responsibility for their behaviour, maintaining student
attention and involvement, and reinforcing desired behaviours.
c. A comprehensive plan can be developed to motivate students to learn, involving
decisions about instructional tasks, feedback and evaluation, and academic and
behavioural expectations.
d. Teachers can be most effective in creating a respectful, supportive learning
environment when they have an understanding of the diverse learners in their
classroom.
5. Manage and facilitate instruction. Certain factors in a lesson have a bearing on
classroom order, and teachers need to take these factors into account when planning
lessons. These include decisions about the degree of structure of the lesson, the type
of instructional groups to use, and the means of holding the students academically
accountable.

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6. Promote classroom safety and wellness. Students need to feel physically and
emotionally safe before they can give their full attention to the instructional tasks.
Strategies used to manage student behaviour, create a supportive classroom, and
manage and facilitate instruction all contribute to classroom safety and wellness.

7. Interact with colleagues, families, and others to achieve classroom

management objectives. Working with families is another means to help maintain
order in the classroom. When the family and teacher communicate and get along
together, students will more likely receive the needed guidance and support and will
likely have more self-control in the classroom.

2. School year Teachers’ Preparations

To prepare, you can make management preparations and instructional preparations,

establish a plan for misbehaviour, and also plan for the first day of school. When
the schoolyear finally begins, there are certain actions that are appropriate during
the first day and over the following few days. A number of these issues are
addressed in this section.
Making Management Preparation

As teachers you have carefully consider a variety of management issues, such as

your school environment, room arrangement, materials, rules and procedures,
communication with parents, seating arrangements, and other issues. Based on a
study of experienced teachers, you could direct your attention to the following
classroom management issues:
1. The school environment: The first step is to become thoroughly familiar with
the total environment before school starts: the room, school, facilities, personnel,
services, resources, policies and procedures, other teachers, children, and the
community.
2. Gather support materials: After examining the curriculum guide and textbooks,
you might have ideas about activities for a certain unit or lesson. Supplementary
materials may be needed when the time comes to teach that lesson. This is the time to
gather any additional support materials, such as games and devices, pictures, CDs,
ideas for activities, charts, maps, and graphs.

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3. Organize materials: It is useful to set up a filing system for storing district and
school communications and other important documents. Papers that should be kept in
a filing cabinet include the district's policy handbook; correspondence from the
principal, superintendent, or other supervisors; correspondence from professional
organizations; lesson plans; and items on curricular content.
4. Classroom procedures: Before school starts, identify actions or activities
requiring procedures that will contribute to a smoothly running classroom, and then
decide what those procedures should be.
5. Classroom helpers. Teachers call on students at all grade levels as helpers to per-
form various classroom tasks. Make a list of tasks that need to be done, and then
decide which ones students can perform. Give attention to how task assignment will
be rotated to give every student an opportunity to help.
6. School/home communication: Opening communication with families is vital.
Teachers can make plans for types of communication with families, such as phone
calls, progress reports , etc.
7. Distributing textbooks: Sometime in the first few days of school, you will need
to distribute textbooks. You need to obtain the textbooks and prepare an inventory
form on which to record each book number, with a space in which to write the
student's name.
8. Room identification:It is important to have the room clearly labelled. A poster on
the outside doorway should include the room number, the teacher's name; the grade
level and/or subject.
9. Room arrangement:Determine the arrangement in the classroom for your desk,
the students' desks, tables, bookshelves, filing cabinets, and other furniture. The
room arrangement that you select should be consistent with your instructional goals
and activities.
10. Seat selections and arrangements: You have to take the age level and maturity
of the students into account as you select the manner of assigning seats. You might
change the seating arrangements during the schoolyear to accommodate work
groups, to move students who need close supervision to more accessible seats, or
simply to provide a change.

11. Room decoration: It is important to make your classroom an attractive, comfort-

able place. Consider having some plants in the classroom or even an aquarium.
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Displays of pictures, posters, charts, and maps also help cover the walls with
informative and appealing materials. Attractive bulletin boards add colour.

Making Instructional Preparations

Prior to the start of the schoolyear, carefully consider a variety of instructional
issues, such as supplementary materials, student as syllabus, and so on. Based on a
study of experienced teachers, you should direct your attention to the following
instructional issues:
[Link] materials: For each major curricular topic in your plans, start an
on going list of related supplementary materials or activities. It may include field
trip locations, resource people, media, games, assignments, bulletin boards, and
additional books.
2. Weekly time schedules: You should establish your weekly schedule before
school starts and include a copy in a handy place, such as in your lesson plan book.
The weekly schedule is often displayed in a chart, with the weekdays listed at the
top and the hours listed on the left-hand column.
3. Daily lesson plans: Lesson plan formats vary. One that is often used includes
boxes for the days of the week and the subjects taught. In these boxes, notes may be
included about objectives
4. Tentative student assessment: It is useful to make an initial assessment of the
students' understanding and skills at the start of the schoolyear so you can better
recognize the abilities and differences within the class. Assessment procedures
might include worksheets, oral activities, observation checklists, pre-tests, or
review lessons.
5. Planning for homework: Give careful consideration to how you will evaluate
students and determine report-card grades. One element of student evaluation often
involves homework, and preparation for developing a homework policy can be
done before school starts
6. Opening class routine. Students often perform better when they know .that a par-
ticular routine will be regularly followed at the start of class. You can decide on the
particular actions to be taken. You may need to take attendance, make
announcements, and attend to other tasks at the start of the class period.

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Establishing a Plan to Deal with Misbehaviour

Once the rules and procedures and a supportive classroom environment are in
place, the teacher moves from low to high interventions, as described below:
1. Establish your system of rules and procedures. Establish an appropriate system
of rules and procedures as a foundation for dealing with discipline. It is vital that
you select a system of rules and procedures appropriate to the situation.
2. Provide a supportive environment during class sessions. Once the system of
rules and procedures has been established at the start of the schoolyear, you need to
maintain a supportive environment.
3. Provide situational assistance during class sessions. Situation assistance
denotes actions you take to get the student back on task with the least amount of
intervention and disruption possible. Situational assistance can be provided-
removing distracting objects, reinforcing appropriate behaviours, redirecting the
behaviour, altering the lesson, and other approaches.

4. Use mild, moderate, or stronger responses. If mild or moderate responses are

insufficient, then you need to - move to a more intrusive type of intervention. These
stronger responses are intended to be punitive by adding aversive stimuli such as
reprimands and overcorrection. The purpose of aversive stimuli is to decrease
unwanted behaviour.
5. Involve others when necessary. If all efforts have failed to get the student to
behave properly, then you need to involve other persons in the process. This occurs

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most commonly with chronic or severe behaviours. You may consult or involve
counsellors, psychologists, principals and assistant principals, teaching colleagues,
college personnel, mental health centres, school social workers, school nurses,
supervisors and department heads, and families.

3. Creating Authenticity

In certain circumstances, teachers have not to abandon their intention to behave

more authenticity, but it would only be sensible to tread carefully, making small
changes, chipping away slowly at expectations and, initially perhaps, avoiding too
much that might be seen as threatening to other teachers or students.

Techniques: Five Steps to Authenticity

Here are some important ways that a teacher could work on becoming more
authentic:

1. Don’t try to be a ‘teacher’. Stop yourself whenever you find yourself

behaving more as a job title rather than as yourself. Don’t speak officially.
Don’t seek out additional ways of differentiating yourself as a teacher. Sit
with rather than in front of. Talk with rather than at.
2. Have real conversations. When you chat informally with a student, make
it a real conversation, where you really listen to what they have to say and
respond appropriately.
3. Don’t pretend omniscience. If you don’t know an answer to question, say
that, rather than pretending that you do know or confusing students with
roundabout explanations and avoidances.
4. Be wary of staffroom advice. Colleagues may tell you that being
genuinely warm and friendly with students is dangerous, or that it is
essential for a teacher to keep up a front-as someone reserved, formal and a
little distant.
5. Be appropriately authoritative. Being authentic doesn’t mean abdicating
the responsibilities and duties of a teacher. You can still give all the
instructions, set all the homework and do all the things that you need to do.

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4. Establishing and Maintaining Rapport

Rapport is sometimes characterized as a kind of indefinable magic that some

teachers manage to create where others fail, and, certainly, you can detect when it is
present within a few seconds of walking into a room: a sense of lively engagement, a
roomful of people who are happy to be together and work together.

Techniques: Building Rapport

1. Be welcome, be encouraging, and be approachable. Build in time and

space for students to talk to you as people. Don’t cram lessons full from
minute one to the end. Space for unstructured talk is good. Listen carefully
when students tell you things. Respond as a human.
2. Treat each student as an individual. Don’t view the class only as a class.
As quickly as you can, learn names and start to see and believe in each
person as an individual with potential. Let them see that this is how you
view them.
3. Remember positive things about your students. Keep a notebook in
which you record and remind yourself of positive things individual students
do personal notes about them (family, hobbies, etc.).
4. Empathies. Try to see what things look like from the students’ point of
view.
5. Don’t fake happiness or pleasure. This can often come across as ‘false’.
6. Be culturally sensitive. Make sure that what you say and what you ask
students to do are not inappropriate for the local context.
7. Avoid sarcasm. It is almost impossible to pitch correctly and upsets people
in ways that you cannot always see.

5. Different Seating Arrangement and Groups

Clearly, the different arrangement of chairs and tables indicate a number of

different approaches and this raises a number of questions. Are schools which
use a variety of seating plans progressive or merely modish? Is there
something intrinsically superior about rigid seating arrangements-or such
classrooms the product of a particular methodological orthodoxy?

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Techniques for Seating Arrangements
As a teacher, you can arrange your students indifferent ways according to the
learning situation.
1. Orderly rows. So that you can have a clear view of all the students and the
students can all see the teacher.
2. Circles and horseshoes. In smaller class, many teachers and students
prefer circles or horseshoes.
3. Separate tables. It is appropriate if students are working around a
computer screen, for example where students are engaged in collaborative
writing or where they are listening to different audio tracks in a jigsaw
listening exercises.

Techniques for Different Student Groupings

Also you can arrange your student in different groups and as follow.
1. Whole class
2. Groupwork and pairwork
3. Solo work
4. Class-to-class
Sources for Learning

For further learning, consult the following sources:

Krause, K. L., Buchner, S., and Duchesne, S.( 2003). Educational Psychology
for learning and teaching . Australia : Thomson.

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Santrock , J.W. (2006). Educational psychology: Classroom Update:
Preparing for PRAXIS TM and Practice. 2nd ed. New York : McGraw Hill.
Good, T., and Brophy , J. (2008). Looking in classrooms(10thed.). New York:
Harper and Row.
Wong, H.K. (2009). The First Days of School. Mountain View , CA: Harry K.
Wong.
Burden, P.R. (2010).Classroom Management. New York: John Wiley & Sons.

Warm-up Activities

 Ice Breaking
These activities allow the students to get know each other in a non-
confrontational, low anxiety atmosphere.

In groups, read and discuss following activities. Then try to practise them.

Pictures Introduction Game

This activity allows students to choose from a list of pictures that represent
themselves. The teacher can model by choosing three of the many pictures and then
explaining why she chose those three pictures to describe herself. Students will then
be asked to choose from the pictures and describe something about themselves. This
could be done with magazine pictures.

Supermarket

The first player says: "I went to the supermarket to buy an Apple (or any other object
you can buy in a supermarket that begins with an A). The next player repeats the
sentence, including the "A" word and adds a "B" word.
Each successive player recites the sentence with all the alphabet items, adding one of
his own. For example; 'I went to the supermarket and bought an Apple, Banana, CD,
envelopes, frozen fish'. It's not too hard to reach the end of the alphabet, usually with
a little help! Watch out for ‘Q’ and ‘X’.

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 Brainstorming
If you are working in a group
 First, note down your own answers alone.
 Share with the other members of the group.
 Check the answers together.
1. What are the benefits of planning lessons at the start of the schoolyear?
2. What are the merits of having a plan for dealing with misbehavior?
3. How might your selection of reinforcement be affected by subject area or grade
level?
4. How would you characterize the quality of rapport in your own lesson? What
factors seem to improve or worsen it?
5. Do you find it natural and easy to make eye contact with students in class?
 Video Task
Video Length: Approximately 15 minutes notes to the student teachers
Video 10.1
What to look for:Classroom Management Strategies
Video 10.2
What to look for: Classroom management Definition, how to be fair to all students,
how to be prepared for disruptions, and how to be Instill high expectations .
Tasks

Task 1
Write three solutions for the following situations:
The situations 1 2 3

a. A student says I don’t want to do this exercise.

b. You expected an activity to take five minutes. It
has taken twenty so far and the students still seem to
be very involved. And there is something to do.
c. The students are working in groups of three. Two
groups have finished the task and now sitting looking
bored. The other groups still need more time to finish
the task.

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Task 2
The diagram shows three areas of responsibly for classroom management. Suggest
appropriate techniques for each of these responsibilities.

Organize the physical Manage and facilitate Manage student behaviour

environment instruction

Task 3

How to make management preparations for the following issues:

 Room arrangement
 Materials
 Communication with parents
Task 4
Beside what have been stated in this chapter, design strategies by which teachers
could work on becoming more authentic.

........... .......... .......... ...........

Task 5
What is the best seating arrangement for the following situations?

a. A team game with a class of forty.

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b. A class discussion with fifteen students.
c. Pairwork in a group of thirty students.
d. Students all listen to an audio track.
e. The teacher explains a grammar point.

Task 6
Formulate some effective approaches that teacher can use to reward appropriate
behaviour.

Task 7
1. In groups select any section mention in this chapter, for example ‘Establishing
and Maintaining rapport’
2. A volunteer from each group try to teach the selected section.

Follow-up Activities

In groups of six (A,B,C,D,E,F), student-teachers evaluate the tasks done in this

chapter and as follow:
Group A evaluates group B Group B evaluates group A
Group C evaluates group D Group D evaluates group C
Group E evaluates group F Group F evaluates group E
All groups evaluate task 7 using the following checklist.

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• Has T. discussed classroom management and school policies with
administrators, teachers, and other Volunteers?
• Does T. create a respectful, supportive learning environment?
• Does T. manage and facilitate instruction?
• Does T. make well management preparations for schoolyear?
• Does T. calm and consistent when s/he responses to discipline
problems?
• Does T. provide encouragement for good behavior?
• Would appearance and teaching style be considered professional by
students and colleagues?
• Are lessons well-prepared and clearly organized?
• Has T. established predictable class routines?
• Has T. tried to provide a stimulating learning environment?
• Does T. begin with familiar approaches to learning and then gradually
introduce less familiar strategies?
•Has T. involved my students in trying to manage or improve the class
resources?
• Does T. provide opportunities for getting and giving student
feedback?

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Appendix
An Observation Checklist for Student Teachers’ Performance

Dimension One: Pre-Instruction

Sometimes
Usually
Always

Rarely
Never
Components Items

1. Begins class on the time.

1- 2. Appears well-prepared for class.
Organization 3. Reviews prior class material to prepare
students for the content to be covered.
2- 1-Formulates measurable objectives
Formulating 2-Formulates objectives correspond closely
Objectives with the needs of the students
1-Prepares a variety of instructional materials
3- to support language – learning objectives.
Preparing 2- Prepares authentic materials, designing
tasks appropriate to the language
relevant proficiency of the learners.
teaching aids 3- Prepares accurately context clues ( the
/ materials teaching aids ) to support student
understanding.
4- 1- Relates assignments to course content.
Providing 2-Gets students to correct and comment on
Precise each other's work.
assessment / 3-Promotes student self-editing.
evaluation
4-Gives appropriate feedback to students
technique about their progress
1-Allocates proper time for each activity.
5-
Allotting class 2-Allocates space for extra activity.
time precisely.
3-Allots time for reflection.
1-States a challenging and interesting
6-
homework
Pointing out 2-The homework ensures students' practice of
homework new language items

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Dimension Two: Instruction

Sometimes
Usually
Always

Rarely
Never
Components Items

1- Elicits students’ prior knowledge and

adjusts lesson accordingly.
1- 2-The warm-up activities enhance Ss'
Using appropriate engagement.
warm-up 3-The warm-up activities are suitable for
students and relevant to the lesson
objectives.
1- Uses language suitable for students' level
and ability.
2-
2. Uses language audibly and clearly.
Using suitable
3-Achieves a good balance between accuracy-
Language
focused, and integrative, content-focused
activities.
3- 1- Uses teaching techniques ensuring better
Identifying teacher student interaction.
effective teaching
methods / 2- Takes into account students' different styles
techniques of language learning
4- 1- T's. error correction is evident yet not
Using adequate over-used.
correction 2-Gets students to correct and comment on
techniques each other's work.
1-Uses and develops appropriate quizzes to
evaluate students' progress and increase
5- motivation
Using assessment 2-Uses a variety of authentic and alternative
/ evaluation assessment techniques ( e.g. tests,
techniques observations, checklists, portfolios).
3-Gives appropriate feedback to students about
their progress
1-Encouraged and assured full student
participation in class.
6-
2- Sets up interactive pair/group activities
Managing the
appropriately.
Class effectively
3-Ables to adapt to the unanticipated situation
and makes eye contact with students..
7- 1-Assigns homework to ensure Ss' practice of

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Assessing the new language material
appropriate 2-Makes sure that Ss understand what to do
homework with the homework
3-Checks the assigned homework.
1-Provides time for discussion.
8- 2-Monitors students for outstanding errors;
Using appropriate note errors for wrap-up.
follow-up activities 3-Gives feedback, and lets students check if
they were correct.

Dimension Three: Post Teaching

Sometimes
Usually
Always

Rarely
Never
Components Items

1- 1-Checks to what extent the lesson objectives

Establishing notes were achieved.
about Reflection on 2- Checks to what accurately the teaching aids/
action materials be used.
1- Checks to whether his/her warm-up was
successful.
2-Decides whether he /she selects effective
2-
teaching techniques.
Establishing notes
3-Assesses whether he /she uses adequate
about Reflection
correction techniques
in action
4-Checks whether he/ she uses effective
assessment/evaluation techniques.
5- Checks whether he/she manages the class
successfully
1- Checks how to ensure better achievement of
3- the lesson objectives
Establishing notes 2- Checks e how to improve his/her
about Reflection performance in future lessons.
For action 3- Checks how the lesson be different if he
teaches the lesson again.

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