Prepared by: Ar. Divina Ligaya B.

Rillera, MACT
July 2020
Checked by: Ar./EnP. Ryan M. Benaoe, MAEHP
Program Chair, Architecture
Approved by: Engr. Jeferd E. Saong, M Eng – ECE
Dean, SEA
Table of Contents
Table of Contents ................................................................................................................. ii

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... iii

Course Content .................................................................................................................... 1

Topic 1. CONTEXTUALIZING URBAN DESIGN AND COMMUNITY ARCHITECTURE:

AN INTRODUCTION ...................................................................................... 1

Topic 2. BASIS OF URBAN DESIGN AND COMMUNITY ARCHITECTURE ............. 13

Topic 3. ELEMENTS OF THE URBAN STRUCTURE ................................................ 23

Topic 4. THE CREATION OF SENSE OF PLACE AND SENSE OF TIME ................. 34

Topic 5. SIGNS AND SYMBOLS IN URBAN DESIGN ............................................... 65

Topic 6. THE RESPONSIVE URBAN ENVIRONMENT ............................................. 74

Topic 7. THE URBAN PATTERN: SPACE AND AESTHETICS ................................ 78

Topic 8. URBAN DESIGN DOCUMENTATION: THE SYSTEM OF DESIGN AND

PROCESS OF PRESENTATION ................................................................. 89

Topic 9. PRINCIPLES, RULES, AND PROCESS IN URBAN DESIGN .................... 101

Topic 10. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF SPECIFIC PLACES IN TOWNS & CITIES 124

Topic 11. URBAN DESIGN AS PUBLIC POLICY....................................................... 174

1ST Sem, SY 2020- 2021 P a g e | ii

Introduction

1. Course Information
Course Code: PLANNG2
Course Title: Planning 2 – Fundamentals of Urban Design and Community
Architecture
Number of Units: 3 Lec
Contact Hours: 3 lec hr per week
2. Course Description:
Architecture is the art and science of designing and constructing buildings in their totality
to shelter man and his activities, taking into account their environment, following the
principles of utility, strength, and beauty (Architecture Act of 2004). As a student of the BS
Architecture Program, you are expected to understand that man, his activities and his
environment are included in the basic knowledge required to successfully come up with
architectural design concepts and ideas. Further, it is also necessary to learn to manipulate
the fundamental building blocks of architecture to communicate abstract ideas logically and
with skill visually.
Planning 2 – Fundamentals of Urban Design and Community Architecture (FUDCA)
emphasizes spatial order, sociocultural expression in the design of the exterior environment
in neighborhoods, communities, towns and cities. This course is designed to provide an
overview of the theory and practice of urban design and community architecture and
development.
3. Course Requirements
This instructional material is organized according to the required instructions, suggested
readings, and activities for the course. You are required to go over the material in sequence
and accomplish the learning activities identified within the specified period. This
instructional material is designed to guide you to finish the course over the semester or 36
weeks. The final output of this course is an architectural program for a beach cottage
applying the concepts and principles of designing in the tropics.
As part of the course requirements, you are required to:
a. Register yourself in the course Google Classroom (Gclassroom) account using your
SURNAME, GIVEN NAME AND MIDDLE NAME (E.g., DELA CRUZ, FRANCISCA D.).
b. Upload a 1 - 2-minute video to introduce yourself and your expectation of the course.

1ST Sem, SY 2020- 2021 P a g e | iii

c. Perform all required student activities, answer all discussion and reflection questions.
d. Actively participate in discussion forums for specific course topics.
 Discussion Forum (DF) contributions shall not be more than 150 words and will be
graded based on its relevance.
 Discussion Forum Responses (DFR) shall not be more than 100 words and will be
graded based on its relevance.
b. Regularly check the Gclassroom or FB Messenger account for announcements.
e. Submit all online requirements using the file name: SURNAME_FIRST NAME
INITIAL_TOPIC (e.g., DELA CRUZ_J_SELF INTRODUCTION)
f. Submit all requirements on time. Deadlines for online submissions is every last Friday
of the week of each module topic.
g. Obtain a minimum 70% mark on all required activities to pass the course.
h. Take the scheduled final examination at the end of the semester and obtain at least 70%
as a rating.
i. Submit the compilation of the SimCity Development.
j. Submit the compilation of the Community Assessment project.
k. Submit a learners’ e-portfolio. This requirement will be uploaded at the end of the
semester. The e-portfolio shall contain:
 Cover Page
 Introduction page (Talk about yourself, the program and the course)
 Table of Contents
 List of Graded Output (with screenshots or photographs)
 Compilation of Grade Course Works with brief descriptions of what the work is all
about
 Student’s Learning Assessment. You are required to answer the following
questions qualitatively:
i. Did I work as hard as I could have? Yes? No? Why?
ii. Did I set and maintain high standards for myself? Yes? No? Why?
iii. Did I spend enough time to do quality work? Yes? No? Why?
iv. Did I prioritize and manage my time properly to complete my work? Yes? No?
Why?
v. Did I make good use of available resources? Yes? No? Why?
vi. Did I ask questions when I needed to? Yes? No? Why?
vii. Did I evaluate and re-evaluate my work for possible errors? Yes? No? Why?
1ST Sem, SY 2020- 2021 P a g e | iv
viii. Did I examine best practices for similar works? Yes? No? Why?
ix. Are my works something that I am proud of and would proudly show to a larger
audience? Yes? No? Why?
l. Accomplish the end of module assessment. Marked as complete once submitted.
With 4 as the highest and 1 as the lowest, rate each identified criteria.

Criteria 4 3 2 1

1. Level of effort you placed in this module.

2. The difficulty in completing the course.

3. Contribution of the course to your

skills/knowledge on the topic.
4. Clarity of learning objectives.

5. Organization and planning if the module

6. Appropriateness of workload

7. Participation of learners in the activities

m. Accomplish the course module assessment at the end of the semester. Marked as
complete once submitted
1. What activity did I enjoy the most? Why?
2. What is the most important lesson which I can apply to my daily life?
3. What are the new insights/discoveries that I learned?
4. What topics do I find the least important?
5. What possible topics should have been included?
n. Grading rubrics for all activities will be as follows:

Description Numerical Percentage

Equivalent

Advanced, Excellent. Very Good, Excellent, Full Compliance 4 76 – 100%

Proficient, Satisfactory, Good, Acceptable 3 51 - 75%
Basic, Fair, Marginal, Borderline 2 25 – 50%
Poor, Unacceptable, Non-Compliance 1 0 - 24%

1. Creative Output (e.g., posters, graphic organizers)

DESCRIPTION

1. Creativity. The output should clearly express and organize ideas and concepts through
drawings and illustrations.
2. Aesthetics. The output should consider the visually pleasing arrangement of the elements of
the composition.

1ST Sem, SY 2020- 2021 Page |v

3. Architectural Presentation. The output should reflect the proper architectural graphical
presentation of design ideas and concepts, whether manual or computer-generated.
4. Completeness The output should comply with all the requirements of the activity.

2. Written Output (e.g., essays, reaction paper)

DESCRIPTION

1. Content Essays and answers to questions should be clear and comprehensive.

2. Organization. Essays and answers to questions should be focused and logical.
3. Writing Style: Grammar, Punctuation. This pertains to grammar, punctuation,
typographical errors and the general tone of the written work.

3. Responses to Forum (Responses should be substantial and contributory)

DESCRIPTION

1. Content. Contributions to the discussion forum should clear and comprehensive and should
be substantially contribute to the topic on hand.
2. Organization. Contributions to the discussion forum should be focused and logical.
3. Writing Style: Grammar, Punctuation. This pertains to grammar, punctuation,
typographical errors and the general tone of the written work.

4. Learning Outcomes: Upon completion of the course, you should be able to:
a. Cognitive Domain
 Learn the fundamental concepts of spatial order, scale, culture and history in
handling urban design and community architecture problems
 Know the essential knowledge of organization and behavior in the design of specific
towns and cities.
b. Affective Domain
 Develop awareness of the need for sociocultural expression and communication in
the design of specific places in towns and cities.
 Have an awareness of the importance of community involvement/participation and
co-design techniques in urban/community architecture.
c. Psychomotor Domain
 Design the built environment in the context of ecological balance, sustainable
development and conservation of cultural and historical heritage.
5. Study Schedule
This module is divided into thirteen (13) modules spread over five (5) months. Each
of the modules will have their learning and assessment activities. You are required to

1ST Sem, SY 2020- 2021 P a g e | vi

accomplish each of the activities and substantially contribute to discussion forums within
the given module period.
a. The module topic schedule is as follows:

Topic Time Frame

Topic 1. Contextualizing Urban Design and 1 week

Community Planning: An Introduction
Topic 2. Basis of Urban Design and Community 1 week
Architecture
Topic 3. Elements of Urban Design 1 week
Topic 4. Creating and Identifying the Sense of Place 2 weeks
and Sense of Time
Topic 5. Signs and Symbols in Urban Design 1 week
Topic 6. Responsive Environment 1 week
Topic 7. The Urban Pattern: Space and Aesthetics, 2 weeks
Topic 8. Urban Design Documentation: The system 1 week
of design and process of
presentation
Topic 9. Principles, Rules, and Process in Urban 2 weeks
Design
Topic 10. Design Requirements of Specific Places in 2 weeks
Towns & Cities.
Topic 11. Design as a Public Policy 1 week

b. Each module topic is organized as follows:

a. Test what you know:
 Reading Assignment/Video Resource
 Discussion Forum
b. Discussion Proper
c. Synthesis Activity
 Student Activity
 Study Questions
 Reflection question
 Test what you know: Online quiz
d. Topic Module Assessment
c. For each of the module topics, you are expected to:

1ST Sem, SY 2020- 2021 P a g e | vii

i. Use the appropriate links in the Gclassroom to “TURN IN” your works to avoid
confusion during evaluation. Otherwise, the requirements submitted will not be
considered.
ii. Observe proper etiquette in all forum contributions.
iii. Plagiarism will not be tolerated in all manners of submitted requirements. Use
the APA Referencing Format to cite all lifted and borrowed ideas.
iv. During summative assessments (e.g., quizzes and exams), remember that you
are testing what you have learned; thus, the highest degree of honesty and
integrity is expected.
v. Deadlines for online submissions is at 11:59 pm on the last Friday of the week
of each module topic.

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Course Content

Topic 1. CONTEXTUALIZING URBAN DESIGN AND COMMUNITY ARCHITECTURE:

AN INTRODUCTION

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Know the basic concepts and terms related to human settlements, urban design and
community development
2. Understand the implications of urbanization on architecture and urban design.

Test what you know

1. Video Presentation: Watch the movie:
Cars. Source: https://youtu.be/DnSVLFu5ZJ0:
2. Discussion Questions: Answer the questions
a. Describe the town of Radiator Springs when Lightning Queen had first arrived.
b. What factors influenced the current state of the town?
c. Describe the actions of the town inhabitants to revive the town?
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ work. What can you learn from
their answers?

Discussion
Urban areas continue to grow globally. Urbanization is the catalyst to this process. While
the first cities appeared many millennia ago, the fundamental factor affecting the urbanization
dynamics remain the same: people. The United Nations (UN) has estimated that by 2050, two
out of three inhabitants will live in urban areas. Most of this growth will occur in Asia and West
Africa, specifically in the developing regions.
Nevertheless, the world is experiencing a demographic transition. The global population is
aging, affecting mortality and fertility. People now live longer, marry late and have less number
of children compared to earlier times.
Further, urbanization also has changed land and socio-economics perspectives, including
consumption patterns institutions and the environment. Due to this, concepts like urbanity,
defined as “the magnitude and qualities of livelihoods, lifestyles, connectivity, and place that
create urban-ness of intertwined human experiences and land configurations” (Boone et al. in

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 1 of 190

Haase, Gunwralp, Dahiya, Bai & Elmqvist, 2018) has emerged. Besides, the urban areas
should also consider inclusivity, safety, resilience and sustainability, following the focus of
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 11. Urban design and community development planners
should consider this trend.
I. Introduction to Human Settlements
A. What are Human Settlements
The Vancouver Declaration on Human Settlements in 1976 defines human
settlement as the totality of the human community – whether city, town or village –
with all the social, material, organizational, spiritual and cultural elements that sustain
it. The fabric of human settlements consists of physical elements and services to
which these elements provide material support. The physical components of the
human settlement comprise:
1. The shelter which encompasses the superstructures of various shapes, size, type
and materials constructed by humans for security, privacy and protection from the
elements, and his individuality in the community.
2. The infrastructure encompasses the complex networks designed to deliver to or
remove from the shelter of people, goods, energy or information.
3. Services cover those required by a community for the fulfillment of its functions
as a social body, such as education, health, culture, welfare, recreation and
nutrition
B. Elements and of Human Settlements by Constantinos Doxiadis
1. Nature – the ecosystem
and its component
processes within which
cities must exist
2. Man/Arthropos – man and
his physiological and
biological needs
3. Society – or humankind, as
a group, organized or not,
Source:
including their culture, https://www.slideshare.net/gayathriselva
segar/human-settlements-78787732
customs, population trends,
economic development, health and welfare, politics and system of governance,
etc.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 2 of 190

4. Shell – the structures in which human live, learn and work
5. Network – the utilities, communication and transportation system.
C. Principles of Ordering the Human Settlement by Constantinos Doxiadis
(Doxiadis, 1970)
1. Maximize man’s potential contact with the elements of nature (e.g., water, trees,
etc.)
2. Minimize the efforts required for the achievement of man’s actual and potential
contacts.
3. Optimize man’s protective space, which means the selection of such a distance
from other persons, animals or objects that he can keep his contacts with them
without any kind of sensory or psychological discomfort.
4. Optimize the quality of man’s relationship with his environment, which consists of
nature, society, shells (buildings of all sorts), and networks.
5. Optimize the synthesis of the other principles to create an organized settlement.
D. Urban Growth and Urbanization
1. What is urbanization?
Urbanization refers to the increasing number of people that live in urban areas
and predominantly results in the physical growth of urban areas, either horizontal
or vertical. Urbanization is a major driver of infrastructure investments.
2. Determinants of Urbanization
a. Economic development involves the transformation from a dominantly
agricultural-based economy to an industry service-based economy.
b. Industrialization attracts externalities of scale in manufacturing and services,
which attract the migration of firms and workers into the city.
3. What causes urban growth?
a. Lack of employment opportunities in the countryside, overpopulation and
poor crop yields are all push factors - why people leave the countryside.
b. Better paid jobs in the cities, and expected a higher standard of living and
more decent food are all pull factors - why people are attracted to the city.
c. People who migrate to towns and cities tend to be young and so have higher
birth rates in that age range.
d. Better medical conditions compared to the countryside mean more successful
births and a better life expectancy.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 3 of 190

II. Introduction to Urban Design and Community Architecture
A. What is a Community?
a. It is a group of people living in the same defined area, sharing the same basic
values, organization and interest (Rifkin in Brieger 2006).
b. It is an informally organized social entity that is characterized by a sense of
identity (White in Brieger, 2006).
c. It is a population which is geographically focused but which also exists as a
discrete social entity, with a local collective identity and corporate purpose
(Manderson et al. in Brieger, 2006)
B. What are the Elements of a Community?
a. Locale/Locality
b. An interdependent social group
c. Interpersonal relationships
d. A culture including values, norms, and attachments to the community as a whole
as well as to its parts
e. Organizational or institutional arrangements
f. Policy context
C. What is Community Architecture?
Community architecture represents a process rather than a product. Community
architecture means that the people who live in the locality are also the instigators or
creator of the development, as well. The community provides the criteria which bring
the community together: places, values, interests, age and spirituality.
D. Community Design
Community design crucially affects the performance of towns and cities in
achieving the objectives of sustainability and a better quality of life. The design and
layout of a community are fundamental determinants of urban form and settlement
patterns because they:
1. set the urban character and design of an area;
2. allow or inhibit social interaction and thereby influences the likelihood of
community formation;
3. force motor vehicle dependence or reduces it by encouraging the non-motor
vehicle modes of walking, cycling, and public transport;
4. give or deny access to facilities for all users of the urban environment;

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 4 of 190

5. provide or prevent opportunities for locally based business and employment;
and,
6. conserve or degrade essential natural resources and ecological systems.
E. Community Planning
A city is a confined space that is densely settled and has a relatively large,
culturally heterogeneous population, and often designates a massive area
experiencing continuous urbanization.
F. What is an Urban Area?
a. An urban area or built-up area is a human settlement with a high population
density and infrastructure of the built environment. Urbanization creates urban
areas that are categorized through urban morphology as cities, towns,
conurbations or suburbs.
b. ‘Urban’ as a term, originates from the Latin term Urbanus – which means
‘courteous.’ To be urban or urbane is to show courtesy, to respect differences.
Diverse people, with different backgrounds and perspectives, share the urban
space. Thus, associating the urban space with Urbanus is appropriate.

Examples of Public Spaces

(Dovey, 2016)
c. The term ‘city,’ on the other hand, takes its roots from ‘civic,’ ‘civil, ‘or ‘civilized.’
The word ‘civil’ is likewise associated with being courteous. The Greek word for
the city was ‘polis’ which is similar to ‘politeness.’ However, this idea also
codifies civility in the city as needing ‘policing’ through ‘politics’ and ‘policy.’
d. The word ‘public’ in Latin is publicus, which means ‘belonging to the people’ –
privacy, which was originally a space of ‘deprivation’ for those who were
deprived of citizenship and public life. The public realm, therefore, is a space of
interaction with others.

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e. The sociality and formality of encounters differentiate the terms urban, polis, city,
and public - collectively refer to an urban public space. Urban space, therefore,
is not necessarily a place of friendship or bonding. It is a place based on the
right to share public space and obligations to respect the rights of others to do
likewise. It is a place of exchange and traffic in people, ideas and goods. Urban
design, as the shaping of urban public space, involves the framing of these
spaces of public encounters.
G. What is Urban Design?
a. Urban design draws together the many strands of place-making environmental
responsibility, social equity and economic viability into the creation of places of
beauty and distinct identity. Urban design is a way of using people’s knowledge
to control and adapt to the environment in sustainable ways for social, economic,
political, and spiritual requirements. It is the art of designing the public
environment of a city, including the interface between private properties and the
public environment.
b. Urban design is multidisciplinary, and originates from but goes beyond planning
and transportation policy, architectural design development, economics,
landscape and engineering. Urban design is also the most permanent practice
of the built environment. It is not only concerned with appearances and built
form, but with the environmental, economic, social and cultural consequences
of design.
c. Urban Design is concerned with the design of the buildings, places, spaces, and
networks that make up our towns and cities, and the ways people use them. It
ranges in scale from a metropolitan region, city or town, down to a street, public
space or even a single building.
d. Urban Design is a branch of knowledge that involves a complex intersection of
many other branches. It is a profession only because it appears ubiquitously on
the letterheads of architecture, urban planning
and landscape architecture firms.
H. The Paradigm of Urban Design (Dovey, 2016)
The conceived conditions for an urban area
include urban intensity, productivity and creativity
rather than simply diversity. The principles of ‘mixed

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primary uses’ and ‘old buildings’ as conditions for urban ‘diversity’ are combined into
a mix – formal, functional and social.
I. Urban Design vs. Urban Planning vs. Architecture
Each profession has its language and scope. However, these specialized fields
share a common goal: Sustainability, Resilience, and Quality of Life
1. Urban design is the creation of city features, including public space,
infrastructure, transport, landscapes and community facilities. Urban takes on a
creative role that designs things that improve quality of life, resilience and
sustainability.
2. Urban planning is the planning of city structures such as policies, zones,
neighborhoods, infrastructure, standards and building codes. Urban planning is
a high-level discipline that is strategic, technical and political. The focus of urban
design is on morphologies and formal design outcomes, as distinguished from
urban planning
3. Landscape Architecture is the art and practice of designing the outdoor
environment, especially designing parks or gardens together with buildings and
roads. Urban design’s concern for assemblages of buildings and intensities of
traffic and function differentiates it from landscape architecture.
4. Architecture is the art or practice of designing and constructing buildings. Urban
design operates at larger scales and with a primary concern for spaces and
connections between buildings as compared to architecture.

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J. Envisioning Urban Design
Vision is an amalgamation of hard physical and financial facts and a series of
aspirations. The crucial synergy between these two factors identifies what it needs,
how it will be delivered, who will take responsibility, and where to get the funding.
K. What are the Goals of Urban Design?
1. to design and build urban developments which are structurally sound
2. to design and build urban developments which are functionally sound
3. to give pleasure to those who see the development
L. Key Factors to Consider
1. Value can be created
A poor physical fabric or social problem
may have stigmatized an area, but history
shows these attitudes can change. There
are numerous examples of “problem
places” becoming “opportunity places”
through a quantum shift in planning and
marketing. Source: Navarro, 2014

2. Constraints can be overcome

The claims that there is no market for what is proposed often inhibit creative
proposals for brownfield land. However, with vision, new markets and new
futures can be created, and value-added.
*Brownfield Development - is an area of land or premises that has been previously
used, but has subsequently become vacant, derelict or contaminated
3. Context is dynamic
Inherently flexible designs will enable future changes to be accommodated –
such as household size and composition, lifestyles and movement patterns. It is
vital to conceive a master plan as a framework that will enable adaptation over
time.

III. Urban Design and Community Architecture in the Philippine Setting

In the Philippines, the level of urbanization is being reckoned based on an official
definition of an urban area.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 8 of 190

A. An urban barangay
The barangay is the smallest administrative division in the country and the Filipino
term for “village.”
B. An urban barangay is one that meets any of the following criteria:
1. Its population has grown to 5,000 inhabitants or more;
2. It has at least one establishment with a minimum of 100 employees; or
3. It has five or more establishments with ten to 99 employees and five or more
facilities within the two-kilometer radius from the barangay hall. “Facilities”
(Philippine Statistics Authority 2013) could mean any of the following:
a. town/city hall or province capitol;
b. church, chapel or mosque with religious service at least once a month;
c. public plaza,
d. park or cemetery;
e. market place or building where trading activities are carried out at least once
a week;
f. a public building like school (elementary, high school, or college),
g. hospital, puericulture center, health center, or
h. library;
i. landline telephone system, calling station or cellular phone signal;
j. postal service or public fire-protection service; community waterworks
system or public street sweeper; and
k. seaport that is operational
Any barangay which does not satisfy any of these criteria is considered a rural
barangay.

IV. Urban Development in the Philippines

A. The Citadel Concept during the Spanish Colonization
A citadel development concept features defense plans, which is evident in
present-day Intramuros and cities, which feature forts. Old drawings of plans for
Philippine cities show Spanish-era planning of space with parallel and perpendicular
straight streets for horse-drawn vehicle and foot traffic. The streets cross each other
to form a gridiron (a type of city plan in which streets are perpendicular to each other
and form a grid), with a core square or rectangle forming a central plaza that houses

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 9 of 190

the cathedral and the municipal hall or city hall. In many parts of the country, this
type of urban space organization can still be found.

Source: https://live.staticflickr.com/5550/10490722096_7804971e3c_b.jpg

B. The Burnham Plan during the American Colonization Period

The Burnham Plan for Manila outlined a circumferential-radial road system. The
proposal also recommended mixed-use space and explained the functions of tree-
lined streets, parks, waterways and waterfront. The idea is for every resident to be
a short walking distance from a park, places of work, and leisure areas. By 1913,
the tranvia or electric commuter trolleys became operational. As the circumferential-
radial road network improved, electric- and gasoline-powered bus services were
also
introduced.
However,
further
development
of the tranvia
network was
cut short by
the war.

Source:
https://images.gmanews.tv/v3/webpics/v3/2014/10/2014_10_16_15_29_50.JP
G

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 10 of 190

C. Post-World War II reconstruction period to present
Economic recovery was promoted through hasty rebuilding during the American
occupation in 1946. The government's responsibilities were roads, sewerage, water
supply, and security.
Housing was a task left to
the private sector, and the
government's approach to
real estate development
was to "let the private sector
roam freely." The National
Urban Planning
Commission (NUPC) was
created in 1946 to assist in
rebuilding Philippine cities
destroyed during the war
(SURP in Navarro 2014).
The NUPC recommended
zoning ordinances and
Source:
drew up city plans. Still, it https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/82/Existing_Land_
Use_Map_of_Manila_2017.jpg
turned out to be an
ineffective body because its recommendations and regulations could be overturned
by the more powerful local governments (Camba in Navarro, 2014). The practice of
not following through the comprehensive urban development plans that were drawn
many years before (such as the Burnham Plan) had also taken root.

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity: The Urban Design Program
a. Project 1: SimCity Development
 Download the SimCity app from the Google Playstore and start your city
development project. Name your city.
 Before developing a city, what was the first requirement if the game (aside from
age)? Why do you say so?

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 11 of 190

 Based on the major goals of urban design, formulate a major goal that you would
like to attain in developing your city or place of residence.
 Likewise, identify three objectives that would help you attain your major goal.
 Attach an initial screenshot of your proposed development.
 You are required to submit at least three (3) screenshots of the development of your
city every week throughout the semester. A written description of the improvement
or changes that you had made to your city should accompany your photographs.
2. Reflection Activity
68% of the world population projected to live in urban areas by 2050, says UN. (2018).
Retrieved from https://www.un.org/development/desa/en/news/population/2018-
revision-of-world-urbanization-prospects.html
a. Reflection Question: Give one (1) major challenge of urbanization to urban design.
Why do you say so?
b. Discussion Forum 2: Read two (2) of your classmates’ answers. What can you learn
from their answers?
3. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz

References
Brieger, W. R. (2006). Definitions of community. Johns Hopkins BLOOMBERG School of Public
Health.
Dovey, K. (2016). Urban design thinking A conceptual toolkit. Bloomsbury Publishing Plc: UK/USA
Doxiadis, C.A. (1970). Ekistics, the Science of human settlement. Science, 170 (3956), 393-404.
Retrieved from
https://www.doxiadis.org/Downloads/ecistics_the_science_of_human_settlements.pdf
Gottdiener, M. & Budd, L. (2005). Key concepts in urban studies. SAGE Publications Ltd.: London
Haase, D., Guneralp, B., Dahiya, B. Bai, X., & Elmqvist, T. (2018). Global Urbanization. The Urban
Planet. Knowledge Towards Sustainable Cities. Cambridge University Press: United Kingdom.
Retrieved from https://www.cambridge.org/core
Hofmann, A. & Wan, G. (2013). Determinant of urbanization. ADB Economic Working Paper Series.
355. Asian Development Bank. Retrieved from
https://www.adb.org/sites/default/files/publication/30316/ewp-355.pdf
Navarro, A. (2014). Scrutinizing urbanization challenges in the Philippines through the infrastructure
lens. Discussion Paper Series no. 2014-37. Philippine Institute for Development Studies.
Retrieved from https://www.econstor.eu/bitstream/10419/126993/1/pidsdps1437.pdf
Spacey, J. (2016). Urban design vs. urban planning. Retrieved from
https://simplicable.com/new/urban-design-vs-urban-
planning#:~:text=Urban%20design%20is%20the%20creation,infrastructure%2C%20standards%20
and%20building%20codes.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 12 of 190

Topic 2. BASIS OF URBAN DESIGN AND COMMUNITY ARCHITECTURE

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Describe clearly the basis of urban design and community architecture.
2. Understand the implications of the bases identified in the direction of growth and
development of a community.

Test what you know

1. Video Presentation: Watch the movie:
First Cities in History – Ancient History Documentary. Source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H1jHdnZ2U3o
2. Discussion Question: Describe the common factors that lead to the development of the
cities identified. Present your answers in a matrix or tabular format.
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?

Discussion
I. Historical Basis: Evolution of Human Settlements
The evolution of human settlements is a continuous cyclic process from the smallest
(the room) to the universal human settlement (considered the largest). Settlements may
have an initial structure, which only allows for a certain degree of growth. Still, nothing
excludes the possibility of expansion and transformation of this structure, which will allow
them to surpass the initial structural limitations.
A. The Evolution of Human Settlements
1. Primitive non-organized human settlements
a. This type of settlement started with the
evolution of man as a hunter-nomad.
b. Humans began to modify the environment
and to settle temporarily in different
locations in search of food for survival.
c. Humans also settled in natural shelters, like Primitive settlement
Pattern
caves, earth burrows or hollow trees.
d. These dwellings were primitive and unorganized.

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2. Primitive organized settlements
a. The period of agricultural villages or
eopolis lasted about 10,000 years.
b. The human settlement had entered an era
of organized agriculture settlement.
c. Due to the natural/organic forms of these
independent shells, their boundary was
within certain limits beyond which the Grid Iron Pattern

settlement had no link and transportation.

3. Static urban settlements
a. During this era, the pattern of development of human settlements
depended on the phase of evolution and the prevailing conditions of
safety.
b. Settlements during this
period were considered the
polis – which lasted 5,000 –
6,000 years
c. The first urban settlements
appeared as small cities in
a plan or as fortresses on
hills and mountains.
d. Settlement growth was no
longer limited to the The City of Priene, Greece
Source:
settlement’s center of https://i.pinimg.com/originals/b2/a6/f6/b2a6f
6d0bcac3f82ba2c571d777950a5.jpg
gravity or its nucleus.
4. Dynamic urban settlements
a. Dynamic settlements are created as a result of an industrial-
technological revolution.
b. These settlements rapidly multiply in form and are being created at an
even higher rate
c. The growth of the settlement is in all directions, spreading into the
countryside in a disorganized manner.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 14 of 190

d. The first dynamic city is the dynapolis, which lasted 200 – 400 years.
These are small human settlements with independent administrative
units growing beyond their initial boundary.
e. The extended dynapolis is the metropolis, which incorporates several
other urban and rural settlements of the surrounding area. The common
size of a metropolis is 100 sq. km.
f. The megalopolis has the same external characteristics as the metropolis,
the only difference being its larger scale. The scale for the megalopolis
will be 1,000 sq. km.
5. The universal city
1. The universal human settlement is called the ecumenopolis.

II. Socio-Cultural Basis

A. Urban areas are often described as ‘engines of growth.’ Still, the promise of poverty
reduction and development will not be realized if the focus remains purely on the
economy and returns on investment. The social and cultural aspects of urban life –
how different groups in society can engage with, contribute to and benefit from what
towns and cities have to offer – are equally important. This ‘use value’ of towns and
cities must be recognized, protected and nurtured – as a contribution not only to the
fundamental well-being of urban dwellers in its own right but to productive and livable
urban societies.
B. Urban design, or the art of building cities, is the method by which man creates a built
environment that fulfills his aspirations and represents his values. The city, therefore,
is an element of people’s spiritual and physical culture. It is also one of the highest
expressions of that culture, an essential part of society.
C. Man and his values, aspirations, and power or ability are central to urban studies. The
task of the city builder is to understand man’s needs and aspirations and express this
in built form.
D. The built environment can facilitate the gathering of people and encourage collective
uses and the practice of different cultures. Fostering social interaction and recognition
of the diverse cultural practices within cities enable mutual understanding and respect.
Social encounters in public space and the experience of sharing the same urban
condition, as users of the built environment, reinforce the feeling of safety and
community. All of these contribute to greater social cohesion.

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E. An added challenge is to ensure that built environments address safety in all its
dimensions, including safety from crime and violence, as well as protection from
natural disasters and environmental hazards caused by air and water pollution, lack
of sanitation and industrial accidents.
F. The challenge related to migration and displacement today is to make towns and cities
a place where new arrivals of people can contribute, with their labor and culture, to
urban development. Migration is a global phenomenon that is transforming countries,
cities and towns around the world

III. Aesthetics and Order

Planning the built environment from the aesthetics perspectives entail considering
design concepts and theories emphasizing on ambiance, order, character, image, symbolic
significance, and cultural aspects.
Ordering Principles of Urban Design
Order is the logical arrangement of the elements in a composition. Since the urban
design is the process of designing and shaping the physical feature of cities, towns, and
villages, it follows that principles govern this system of arrangement.
1. Context – see buildings, places and spaces as part of whole towns and cities
2. Character – reflect and enhance the distinctive
3. Choice – ensure diversity and choice for people
4. Connections – ensure the design is environmentally sustainable, safe and healthy
5. Creativity – encourage innovative and imaginative solutions
6. Custodianship – ensure the design is environmentally sustainable, safe and healthy
7. Collaboration – communicate and share knowledge across sectors, professions and
with communities
Further, urban design also emphasizes the visual stimulus on legibility and aesthetics.
The environmental, aesthetic elements of urban design are affecting the formation of an urban
form in two ways, namely visual-form and cognitive-semantic. Visual-form elements include the
quality of the landscape and its factors, the quality of urban buildings and their elements, the
quality of public spaces and their elements, continuity, enclosure, diversity of forms, the quality
of views and vistas, and coordination with the context. Cognitive-conceptual elements include
identity, legibility, concept, perceptibility, coherent mental image, customizability, social and
cultural environment, and richness of activities

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IV. Context, Orientation and Identity
Urban design is an integral and essential part of architecture and the process of
placemaking. Local character is one of the generators of urban design. Virtually every
manifesto, charter, normative theory or statement of design principles advocates
maintaining or enhancing local character. The following examples illustrate a broad
consensus on this point:
a. A good urban design includes “responsiveness to important qualities in the urban
and landscape context as well as valuable historical characteristics.”
b. One of the first principles of urban design is to “promote character in townscape
and landscape by responding to and reinforcing locally distinctive patterns of
development and culture.”
c. Sustainable urban design “respects and enhances existing cultural heritage and
communities.” It produces “distinctive places” that “foster a strong sense of
community, pride, social equity, integration and identity.”
A. Urban Identity
The desire for coherence in neighborhood character underpins design controls in
many parts of cities and towns. Urban design acknowledges the importance of
character and its benefits for places to have different physical and social
characteristics, which in itself gives distinction. Character, then, describes is the
results when such qualities as density, connectivity, scale, and function combine to
create an easily recognizable identity. Character also describes the amalgam of
features and combines built form with the people and activities that occupy a particular
location.
Heritage provides a second important source of character. The importance of
architectural heritage and, more generally, the value of ‘old buildings’ are recurring
themes in urban design. These qualities stimulate economic revitalization: “Small-
scale improvements” to an area’s historic urban fabric can generate “a market-led
return to urban living, supporting existing communities and adding to the [local]
economic base.”
A good urban design supports local character. When urban neighborhoods
possess distinctive physical and social characteristics, residents benefit from a clearer
sense of personal identity. They may be more inclined to become actively involved in
managing the environment. Evidence suggests that their inhabitants value
characterful neighborhoods. People may even be prepared to pay more to live in such

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 17 of 190

locations. Historic buildings and precincts containing older buildings provide a
particularly strong local image. Urban design supports choice by maintaining or
enhancing the features that make one place different from another. These benefits,
when taken together, mean that it is easier to promote or ‘brand’ cities and regions
that have within them very distinct localities.
B. What is Context?
Context is the character and setting of the urban area. It embraces its natural and
human history, the forms of settlements, building and spaces, its ecology and
archaeology, its location and the routes that pass through it. Context also includes
people, the individuals living in or near the area, and how communities are organized
so that citizens become real participants in the urban development process. A
thorough appreciation of the overall site context is the starting point for designing a
distinct place.
Context is about understanding the position of development, and how to position
development. Context involves a range of considerations and participation, directly or
indirectly. High-quality places will only emerge if the approach is cohesive and
inclusive.

V. Value of Urban Design

Urban design remains an art as much as a science, involving concepts that are
sometimes elusive, such as character. It involves both public urban space and parts of the
private domain and concerns the urban environment at a range of scales. Urban design is
also context-specific. Many kinds of ‘value’ can be considered – economic, environmental,
social or cultural; both tangible and intangible. The benefits (and costs) of good urban
design often accrue to the wider community; therefore, many stakeholders have an interest
in what takes place at both the microscale (street and building design) and the macro scale
(e.g., patterns of land use).
A. Urban Design Priorities
1. Strengthen local communities
To help ensure that proposed development reinforces, rather than
undermines local communities and assists successful project delivery.
2. Creating places of distinction
Drawing inspiration from a neighborhood’s indigenous character strengthens
local identity. Context-less design leads to “anywhere places.”

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3. Harnessing intrinsic site asset and resource
Harnessing the natural resources of the site – the existing development form,
soils and geology, drainage, landscape, solar and wind energy – to create more
sustainable development.
4. Integrating with surroundings
Achieving careful integration with the landscape or surrounding built
environment, using the right materials, forms and landscape elements for the
locality, respecting footpaths, street and road linkages, and relating new
development to existing urban structures
5. Ensuring feasibility
To ensure economic viability and deliverability
6. Providing vision
A vision focuses the community aspirations, sells a scheme to a developer
and provides a long term aim for the project participants. It embodies a strategy
for the future that everyone can sign up to and work towards over some time.
B. Contextual Benefits of Urban Design
1. Good urban design can offer significant benefits to the community; conversely,
poor design can have significant adverse effects on the urban environment,
society and economy.
2. While good urban design sometimes costs more upfront; this is not necessarily
the case; moreover, long-term costs can be avoided.
3. Communities value a better quality of life that good urban design can deliver.
4. Urban design can affect people’s ability and willingness to undertake physical
exercise: good design can offer health benefits.
5. Urban design can help make towns and cities safer and more secure.
6. Urban design elements are interconnected: urban design is most effective when
several elements come together (e.g., mixed-use, density and connectivity)
C. The Value of Specific Urban Design Elements
1. On Local Character
Development and/or preservation of the distinctive identity of a particular
place that results from the interaction of many factors, including built form, people,
activity and history.

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2. On Connectivity
Improvement and/or enhancement of the physical conditions facilitating
access within a region, city, town or neighborhood.
3. On Density
Encourage the concentration of population and activity in an urban area
4. On Mixed-use
Encourage a variety of different living and working activities are near and
within a neighborhood.
5. On Adaptability
Improves the capacity of urban buildings, neighborhoods and spaces to adapt
to changing needs.
6. On the Quality Public Realm
Improves the quality of all parts of the physical environment of towns and
cities that the public has access to, and that form the setting for community and
public life.
7. On Decision-making
Encourages integration between and within organizations involved in urban
policy, planning and implementation, as well as the integration of the different
urban design elements
8. User Participation
Encourage the public consultation process, and other forms of involvement in
urban design projects, such as surveys or design workshops.

VI. Feasibility of Urban Design

The project needs to relate to their location and context and will vary with the type of
project, whether infill, brownfield, urban extension or regeneration. Appropriateness is the
key. An early assessment of the identified factors will likely affect a project’s feasibility.
Feasibility Appraisal Inventory

Criteria Consideration
a. Market  Existing feasibility studies
 Ownership and tenure
 Current development pressures
 Supply and demand (concerning competition, socio-
economic profile, regional contexts, etc.)
 Cost
 Funding sources (public/private/partnership)
 Grant regimes

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 20 of 190

Criteria Consideration
b. Engineering  Existing services and utilities
 Existing obstructions (e.g., foundations and basements)
 Major constraints (e.g., culverts or gas mains)
 Geology
 Archaeological investigation
 Drainage
 Man-made structures (e.g. bridges/roads)
 Requirements of other bodies (e.g., utilities)

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity:
Project 1: SimCity Development:
 Rationalize the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based on
the bases of urban design and community architecture discussed. Use the main topic
headings as a guide. Support with the required screenshots.
2. Study Questions: Answer the questions based on the learning resources.
Discuss one important implication or significance of each basis or urban design to the
direction of the growth and development of the community or urban area.
3. Reflection Activity
Project 2: Community Assessment
 Go around your immediate community. Identify your location
 Compile at least one photograph corresponding to the bases of urban design of the
immediate vicinity where you live.
 Using the photographs briefly describe your community according to the bases
presented. Use the main section header as a guide.
4. Discussion Forum 2. Read to (2) of your classmate’s works. Is there a distinct basis for
the way the community was developed? If yes, what is it, and why do you say so? If there
is none, why do you say so?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

References
Moughtin, C., Cuesta, R., Sarris, C. & Signoretta, P. (1999). Urban design: Method and techniques.
Architectural Press: Great Britain
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 21 of 190

The value of urban design. The economic, environmental and social benefits of urban design. (2005).
The Ministry for the Environment. Retrieved from
https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/value-of-urban-design-full-report-jun05_0.pdf
UNESCO (2016). HABITAT III policy paper 2 – sociocultural urban frameworks (unedited). Retrieved
from http://www.unesco.org/new/fileadmin/MULTIMEDIA/HQ/CLT/pdf/Policy-Paper-EN.pdf
Watson, D., Plattus, A. & Shibley, R. (2003). Time-saver standards for urban design. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.: USA

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 22 of 190

Topic 3. ELEMENTS OF THE URBAN STRUCTURE

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Briefly define the elements of the urban structure.
2. Describe a community using the elements of the urban structure.
3. Recognize the role of the urban structural elements in shaping the overall community
environment.

Test what you know

1. Video Resource: Watch the video clip:
Urban Geography: Why We Live Where We Do. Source:
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aQSxPzafO_k
2. Discussion Question: What do you think was the main element that provided the
organization of the urban structure of the cities presented in the video clip? Why do you
say so?
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2)0 of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?

Discussion
I. The Goals of Urban Design
To design and build urban developments which are:
A. Structurally sound
B. Functional
C. Gives pleasure to those who see the development

II. Key Aspects of Urban Design

A. Places for People
 For places to be well-used and well-loved, they must be safe, comfortable, varied
and attractive.
 They also need to be distinctive and offer variety, choice and fun.
 Vibrant places offer opportunities for meeting people, playing in the street and
watching the world go by

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B. Enriching the Existing
 Encourage a distinctive response that arises from and complements its setting.
This concept applies to every scale - the region, the city, the town, the
neighborhood, and the street.
C. Makes Connection
 Integrate places physically and visually with their surroundings for easy access.
This theory gives attention to getting around by foot, bicycle, public transport and
the car - and in that order.
D. Works with the Landscape
 Strike a balance between the natural and man-made environment and
utilize each site’s intrinsic resources - the climate, landform, landscape and
ecology to maximize energy conservation and amenity
E. Mix Use and Forms
 Stimulating, enjoyable and convenient places meet a variety of demands from the
widest possible range of users, amenities and social groups. They also weave
together different building forms, uses, tenures and densities
F. Manage the Investment
 Well-developed and well-cared places must be economically viable, well-managed
and maintained. This practice means understanding the market considerations of
developers, ensuring long term commitment from the community and the local
authority, defining appropriate delivery mechanisms and seeing this as part of the
design process
G. Design for Change
 New development should be flexible enough to respond to future changes in use,
lifestyle and demography. This concept also means designing for energy and
resource efficiency, creating flexibility in the use of property, public spaces and the
service infrastructure and introducing new approaches to transportation, traffic
management and parking.

III. The Urban Structure

A. What is the urban structure
 The urban structure refers to the pattern or arrangement of development blocks,
streets, buildings, opens spaces and landscapes, which make up the urban areas.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 24 of 190

 It is the interrelationship between these elements, rather than their particular
characteristics that bonds together to make a place.
B. Why is urban structure important?
The urban structure provides the foundations for the detailed design of the
constituent elements. It creates a coherent framework which forms the basis of the
design of individual developments, to achieve the following:
1. Integration – or the connection and overlap with surrounding areas
2. Functional efficiency – to ensure that the individual elements (buildings, streets,
open spaces, etc.) work together as part of an efficient whole
3. Environmental harmony – to create development forms that are energy efficient
and ecologically sensitive
4. A sense of place – to create and strengthen a recognizable, distinct local identity.
5. Commercial viability – to respond to the realities of market influence on
development mix and deliver

IV. The Visual Elements of the City: The City Image and its Elements (Kevin Lynch, 1960)
The public image of any city overlaps with many individual images or a series of public
images, which is significant to several citizens. Each individual picture is unique, while
rarely or never communicated, approximates the public image. In different environments,
these images are more or less compelling, more or less embracing. Imageability, in
particular, emphasizes the effects of physical, perceptible objects, which also influences
the social meaning of an area, its function, its history, or even its name.
The actual design of the urban form, thus, should reinforce its meaning, and not negate
it. The elements of the city images, which refer to the physical forms, are conveniently
classified into five types of elements: paths, edges, districts, nodes, and landmarks, which
appear in many types of environmental images.

Source: https://ecemekren.files.wordpress.com/2019/10/city-image-elements.png?w=840

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 25 of 190

The elements of the city are defined as follows:
1. Paths
 Paths are the channels along which the observer customarily, occasionally, or
potentially moves. Paths are the predominant elements of the city image that
arranges and relates the other environmental elements.
 These may be streets, walkways, transit lines, canals, railroads. For many
people, these are. People observe the city while moving through these paths.
2. Edges
 Edges are the linear elements denoting the boundaries between two phases,
linear breaks in continuity: shores, railroad cuts, edges of development, walls.
 These edges may be barriers, more or less penetrable, which close one region
off from another, or they may be seams, lines along which join and relate two
together.
 Although not as dominant as paths, many people use these edges as
organizing features, particularly in the role of holding together generalized
areas, like the outline of a city by water or wall.
3. Districts
 Districts are medium-to-large sections or areas of the city, which are
recognized as having some common, identifying character.
 Districts are two-dimensional extent, which the observer mentally enters
“inside of.” It is always easily identifiable from the inside and used as an
exterior reference if visible from the outside.
4. Nodes
 Nodes are strategic points or spots in a city that are intensive foci of movement,
like junctions, places of a break in transportation, a crossing or convergence
of paths, or moments of shift from one structure to another.
 Nodes may also simply be areas of concentration gaining their importance
from the use or physical character, as a street-corner hangout or an enclosed
square, which either radiates influence or serves as the focus or the symbol
and epitome of a district
 Nodes may also be called cores because of their nature as both as a junction
and a concentration. Since junctions are typically the convergence of paths,
nodes also relate to the concept of a path. Similarly, it also relates to the
concept of the district since cores are typically the intensive foci of districts, a
1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 26 of 190
polarizing center. In any event, some nodal points are found in almost every
image, and in certain cases, they may be the dominant feature.
5. Landmarks
 Landmarks are external of point-references, usually simply defined as physical
objects like building, sign, store, or mountain. They are frequently used as
clues of identity and even of structure. They seem to be increasingly relied
upon as a journey becomes more and more familiar.
 Landmarks may be within the city or at such a distance that, for all practical
purposes, they symbolize a constant direction. Other landmarks, on the other
hand, are primarily local, being visible only in restricted localities and from
certain approaches.
Element Interrelations
The elements of the city are simply the raw material of the environmental image at
the city scale. They must be patterned together to provide a satisfying form. Choosing
elements based on their interaction with other elements may reinforce one another,
resonate so that the elements enhance each other’s power, or they may conflict and
destroy themselves.
A great landmark, for example, may dwarf and throw out of scale a small region at
its base. However, if properly located, it may fix and strengthen a core. A large street,
with its ambiguous character of both edge and path, may penetrate and expose a region
to view, while at the same time disrupting it. A landmark feature may be alien to the
character of a district that it dissolves the regional continuity. On the other hand, it may
stand in contrast that intensifies that continuity.
Districts in particular, which tend to be larger than the other elements, contain within
themselves. They contain various paths, nodes, and landmarks, thereby intensifying
the identity of the whole by enriching and deepening its character, given the right
treatment and manipulation. All the elements operate together in a context that makes
the urban pattern more interesting.

V. The Structural Elements of the Urban Structure

A. The Movement Framework
The movement framework concerns the structural aspects of movement, focusing
on the street and footpath networks, and the possibility and practicability of providing

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 27 of 190

convenience, ease and attractiveness to walking, cycling or traveling either through
public transit or private car.
Providing the right kinds of routes to fit the journeys that people want to make means
considering and assessing countless factors, many of them are quite intangible.
Predicting vehicle movements is only one part. How people experience their journey
(especially on foot) is just as important.
1. Characteristics of a Successful Movement Framework
 Provide the maximum choice for how people will make their journeys,
 Takes full account of the kinds of movement any development will generate, and
 Makes clear connections to existing routes and facilities
2. Movement Assessment Criteria
The quality of different routes can be rated to help decide which should be
developed, where improvements are needed, or whether old routes should be re-
established to improve movement through an area, not just to and from the new site.

Movement Criteria
 Safety  Underpasses
 Air quality  Severance
 Convenience of journey  Noise
 Speed  Pollution
 Walking down and up curbs  Visual amenity
 Pedestrian crossings  Variety in visual amenity
 Pedestrian and cycle (Toucan)  Pavement congestion
crossings  Road congestion
 Segregated path  Quality of pavements
 Quality of transport  Quality of roads
 Overbridges or Overpasses  Cycle facilities

B. Energy Efficiency
Systems should consider the hierarchy of maximizing the use of renewable energy
resources, like (1) sun, (2) rainwater, (3) ground, and (4) wind, while minimizing
environmental demands and ensure the efficient conversion or disposal of waste.
C. Density, Facilities and Form
Density is a measure. It is a product of design, not a determinant of it. Higher
density is sometimes equated with poor urban quality, such as overcrowding and
reduced spaced standards. However, the focus should be on the generation of a
critical mass of people to be able to support urban services such as public transport,
local shops and schools instead of on residential density only.

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Benefits of Higher Densities
*Density – is a measure of the number of people per area.
a. Social  Social proximity encourages positive interaction and diversity.
 Improves viability of and access to community services
 Enables more and better integrated social housing
b. Economic  Enhances economic viability of development
 Provides economies of infrastructure
c. Transport  Supports public transport
 Reduces car travel and parking demand
 Makes basement parking economically viable
d. Environmental  Increases energy efficiency
 Decreases resource consumption
 Creates less pollution
 Preserves and helps fund maintenance of public open space
 Reduces overall demand for development lane – avoiding sprawl.

D. Landscape
The landscape, development block, and movement framework are the three main
design elements of an urban project of any scale. A quality landscape and urbanism
should go hand in hand.
A key design principle is to treat everything as a landscape. Buildings define the
edge of space, while Landscape occupies space, whether it is a park, a street, a fence
or a pavement. Designing the landscape structure before the traffic engineer becomes
involved means avoiding Space Left Over After Planning (SLOAP).
A Typology of Open Spaces

 Greenway  Green
 Waterway  Square
 Meadow  Plaza
 Woodland/Nature Reserves  Communal Garden
 Playing Field  Private Garden
 Churchyard, Cemetery  Playground
 Allotments  Courtyard
 Park  Atrium

E. Landmarks, Vistas and Focal Point

The design of streets, the concentration of commercial, community and civic uses
in centers and the use of distinctive landscaping and building forms will all help create
a place that is legible and easy to read. This factor is crucial if users are to orient
themselves within a place and between different places.

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Landmarks provide reference points and emphasize the hierarchy of place and
provide key direction. Views and vistas aligned with key buildings are particularly
useful to the visitor. The most memorable routes are often those with a varied
sequence of long and short views, terminate with landmarks. Main junction,
roundabouts, footpaths, carparks, rail and bus stations are all arrival points.
Emphasizing their prominence is important to clarify where the center begins, and to
prevent the indistinguishable blurring of center and edge.
F. Mixing Uses
Successful communities require a full range of conveniently-sited and comfortably
connected local services and facilities, including commercial, educational, health,
spiritual and civic uses.
A sustainable local neighborhood is a product of the distances people have to walk
to access daily facilities, the presence of a sufficient range of such facilities to support
their needs, places and spaces where a variety of activities can take place.
Benefits of Mixed Development
a. More convenient access to facilities
b. Travel-to-work congestion is minimized
c. Greater opportunities for social interaction
d. Socially diverse communities
e. Visual stimulation and delight of different buildings within proximity
f. A greater feeling of safety with “eyes on the streets.”
g. Greater energy efficiency and more efficient use of space and buildings
h. More consumer choice of lifestyle, location and building type
i. Urban vitality and street life
j. Increased visibility of urban facilities and support for small business (such as
corner shops)
G. Blocks
 The development block is the land area defined by the grid.
 It can vary considerably in shape and size according to the configuration of streets,
preferred orientation and topography, as well as the nature of plot subdivisions
and accommodated building types.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 30 of 190

 The optimum size of development blocks is a trade-off between (a) ease of access,
(b) the ability to sustain a variety of building types and uses, and (c) the ability to
change and adapt over time.

H. Parcels and Plots

 Development parcels are tracts of
land, usually under single
ownership, and are the basis of
most new developments, like
subdivisions, estates, etc.
 Plots, on the other hand, are much
smaller increments or landholdings
that form the basis for much of our
built heritage – giving established
centers and their variety and fine
urban grain.

Source:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/331219
791/figure/fig1/AS:728207644958721@1550629
640756/The-building-plots-reconstruction-
parcels-and-social-facility-areas.png

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VI. Summary of the Structure of Urban Design

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity
Project SimCity Development:
 Rationalize the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based
on the structural elements of urban design discussed. Support with the required
screenshots.
2. Study Questions: Answer the questions based on the learning resources.
a. Describe the role of the structural elements of urban design in the shaping of the
community.
b. Describe an urban community that is structurally and functionally sound, and
aesthetically pleasing.
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 32 of 190

 Go around your immediate community. Identify your location.
 Compile at least one photograph (you can reuse the photographs from the previous
lesson) corresponding to the structural elements of urban design of the immediate
vicinity where you live.
 Using the photographs briefly describe your community according to the structural
elements presented.
4. Discussion Forum 2. Read to (2) of your classmate’s works. Do you agree with their
assessment of their community? Why do you say so?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

References
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey
Urban Design Compendium Vol. 1 The Housing Corporation. Retrieved from
https://www.diba.cat/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=263508c9-9337-4076-bf53-
2f0f2318364c&groupId=7294824#:~:text=The%20purpose%20of%20the%20Urban,developing
%20and%20restoring%20urban%20areas.&text=It%20is%20principally%20about%20the,desig
n%20in%20creating%20the%20product.
Watson, D., Plattus, A. & Shibley, R. (2003). Time-saver standards for urban design. McGraw-Hill
Companies, Inc.: USA

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 33 of 190

Topic 4. THE CREATION OF SENSE OF PLACE AND SENSE OF TIME

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Describe the factors influencing the creation of a community sense of place and sense of
time.
2. Explain the meaning of “sense of place” and “sense of time” in community planning.
3. Understand the importance of creating a sense of space and time in community planning.

Test what you know

1. Video Presentation: Watch the video clip and answer the question.
The Pearls of Urban Design | Cynthia Albright | TEDxUniversityofNevada. Source:
https://youtu.be/IdPvKoq6e90
2. Discussion Question: What is the meaning of legibility and imageability based on the video
clip? Why do you say so?
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answer?

Discussion
Part of the urban design lexicon is the “genius loci,” which is the prevalent feeling or
spirit of the place. The landscape and its overall structure, including district, street, and
buildings, make up the perceptions and understanding of a place They arise from
understanding the physical and human geography, the history and morphology of past uses,
the natural landscape and buildings, both on a site and around it.
I. Classifying Places
A. Regions
Regions are areas that have a characteristic or group of characteristics that
distinguish them from other areas. Factors like political, physical, biological, social,
economic, cultural, or other factors delineate one region from another. The term “region”
also distinguishes multijurisdictional areas, such as those composed of more than one
town, city, county, state, or nation. Environmental scientists, on the other hand, identify
regions with parts of the surface of Earth, such as drainage basins, physiographic
provinces, climatic zones, or faunal areas. It is important to understand that different
types of regions exist and that the idea of regions presents an important concept for

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 34 of 190

planning and urban design. Likewise, the structural and functional organization of these
factors varies from place to place.
Types of Regions
1. Political Regions are civil divisions of areas, at easily recognizable scales, e.g.,
barangay, municipality, province, region. These types of regions, also known as
governmental jurisdictions, define areas that possess certain legislative and
regulatory functions, important to planners and designers.
2. Biophysical Regions are regions described as the pattern of interacting biological
and physical phenomena present in a given area, e.g., watersheds.
3. Ecological Regions are areas delineated through the mapping of physical
information, such as elevation, slope, aspect, and climate, plus the distribution of
plants and animal species.
4. Sociocultural Regions represent a type of region defined as territories of interest to
people that have one or more distinctive traits that provide the basis for their
identities. These regions also promote wider use of vernacular characterization to
describe the social and cultural components of a region or represent the spatial
perception of indigenous people, which have evolved locally through time, e.g.,
China Town.
5. Economic Regions functionally overlap sociocultural regions since economic
processes often dominate the social processes of a region, e.g., industrial regions.
6. Metropolitan Region are areas having more than one organized political bodies that
address multiple planning issues, including transportation, economic development,
housing, air quality, water quality, and open-space systems, e.g., MMDA, BLISTT
B. Neighborhoods
1. Types of Neighborhood
a. Face-Blocks refer to the two sides of one street between two intersecting
streets. As a planning unit, the face-
block emphasizes on providing a
high level of opportunity for
individual and interpersonal
participation. Block-level planning
focuses on a small-scale change
because individual blocks Source: https://spiritnews.org/wp-
content/uploads/2015/07/1213-n-5th-harman-
deutsch.81.0.1394.667.752.360.c.png

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command limited resources and are too small to wield much influence in the
broader community.
b. Residential Neighborhood focuses
on places to live. Planning at this
level focuses on local issues of
quality of life, including housing,
parks, commercial amenities, and
transportation access.
c. Institutional Neighborhood is a larger
unit with official status as a subarea
Source:
of the city. The institutional https://archinect.imgix.net/uploads/44/442v80
azl631d9iw.jpg?fit=crop&auto=compress%2Cf
neighborhood provides the ormat&w=615
opportunity to focus on organizational and institutional collaboration and may
require the construction of formal mechanisms for citizen participation and
representation.
2. Neighborhood Elements and Characteristics
Neighborhoods exist in specific
contexts. The dynamic relationship among
the factors within this context may be
useful in identifying and determining the
most useful boundaries of a particular
target neighborhood for programmatic
purposes.
a. Informal Networks of Association
Source:
include neighbors relations, activity
https://www.cnu.org/sites/default/files/Alexa
patterns, and informal service ndria%2C%20VA_7.jpg

provisions, which differ across neighborhoods and for a different population and
may provide mechanisms for the agency and social support over-looked in more
formal approaches to the neighborhood.
b. Formal Organizations are important when initiative goals focus on system
change, service provisions, or economic development, the opportunity for
greater access by and accountability to residents.
c. Functional Attributes include those elements that are necessary for day-to-day
living, such as the existence of commercial activities, employment

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opportunities, recreational facilities, educational opportunities and health and
social services.
d. Population Diversity – or homogeneity depends greatly on an initiative’s
particular goals. Homogeneity, from an organizing perspective, gives a clear
basis for identity construction and mobilization of residents, which is beneficial,
particularly in smaller, residential neighborhoods.
3. Boundary Identification
The criteria for boundary selection should reflect the goals and strategies of a
given initiative, consider contextual influences, and examine the set of choices made
regarding appropriate neighborhood scale and the relative importance of various
neighborhood elements. The typology of possible neighborhood definitions implies
certain guidelines regarding boundary identification:
 the face-block is bounded by the first streets that separate a resident’s home
from the aggregation of homes beyond;
 the residential neighborhood implies some consensus regarding boundaries
on the part of residents; and
 the boundaries of an institutional neighborhood have been in some way
made official, codified and recognized by certain organizations and
institutions.
a. Recognized Boundaries imply the existence of some degree of neighborhood
identity and provide the basis for fostering a sense of community, which is also
recognized by a larger community. This organization may help residents and
neighborhood groups to advocate their causes with the government and other
local entities, e.g., industrial villages, penal colonies, etc.
b. Administrative and Political Boundaries tend to define larger areas. This type
of boundary setting is more appropriate for a systems-oriented or institutional
or sector-based approach, e.g., Barangay Victoria, Barangay Irisan, etc.
c. Created Boundaries are areas that are created without functioning as an
administrative unit. The creation of neighborhood governance structure that
can coordinate constituent neighborhood priorities and activities, as well as
represent the neighborhood to the larger community, may help to increase the
long-term impact and sustainability of neighborhood-based work, e.g., The
Muslim communities, etc.

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4. Principles of an Ideal Neighborhood Design (LeGates & Stout in Gottdiener &
Budd, 2005)
a. The neighborhood has a
center to edge.
b. The optimal size of a
neighborhood is a
quarter-mile from the
center to the edge.
c. The neighborhood has a
balanced mix of
activities – dwelling,
shopping, working,
schooling, worshipping
and recreating.
d. The neighborhood structures, building sites and traffic on a fine network of
interconnecting streets.
e. The neighborhood gives priority to public spaces and the appropriate location
of civic buildings.

II. Character and Sense of Place

1. The Key Components of Character Appraisal
In defining the character of a place, consider the following:
a. Regional Identity is the common characteristics of a region or sub-region, which
may relate to climate and physical geography, as well as the socio-economic
profile.
b. Linkages to Surrounding are the characteristics of connection of the settlements
defining the neighborhood in terms of linearity or grid arrangement, etc.
c. Local Character elements establish the local distinctiveness, in both the form of a
place and the way it is used.
d. Morphology elements define the shape to the local morphology (e.g., historical
routes, block patterns, building heights and massing, local vernacular, etc.), and
provides cues for appropriate design forms.
e. Natural Features are particular ecological or geological characteristics that give a
place its distinct and essential character.

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f. Socio-economic Profile determines the demographics of an area and the
particular local traditions and events to draw influences from.
2. Character Appraisal Inventory
Criteria Subject Area Considerations
a. Roles and  Function  Performances relative to
relationships of the  Linkages to wider areas similar areas.
site/area to its  Relationship to adjacent  Identity
strategic concept areas
b. Contiguous Areas  Land uses
 View and skyline
c. Character  Historical developments  Building elements and
appraisal  Settlement pattern fenestration
 Archaeology (initial  Rhythm and pattern
appraisal)  Details and richness
 Cultural characteristics and  Local community
heritage aspirations\Local\regional
 Local history building traditions and
 Color and texture materials
 Local vernacular  Other local
 Façade treatments traditions\Events/festivals
 Roofscape  Place names
 Natural
environment/ecology/local
provenance (e.g., plants,
trees, etc.)
d. Streetscape and  Visual clutter  Street furniture, public
public realm  Lighting information and signing
analysis  Barriers  Public art
 Live edges  Safety
e. Building, structures  Layout and form of spaces  Sense of enclosure\Types
and spaces  Public/private interface of buildings\Continuity of
 Layout and form of building facades]
(including height, scale and  Urban grain\Public and
massing) open spaces
 Age and condition of
buildings and structure
 Relationship between built
and unbuilt form
f. Users and  Ground floors  Arts and culture
activities  Upper floors  Amenities and facilities
 Evening economy\Activity  Education
spines and nodes  Leisure and recreation
 Public and open spaces  Employment
 Wildlife
g. Visual analysis  Images and perception of  Boundaries and barriers
the area  Aesthetic quality
 Gaps and enclosure  Legibility
 Views (local and strategic),
vistas and landmarks
 Skylines
 Gateway and thresholds

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III. Natural Resources and the Sense of Place
A thorough investigation of a site’s natural resources will lead to an overall design
response that integrates the various needs of the new development and identifies
possibilities that the site offers, while recognizing the site’s limitations.
1. Key Considerations of Natural Resources Appraisal
a. Identify landscape assets to preserve are valuable ecological or landscape assets
or spaces, places and landscape assets that need respecting and better left alone,
rather than exploiting.
b. Re-use and repair brownfield land
Brownfield sites - are properties that may have a complicated expansion,
redevelopment, or reuse due to the presence or potential presence of a hazardous
substance, pollutant, or contaminant. These sites will be deficient in natural or
semi-natural assets, such as topographical features, watercourses and planting.
Decontamination or remediation may also cause further impacts on the existing
landscape. On such sites, consider ways of:
 Introducing new landscape features and wildlife habitats
 Restoring damaged parts by re-profiling the slope
 Integrating elements from the site’s past life, such as routes, structures and
buildings
c. Strengthen the identity and structure of the landscape
Identify landscape features for inclusion in a scheme that contributes toward
the unique character of the site. Particularly on greenfield sites or areas of
agricultural or forest land, or some other undeveloped site earmarked for
commercial development or industrial projects, every effort should be made to
work with the grain of the land and incorporate existing features of the landscape
into the design. Reviving historic features provides opportunities to enrich outdoor
space and can include natural and man-made elements, from watercourses and
streams to ancient filed boundaries.
2. Environmental Appraisal Inventory

Criteria Considerations
a. Physical  Ground conditions and soils
environment  Surface and groundwater resources
 Topography and geology
 Climate, microclimate, orientation, exposure
 Air quality
 Hydrology (incl. water quality and watersheds)

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Criteria Considerations
b. Land and land-  Property (residential and commercial)
use  Leisure activities
 Agriculture
 Forestry resources
 Access to countryside
c. Ecology and  Terrestrial and aquatic habitats and communities
nature  Plant and animal species
conservation  Specially protected animals and plants
d. Heritage  Landscape setting, structure and type
 Archaeology
 Historic sites and features
 Cultural interests
e. People  Human health and welfare
 Community and cultural cohesion
 Views
 Noise and vibration
 Transport
 Accessibility

IV. Connections and Sense of Place

The connection between a site and its surroundings are important for the success of
even the smallest of developments. A site that comes up for redevelopment will have
existing points of access, but they may not have the right kind or in the right place.
Watching the way people move through an existing area reveals the various influences
on movement at work. The manner of movement will be influenced by variety and interest,
safety, light and shade, commercial activity, landscape, noise and pollution. The
experiences of foot travel also differ according to the particular needs of individuals (e.g.,
women, children, elderly, disabled, etc.). Movement analysis will suggest how these
considerations can be added to and improved.
1. Key considerations in the contextual analysis of connections
a. How routes from the new site will knit in with the existing infrastructure
b. The provisions made for all forms of movement, with positive discrimination in
favor of walking, cycling and public transport
c. How the new development can benefit the areas as a whole, for instance by the
extension of a bus route, or a more direct footpath to the neighborhood center
d. How movement will be provided for all stages in the development

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 41 of 190

2. Movement Analysis Inventory

Criteria Consideration
a. Circulation  Access and mobility
 Walking
 Cycling
 Public transport
 Private vehicles
 Interchanges
 Permeability
 Barriers
 Right of way
b. Legibility  Points of entry/gateways
 Hierarchy of routes and spaces
c. Traffic generation  Current levels
 Future proposals and projects
d. Accommodating cars  Parking
and service vehicles  Servicing
 Traffic management

V. Neighborhood Centers: Creating of Sense of Place and Sense Of Time

Neighborhood centers are the areas of more intensive urban uses within a
neighborhood. They provide the most localized availability of goods and services needed
daily by area residents. A center also
provides the social and operational focus
of a neighborhood. Residential uses and
neighborhood-oriented, mixed-use
development are inherent to neighborhood
centers, and it relies on the dependency
established between the uses of the center
and the residents. These features of the
neighborhood centers play an important
role in restoring neighborhoods as the
building blocks of community.
A. Community Goals and Planning
Consideration
a. Expand lifestyle choices for
residents by creating greater
residential density to increase

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 42 of 190

fiscal and market capacity for enhanced public and private services.
b. Increase the range of housing types by addressing housing for seniors, mixed-
age, mixed-income, and special-needs populations where their needs can be
met.
c. Provide transportation options by providing alternative transportation options,
including transit, bike lanes and pathways.
d. Create new venues for local employment by providing retail convenience for
better variety and capacity to meet local consumer desires.
e. Provide better access to public services by promoting mixed-use development
for lifestyle convenience and efficient delivery of these services.
f. Increase recreation opportunities and attracting growth with public realm
amenities, such as public art, street furniture, covered sidewalks, street trees,
and parks.
g. Improve environmental quality by preserving the character of the residential
neighborhood through compatible design and scale of structures.
h. Increase ethnic and economic diversity by increasing localized consumer
demand to create new opportunities to employ youth and attract independent
businesses.
i. Bring neighbors together by providing public gathering places such as libraries,
schools, parks, squares, and sidewalk cafes.
j. Make the neighborhood safer by creating a pedestrian-friendly environment.
k. Increase civic participation
B. Neighborhood Center Planning Guidelines
The following are planning guidelines that can serve as a basis upon which to start
identifying potential sites for a neighborhood center. The criteria identified below
assume a typical urban residential density of 5 to 10 dwelling units/acre. Thus, the
added convenience of proximity increases the rate of patronage of the center’s
residents, raising the market capture of center businesses even more. Further, these
criteria should be modified to suit the particular conditions of a community.
a. One center serves as the focus of a neighborhood.
b. At least 1.60 km (1 mile) between centers, to isolate market demand for each
center’s retail and service uses.
c. Mixed-use center core of 15 to 25 blocks (each at 300 feet (91 m) 300 feet = 2
acres 0.81 has.

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d. Located the core at the intersection of neighborhood collectors, along one side
of a major arterial that serves as a boundary for the area, or focused on the
primary quadrant of any existing neighborhood shopping district intersected by
arterials.
e. The center perimeter defined as a 0.40 km (1/4-mile) walking distance from the
core, or approximately 40 to 60 blocks in area
f. The area within the perimeter outside the mixed-use center core provides a
range of housing types and densities, for approximately 3,000 to 4,000
residents.
C. Neighborhood Center Features
The specific amount and mix of commercial uses in the center depend upon local
conditions and the neighborhood planning process involving community stakeholders.
A sample list of commercial uses includes the following:
a. Retail: grocery, books/music/videos, culinary, flowers, gifts, clothes, art/office
supply (some with size limitations)
b. Professional office: medical and financial (may be desirable to limit drive-through
access)
c. Personal services: salon/barber, counseling
d. Eating and drinking establishments (with size limitations)
e. Entertainment and culture (theaters limited to one or two screens, for example)
f. Winery and microbreweries
g. Public facilities: elementary school, branch library, fire and police stations,
branch post office
h. Religious facilities
i. Other features:
 Sheltered transit stops along a primary street;
 Defined pedestrian routes connecting the greater neighborhood to the
center;
 A focal point, such as a square or public facility, e.g., a library; and
 imageability, which considers architectural compatibility, preserved history,
consistent signing, controlled lighting, distinct street furniture, and other
elements that add to the neighborhood’s identity as a distinct place.

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D. Neighborhood Zoning Guidelines
When looking at the overall composition of a neighborhood center, the following
ratios can generally be applied to the division of land uses, expressed in gross
aggregate site area:
a. Between 40 and (preferably) 60 percent in
higher density residential use
b. Between 20 and 30 percent in mixed-use retail
and service uses, with residential above
c. The remaining 10 to 40 percent (depending
upon the composition of residential and
commercial chosen) in public uses, such as a
park, library, school or other public gathering
spaces
A range of housing types in a variety of densities
is essential to create transitions in use intensity and
to respond to changes in markets and lifestyles.

E. Form Guidelines
Neighborhood centers proposed for already-established neighborhoods need to
be compatible with the current residents’ perception of “fit” and attractiveness. These
neighborhood form guidelines should be developed to create a center that is well
integrated into the existing neighborhood fabric, respects existing residences, and
advances the community’s planning considerations, and based upon local conditions
and community desires.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 45 of 190

VI. Walkability
Walking is the most basic model of transportation available to human beings. It has
been a factor in the design of communities from the earliest human settlements. Recently,
the terms “walkable” and “walkability” have been given new meaning to address the multiple
problems caused by designing communities prioritizing automobiles, including concerns
over the negative health impacts of sedentary lifestyles. The focus of walkability and the
role of walking, thus, is promoting the health, safety, and welfare of residents.
With this, “walkable” and “walkability” refer to the
broad range of community design features that support
walking, which considers the mix of land uses along the
site and roadway network and to the design of sidewalks,
crosswalks, building façades, benches, and other
elements of human-scale design. A walkable community,
therefore, is a place in which residents of all ages and
abilities feel that it is safe, comfortable, convenient,
efficient, and welcoming to walk, not only for recreation
but also for utility and transportation.
A. Walking Speeds and Distances
An average adult walks 3.0 to 4.0 feet per second
(1.0 to 1.2 m). Transportation planners use 4.0 feet
(1.2 m) per second as the length of time pedestrians
need to cross a street. However, children, seniors,
and people with disabilities may walk only 2.0 or 2.5
feet (0.60 – 0.76 m) per second. This standard can
possibly be reduced to 3.5 feet (1.1 m) per second,
which recognizes the overall aging of the population.
The speed at which people walk is the critical
measure that helps define the size of a walkable
community or neighborhood. Most residents typically
walk to destinations that are five minutes from their
homes (Untermann, 1984). If the distance is greater,
people with access to an automobile are more likely
to use it, unless the quality of the walking experience is high or there are constraints on

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 46 of 190

driving such as traffic congestion, limited parking, or parking charges, for example. At
3.0 feet (0.91 m) per second, a person can walk from 1/6 to 1/3 of a mile (0.26 – 0.54
km) in 5 to 10 minutes. At 4.0 feet (1.20 m) per second, a person can reach a destination
of 1/4 mile (0.40 km) in 5.5 minutes. With 1/4-mile (0.40 km) walk as the standard, a
walkable neighborhood covers approximately 125 acres (50.59 has).
B. Width Needs For Walking
An average-sized person requires 1.5 to 2.0 feet (0.46 – 0.61 m of width while
standing. A person walking needs approximately 3 to 4 feet (0.91 - 1.2 m) of width, to
allow for swaying or carrying a bag or briefcase. Since walking is often a social activity,
a minimum of 5.0 feet (1.52 m) of clear, unobstructed space for two individuals to walk
side by side is required. When a sidewalk is adjacent to a wall, building, or fence, an
additional 1.0 to 2.0 feet (0.30 – 0.61 m) of “shy” distance should be provided.
C. Sidewalk Design
Well-designed sidewalks provide the necessary
comfort, safety, and sense of welcome to support walking.
Sidewalks should be designed with a buffer between the
sidewalk and the street. In commercial areas, the buffer is
often the “furniture zone” where utility poles, trees,
hydrants, signs, benches, transit shelters, and planters
should be placed. The furniture zone in a low-density
commercial zone should be a minimum of 4.0 feet (1.20 m)
wide and commonly is 5.0 to 8.0 feet (1.52 – 2.44 m) wide.
In residential areas, the planted area should be a minimum
of 6.0 feet (1.82 m) for healthy tree growth. However, even
in constrained situations, a narrower planting strip should
be included. The planted strip buffers pedestrians from
motor vehicles and helps accommodate the curb- without
having to slope the sidewalk. (See requirements of BP 344
for cross-slopes.)
If space limitations do not permit a planting strip, and
the sidewalk must be attached to the curb, provide an extra
1.0 to 2.0 feet in width as an added buffer. Avoid rolled curbs; they typically result in
drivers parking up on the sidewalk.

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D. Street Design
The design of the streets influences an individual’s feeling of safety or comfort when
walking. Residential streets need to be designed to maintain speeds below 25 mph to
encourage people to walk. Busier avenues should be designed to maintain speeds
below 35 mph. In residential areas, this usually translates into narrow streets with short
blocks and compact intersections on which motorists feel uncomfortable traveling faster
than the 25 mph “design speed.”
E. Crosswalk Design
Crosswalks expose pedestrians to the greatest danger. Thus they should be well-
marked crosswalks for safety. Slower vehicle speeds and shorter crossing distances
help improve safety. Streets with on-street parking, curb extensions—also called
“neckdowns” or “bulb-outs”—located at intersections and midblock crossing locations,
provide multiple benefits. They help slow traffic entering and exiting the street, reduce
the crossing distance, and make it easier to see and be seen by motorists. In
commercial areas, crosswalks should be at least 12 feet wide to allow people to flow in
both directions. On wide streets, median refuges or islands with a median “nose” can
provide added protection for pedestrians.
Ideally, the clear path for
pedestrians through the
median island should be 6.0
feet (1.82 m). At mid-block
crossing locations, refuge
islands are strongly
recommended. An innovative
design for median refuges
angles the crossing area by
45 degrees, which forces
pedestrians to look in the
direction of oncoming traffic.
F. Land-Use Mix
A mix of land use is the
key to ensuring that there are
nearby destinations to which people can walk. A traditional neighborhood pattern,

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 48 of 190

where walkable community design is based on, includes retail, civic, educational, and
recreational uses near residential uses. In a walkable community, a “pedestrian shed”
is the area within the 1/4-mile to 1/2-mile (0.40 – 0.80 km) radius that people will walk.
At appropriate density levels, a pedestrian shed can typically support a neighborhood
commercial center or school. This mix of uses not only provides destinations close
enough to encourage people to walk but can help provide security through more “eyes
on the street” at different times of the day and night.
G. Route Connectivity
Walkable communities need multiple route connections to minimize lengthy
pedestrian detours to reach their destinations. A detour of 200 feet (60 m), which is
imperceptible to a motorist, adds travel time for a pedestrian. Small blocks, typically
less than 300 feet long, with multiple connections, are critical to supporting walkability.
Most pedestrians will not walk more than 150 to 200 feet (45.72 – 60.96 m) out of
their way to cross the street at an intersection. Thus, areas with a high volume of
pedestrians, e.g., blocks that are longer than 400 feet (121.92 m), should provide
carefully designed midblock crossings with curb extensions, median refuges, and other
features to ensure pedestrian safety. Where the street network is interrupted for any
reason, safe trail connections should be provided for pedestrians and bicyclists. Since
high connectivity road network helps to prevent funneling large volumes of motor vehicle
traffic onto high-speed, high-capacity arterials, these roadways are typically not
accommodating to pedestrians and pose a significant barrier to walkability.
H. Site Planning Considerations
Locate automobile-oriented elements, such as driveways, garages, parking lots, and
drive-through establishments, away from sidewalks and the pedestrian realm to the
extent possible. In residential neighborhoods, garages should be either set back or
accessed through alleys, where possible. Windows and porches should be provided on
the front of residential structures. In commercial districts, buildings should provide a
continuous street wall with activated spaces and transparency at the ground-floor level
to draw pedestrians along the street. Blank walls should be avoided, and parking lots
should be placed behind buildings. Front entrances should face the street with
secondary access from parking lots, if necessary. The placement of buildings close to
the property line, with windows looking out on the sidewalk, improves safety and

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 49 of 190

surveillance and helps create the sense of enclosure that human beings find more
comfortable.
I. Human-Scale Design
Designing walkable communities requires greater attention to detail than designing
for the motorist. Pedestrians who are traveling at 3.5 feet (1.1 m) per second notice the
details on a building’s façade, items in a display window, the slope of a sidewalk, or the
quality of a bench. Urban designers and planners need to work closely with architects
and traffic engineers to ensure that the many details that comprise the street and
sidewalk are carefully considered. Human-scale design can help make the pedestrian
feel welcome.

VII.Streetscape
Streetscape design in the broadest sense refers to the design of a street, including the
roadbed, sidewalks, landscape planting, and character of the adjacent building façade or
planted setback. Each of these individual parts is important in successful streetscape
design.
Memorable sidewalks and streets that are oriented toward the pedestrian experience
characterize excellence in streetscape design. Special attention to the streetscape with a
consistent focus on implementation can establish a new and welcoming character for a
whole city or neighborhood. Several individual elements can be used to shape the character
of sidewalks and overall street elements, including street furniture, landscape planting,
lighting, and other amenities. Successful streetscape design balances the desire for
pedestrian amenities, such as benches and street trees, with an understanding of the
functional aspects of streets and sidewalks.
Planners, designers, and developers can
design and implement streetscapes at a variety of
scales:
a. The sidewalk in front of an individual
property
b. Individual streets
c. Larger street networks in
neighborhoods and districts
d. Entire communities and municipalities

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A. Sidewalk Zones and Dimensions
An important characteristic of sidewalks is the pedestrian “path of travel.” A typical
sidewalk has three zones: the building zone, the path of travel, and the curb zone.
Successful streetscape designs accommodate a clear path of travel, typically in the
center of the sidewalk. The curb zone, on the outer edge of the sidewalk, is typically the
location of streetscape amenities. All sidewalks should comply with the BP 344
requirements to accommodate a clear path of travel. When including streetscape
amenities, such as street furniture or landscape planting, provide increased sidewalk
width in addition to the path of travel. For example, sidewalks with street trees typically
require a 10-foot-wide sidewalk to accommodate a six-foot pedestrian path and the four-
foot-wide tree bed.
B. Location of Streetscape Amenities
The majority of public streetscape
amenities are located in the curb zone of
the sidewalk, often clustered at
intersections. In some communities, the
sidewalk is enlarged at the intersection,
referred to as a “bulb-out.” Bulb-outs can
accommodate more streetscape elements, Bulb-out Street
Source:
such as trees and benches, and can serve https://i1.wp.com/www.sfbetterstreets.org/wp-
content/uploads/2012/04/bulb-out-shape-
as a traffic-calming measure. alternatives.jpg

C. Pedestrian Levels Of Service (LOS)

The Pedestrian LOS calculation is the ratio of average sidewalk width and the total
volume of pedestrians in a given period. Wide sidewalks in conjunction with a high
pedestrian LOS can seem empty and uninviting;
narrow sidewalks with several streetscape
elements can result in both physical and visual
clutter and a low pedestrian LOS. Identify the
current pedestrian level of service and the level
the community would like as a basis for
determining the number of pedestrian amenities
that can be accommodated comfortably on any
given sidewalk.

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D. Standards and Regulations
At local levels, the local government (LGU) regulate streetscape design and
implementation, which varies for each community. For street design and landscape, the
local agencies and regulations, applicable local codes and ordinances should be
consulted.
E. Streetscape Elements
1. Paving
Paving material is perhaps the most visually prominent
streetscape element. The choice of paving material often
depends on the scale of the sidewalk, the overall character
and design intent of the street, and local climate
conditions. For cities in colder weather climates, use more
durable materials that allow for expansion and contraction
in extreme temperatures, and that can withstand the use
of salt and other melting agents. For locations that receive
higher levels of rainfall throughout the year, use materials
with more surface texture, as they will provide greater
traction. Long-term maintenance and replacement should
be considered throughout the design process.
The most common and economical choice of material
is scored concrete. Dyes can be added to concrete to add
color and character to the pavement and retain its cost and
maintenance benefits. Stone or brick pavers are more
expensive paving material. Hence they are often reserved
for more ceremonial or special streets, such as the main street. Some harder
stones, such as granite, which can hold up under the pressures of everyday use of
the sidewalks, can be used as curbs. Because special paving materials are often
more expensive, economical solutions can be derived by combining concrete and
special pavers in a variety of interesting patterns along the sidewalk.
Special paving can also be used in crosswalks or entire intersections as a design
element or a traffic calming measure. Colored concrete or pavers in a crosswalk
provide a visual clue to changes in the character of the street and raised crosswalks
make drivers more aware of driving through a pedestrian zone.

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2. Landscape Planting
Street trees and other plant materials add color, visual interest, and living and
ever-changing texture to a streetscape. Landscape planting can soften the hard
surfaces of sidewalks and help improve air quality. Unlike most streetscape
elements, street trees and plantings change over time, require continual
maintenance, and can cause problems such as roots cracking sidewalks and leaves
clogging sewer grates. Even with the potential problems, street landscape planting
is often the first choice for many communities when seeking to improve street
character. These following are few rules of thumb to consider when in landscape
planting along streets.
a. Street Trees
The most visually prominent of
all street planting is the street tree.
Street tree selection should include
consideration for the community’s
recommended tree list, its overall
aesthetic desire, climatic concerns,
the potential for disease and pests, maintenance requirements, the space
available for root growth, and the size of a mature tree crown and canopy.
The total volume of soil in which trees are planted will affect the size of the
mature tree. Greater room for roots to
grow allows for larger trees with more
expansive tree canopies.
b. Residential Streets
Street trees on residential streets are
typically located in a planted strip
between the sidewalk and the curb.
When selecting a tree species, consider
the size of the individual mature tree
canopy and root system, so that trees will
not compete for light and nutrients.

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c. Commercial Streets
Street trees on more commercial streets are often in containers or linear
planting strips on the sidewalk. The tree species selected may depend on the
desires of adjacent business and property owners, because they are often
concerned about trees blocking their storefront windows. Thus, smaller, more
ornamental trees or trees with higher or lighter canopies are often chosen.
On many commercial streets, especially in more recent developments,
street trees often compete with underground utilities for space, which can limit
the number and location of trees. Wider commercial sidewalks often provide
enough room to accommodate both underground utilities in the pedestrian
path of travel and street trees in the curb zone. Narrower commercial
sidewalks can be more limited in their capability to do so.
d. Trees in Medians
On commercial
and larger
residential streets,
trees can be
planted in medians,
either in the center
of the street or in
the area separating
through-lanes from local traffic and
parking lanes. Medians typically
need to be at least 6 to 10 feet (1.8
– 3.0 m) wide (excluding the curb
dimension), depending upon local
regulations, to accommodate a
mature street tree. Medians wider
than 10 feet (3.0 m) can also
include strips of special paving
along the curb, to provide
maintenance access.

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e. Tree Crown
On streets with buildings located adjacent to the property line, regardless
of the type of land use, when selecting the tree
species to plant, consider the mature shape of the
tree crown, to prevent the tree canopy from growing
into the building wall and potentially requiring severe
pruning over time.
f. Tree Base Covers and Tree Guards
When trees are located within the sidewalk,
some form of water-permeable materials, which can
range from metal tree grates to stone or brick
pavers, decomposed granite, or other crushed
stones, typically covers the base of the tree. The
selected covering should be stable enough for
pedestrians to walk on it. In some cases, metal tree
grates can be accepted for use within the accessible
paths of travel. Most types of tree base covering are
designed to allow for the continual growth of the tree
trunk.
Wooden stakes or more elaborate metal tree
guards help support and or protect fairly small and
newly planted street trees as they grow. Wooden
stakes are a temporary solution; metal tree guards
are more permanent and should be sized to
accommodate the diameter of the mature tree trunk to avoid hindering the
growth of the tree
g. Small-Scale Landscape Planting
Other landscape elements of the streetscape
include planted beds in the ground or raised
planters, hanging planters attached to light fixtures
or buildings, and plantings in medians. Any
landscape planting within the sidewalk needs to
allow a clear path of pedestrian travel. As such, it

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 55 of 190

is typically found in the curb zone or private planters within the building zone
if the width of the sidewalk permits.
Medians between 2 and 6 feet (0.60 – 1.80 m) wide, excluding curb
dimensions, can easily accommodate small-scale plantings, such as grasses
and bushes.
h. Borrowed Landscapes
Although not located within the public
right-of-way, planting on adjacent private
property often plays an integral role in the
overall landscape character of a street.
These landscape elements are
“borrowed” landscapes and can provide a
visual buffer, and natural transition
between a street and adjacent land uses,
or between different land uses.
Depending on plant types and density,
the borrowed landscape may also provide physical barriers and noise
reduction from street traffic.
3. Street Lighting
Exterior street lighting provides
general illumination for safety and
wayfinding purposes for both
pedestrians and motorists.
Lighting is used to illuminate
buildings, landscapes, roadways,
parking areas, signs, and other
outdoor areas, as well as
advertising in certain instances. In
addition to being a practical
consideration, the choice of light
fixtures, location, type of lighting
source, and illumination patterns
are also design elements.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 56 of 190

Sufficient lighting likewise increases security and decreases opportunities for
criminal activity. Lighting greatly affects the overall perception of safety. Lighting
design considering sufficient lighting levels and proper glare control is critical to
preserving visibility and helping pedestrians and drivers see potentially dangerous
situations. The use of multiple light sources is preferable to fewer, brighter light
fixtures. Insufficient or uneven lighting can cast shadows where an assailant might
hide. Too much light can also be a problem, creating an unattractive image or a
nuisance to residents. For maintenance, durable and easily maintained lighting
fixtures are better. Consider any special conditions that may affect lighting. For
example, a senior citizen’s residential complex may require increased illumination
for night lighting or advertisement.

The color of the light cast is also an important consideration in streetscape

design. Avoid light sources such as high-pressure sodium that has poor color
retention can create a yellowish glow on the street. White-light sources such as
metal halide, fluorescent, and compact fluorescent luminaires are recommended for
sidewalks and other pedestrian areas and situations requiring color discrimination.
Also, individual fixture’s specifications to determine if the color rendering, lamp life,
and starting temperatures are appropriate for the street being designed.
Street lighting design should also consider light pollution or light with no useful
purpose. Inefficient light sources and certain types of light fixtures cause this energy
waste. Some communities have developed outdoor lighting ordinances that
regulate a variety of types of light pollution. When specifying the type and location
of street light fixtures, address the different types of light pollution and available
design and manufacturing solutions.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 57 of 190

4. Street Furniture
Street furniture includes the smaller-scale
amenities located on sidewalks that add scale,
functionality and a human element to the
streetscape. Types of street furniture include
benches, tables and chairs, trash receptacles,
bicycle racks, drinking fountains, and other
items as desired. Street furniture is also
typically fixed in place, with removable
elements as required, such as trash receptacle
liners.
Durability and ease of maintenance are
important factors is the selection of permanent
street furniture. The placement of street
furniture is based on function and needs and
may be included as part of communitywide
streetscape requirements. The most common
location for street furniture is within the curb
zone of the sidewalk or often clustered near
intersections, where pedestrians wait while
crossing the street. However, provide a clear
area of at least 10 feet (3.0 m) immediately adjacent to the intersection.
a. Benches
Benches are essential to making a
sidewalk pedestrian-friendly. Benches can
also include a center or intermediate arm that
can discourage loitering or sleeping on the
bench.
Benches are often located in high-use or
high pedestrian traffic areas and are typically
fixed-in place for security purposes and
placed parallel to the sidewalk facing either
direction.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 58 of 190

Typically, if located in the curb zone, they face either a building or the street;
if placed in the building zone, they face the street. In bulb-outs at intersections,
benches may also be placed perpendicular to the sidewalk. Bench location
should be coordinated with transit services to be compatible with stops and
waiting areas.
b. Trash Receptacles
Trash receptacles are among the most ubiquitous elements of a streetscape
and come in a variety of types and materials.
Many styles can also include an attached
receptacle, often on the top of the container,
for recyclable materials. Provide trash
receptacles at frequent-enough intervals for
convenience and maintenance. Publicly
maintained trash receptacles are typically
located in the curb zone; privately maintained
receptacles are located in the building zone,
often adjacent to building entrances.
c. Bike Racks
As more communities seek to make their streets bicycle-friendly, it is critical
to provide adequate bike racks throughout major activity centers.
d. Newspaper Racks
Newspaper racks serve an important function in the community, but
improperly placed newspaper racks and too
many different newspaper racks crammed
onto small sidewalks can be both an eyesore
and a safety hazard. To control the design
aesthetic of newspaper racks, many
communities are installing larger-scale, single
newspaper racks with multiple containers
inside. Although these multiple containers are
an increased expense to the municipality
(individual racks are paid for by the individual

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 59 of 190

publication), they establish a cleaner and more coherent streetscape
environment.
e. Bollards
Bollards are streetscape
elements of concrete or steel that
prevent vehicular traffic from
encroaching in pedestrian areas.
Besides being a necessary
functional element, bollards can be
an attractive, well-designed
component of the overall
streetscape. They are typically
located along the curb edge of a
sidewalk to protect pedestrians on
traffic islands and medians and to
protect standpipes, streetlights, street trees, public art, and other sidewalk
elements. Bollards also serve as a security element around sensitive buildings
and important sites. They come in a multitude of styles, from fixtures reminiscent
of hitching posts to sleek steel posts.
f. Kiosks
Kiosks provide a central location for information on community events and
other announcements. Well designed and –located sidewalk kiosks can help
establish the design tone for an individual street or even a larger community.
Kiosks can be designed to include amenities such as newspaper racks, maps,
public phones, and signage. When deciding whether kiosks may be appropriate,
consider sidewalk width, pedestrian volume, the proposed design, and long term
maintenance, to ensure that the kiosk provides a benefit to the community.
Often, kiosk design can be incorporated into a public art program, resulting
in a collection of unique artistic pieces throughout a community. Like most street
furniture, kiosks, especially due to their size, should be located within the curb
zone and only in sidewalks with sufficient width. Sidewalk bulb-outs at
intersections are prime locations for kiosks.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 60 of 190

g. Transit Stops and Shelters
Transit stops and associated transit amenities should be integrated into the
overall streetscape plan. Transit stops are typically located adjacent to
intersections, either before or after the stoplight. They can range from a sign
identifying the stop and route number or name to a bench, or a partially enclosed
transit shelter that protects waiting passengers from the elements. Other
elements often included are route maps, route schedules, and, more recently,
electronic tracking displays to show the time of the next arrival. Transit shelters
may include benches or individual seats that need to be flipped down to sit on,
to prevent
sleeping in the
shelters.
Likewise,
consider the
location of street
trees and other
street furniture
when locating transit stops, to ensure that there are no obstructions to the front
and back doors for passengers entering and disembarking. Curb cut-outs allow
buses to pull out of the traffic flow.
h. Signage
The shape, color, and graphic design of
most traffic and directional signage are
government-controlled. Community-
oriented signs can be designed as an
integral part of the streetscape plan. These
signs can include gateway features,
monument signs, directional signage to
public parking locations, and other
community-focused signs. Most street
signs are located in the curb zone of the
sidewalk.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 61 of 190

i. Public Utilities and Private Streetscape Amenities
Secondary streetscape elements are slightly less controlled by the
community than street furniture. These include utility-related structures, ATMs
and public phones, parking meters, and private streetscape amenities.
 Utility-Related Structures
Utilities are the often-hidden systems that keep our cities running
smoothly. The most visually prominent element on many streets is overhead
electrical and telecommunication wires. Many newer communities have
located these wires in utility corridors underneath the sidewalk, and some
older communities have followed suit, undergrounding wires as part of
redevelopment plans and streetscape improvements.
Utility cabinets, a necessary element in most city streets, contain
equipment for operating traffic signals, light rail systems, and
telecommunications or utility company systems. For existing streets, there
is little that can be done to move the existing cabinets unless major utility
work is being done. For newly planned streets, the challenge is to locate
these components in a manner that meets operational requirements while
making the sidewalk more inviting and safe for pedestrians. This set-up
typically means placing utility cabinets in the curb zone.
 ATMS and Public Phones
Public phones are becoming uncommon, and ATMs are gradually being
added to the streetscape environment; nevertheless, it is useful to plan for
and locate these elements accordingly. Payphones are often located in
either the curb zone or the building zone. ATMs, on the other hand, are
almost always located in the building zone and often recessed into the
façade of the building.
 Parking Meters
On most commercial streets, parking meters are a common sight.
Parking meters within the curb zone of the sidewalk range from the more
traditional manually operated meters to more modern and elaborate electric
meters that work with debit card systems. Multiple meters are rapidly
replacing single space or double-space meters.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 62 of 190

j. Private Streetscape Amenities
On many commercial streets,
private business owners want to use
the space outside their stores to
place tables and chairs, display
wares, or place temporary signs.
Although the community has a stake
in controlling the type and location of
these amenities to ensure a clear
and safe path of travel, the individual
property owners pay for the cost and
maintenance of these private
amenities.
Communities typically control the
placement of private amenities through zoning permits, specifying the height of
elements and how far they can extend into the sidewalk, which depends on the
overall sidewalk width.

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity
Project SimCity Development
 Describe the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based on
the elements and principles of creating a community sense of space and sense of time.
Support with the required screenshots.
2. Study Questions
a. Describe briefly what community sense of place is, and what community sense of time.
b. What elements create a sense of place in community planning? Why do you say so?
c. What elements create a sense of time in community planning? Why do you say so?
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment
 Using your photographs from the previous lesson, describe the sense of place and
sense of time manifested by your community. Use the main section titles as a guide.
You can add new photographs if needed.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 63 of 190

4. Discussion Forum 2. Read to (2) of your classmate’s works. What can you learn from
their answers?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

References
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey
Urban Design Compendium Vol. 1 The Housing Corporation. Retrieved from
https://www.diba.cat/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=263508c9-9337-4076-bf53-
2f0f2318364c&groupId=7294824#:~:text=The%20purpose%20of%20the%20Urban,developing
%20and%20restoring%20urban%20areas.&text=It%20is%20principally%20about%20the,desig
n%20in%20creating%20the%20product.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 64 of 190

Topic 5. SIGNS AND SYMBOLS IN URBAN DESIGN

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Describe the elements that give meaning to urban design.
2. Understand the importance of introducing elements to meaning-making in the urban
environment.

Test what you know

1. Reading Assignment:
Cakaric, J. (2017). Paradigm of the urban space semiotics. FACTA UNIVERSITATIS
Series: Architecture and Civil Engineering, 15 (2), 167 – 178. DOI:
10.2298/FUACE160517012C
2. Discussion Question: Answer the questions.
a. How did the article define the attitude of a town? Discuss the basis for this definition.
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. Do you agree with their
analysis? Why do you say so?

Discussion
I. Scale and Density
A. Scale
Scale presents distinct planning and
urban design issues through building heights
and massing. Planners and designers are
often called upon to address issues of scale
in a variety of situations when:
1. creating economically feasible
development plans or urban design
frameworks;
2. developing zoning for a new district or to
guide development in a historic
downtown;
3. evaluating shadow, wind, and other
potential impacts of a proposal; or

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 65 of 190

4. reviewing proposals for consistency with community goals or compatibility with
adjacent buildings or open space.
New construction technologies have made it possible to build at much greater scales
than those prevalent before the middle twentieth century. These earlier buildings
provide the traditional scale familiar to many Americans. Larger buildings had begun
being constructed in the 1950s provide a contrast of scale that is both exciting and
jarring, uplifting and dehumanizing.
B. Height
Attitudes toward height vary from community to community. In Chicago and New
York, height is valued; San Francisco resisted. In Providence, Rhode Island, heights
increase closer to the downtown riverfront, but in downtown Boston, just 50 miles away,
building heights decline toward the waterfront. These local cultural differences influence
decisions about appropriate building heights, as do other objective and subjective
considerations, described in the following paragraphs.
1. Pedestrian Friendliness
Determining how height looks to pedestrians is
not an objective measure. Yet, many zoning codes
establish quantifiable limits, such as requiring tall
buildings to be set back a prescribed distance at a
fixed point above street level, to make the public
realm more hospitable to pedestrians. Several large
cities embrace height, and require no setbacks, as
long as the public realm meets other standards of
pedestrian-friendliness.
2. Height in Relation to Street Width
Reasonable building height is roughly equal to
the width of the street the building faces. When
height reaches twice the width of the street, many
people classify the building as tall.
3. Framing Public Space
How a building’s height relates to the space, it frames shapes perceptions of
appropriateness. The concept of a “public room” is often used to envision the
positive qualities of a public space that is framed by buildings of similar or compatible

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 66 of 190

heights, or an ensemble of buildings that works with the size, solar orientation, wind
conditions, and design potentials of a public park, plaza, or varied civic space
4. Symbolism and Identity
A tall building can impart a strong sense of identity, and many communities take
pride in their tall structures for this reason. Context and use also play a role,
however, calling for the use of greater height and distinctive shape and design to
signify buildings and uses of importance to a community. In each city or community,
there is a role for imageable buildings that give identity and for background buildings
that establish a context.
5. Context
In every community, a set of heights—often growing out of tradition—will seem
right for a neighborhood, a district, even a city itself. A tower in a neighborhood of
three-story houses would strike most observers as out of scale. Within downtown,
however, the same building would likely be embraced as a welcome addition to the
streetscape and skyline.
6. Economics
Height can significantly alter
project costs. However, height can
also contribute greatly to the project
value. Beautiful views, combined with
height, almost always add value.
However, height has generally been
found not to add value to research-
oriented development; in fact, beyond
10 to 12 stories, it begins to add
significantly to mechanical costs.
7. Environmental Considerations
Sun, wind, and shadow concerns
assume extra significance when
structures reach 12 to 15 stories or
more. Designs for buildings at these
heights should incorporate measures
to mitigate the building’s impact on the

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 67 of 190

public realm. Breaking the building mass into smaller units can diminish wind forces
around the base. Towers should be designed to minimize the casting of shadows
on parks and public squares for a pronounced length of time. Although framing
public spaces with prominent urban scale structures may be essential to create
beautiful, imageable places of civic importance. Some municipalities have
incorporated such a prohibition in the zoning code: for example, in Boston, there are
strict limitations on new shadows that might be cast on the city’s public garden. For
tall buildings, wind tunnel tests should be required, so that pedestrian level effects
can be evaluated

II. Massing
Frequently, massing determines whether a building’s scale feels appropriate. Massing
refers to the organization of the building’s overall volume. Many considerations help define
appropriate heights to determine whether a building’s massing seems appropriate.
A. Pedestrian Friendliness
A building’s massing should contribute positively to a pedestrian-friendly public
realm. Long, unbroken walls feel overwhelming at street level; the same mass, divided
into rhythmic blocks, brings the basic design unit of a façade much closer to the human
scale. Some cities have written such treatments into their zoning codes or design
guidelines.
B. Context
Structural massing should respect the surrounding context. In particular, the
structure should take design cues from the generally smaller and more articulated
massing found in structures built before a specific period to help reduce any perceived
context issues regarding size.
C. Symbolism and Identity
Civic buildings like a courthouse or municipal building may warrant a far more
monumental design expression than a mixed-use building on an urban main street—
even if height and area are identical.
D. Economics
Design variety and façade articulation to address massing concerns can add to
project costs.

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III. Density
Gross density includes infrastructure, such as streets and parks, in the overall density
measurement. Net density excludes these features and includes just the area devoted
specifically to the structure, including all private land areas and ancillary structures. Floor
Area Ratio (FAR) is often used to describe the density of commercial structures. It is the
ratio of built floor area for all floors to the area of the site. FAR is also at times expressed
as a percentage or a fraction (.50 or 50 percent). Depending on the scale, the same density
may look and feel quite different. Perceptions of inappropriate density can trigger strong
reactions from the public, with concerns about increased traffic congestion and
concentrated poverty. A good design employs scale as a way to make denser development
feel humane and look appealing while capturing the benefits it brings to the public realm.
A. Regional-Level Density
Achieving the smart growth ideal of balancing economic development with
environmental protection requires directing new jobs, housing, and other growth to
developed areas or areas targeted for concentrated development within a region.
B. Community-Level Density
Cities are encouraging new housing in downtowns and older neighborhood centers
to attract “knowledge industry” employees, who often prefer lively, walkable, mixed-use
neighborhoods. Bodies of evidence suggest that higher-density, walkable
neighborhoods enhance public health. Recent studies also that compared a denser city
to a less-dense city found that raising density had a more positive impact on health
indicators than did increasing income by 50 percent. Compact development also
increases transportation options. Walkable neighborhoods that combine housing,
schools, jobs, and other uses reduce automobile dependence and broaden the market
for public transit.
C. Neighborhood-Level
Density
Density provides the
people and disposable
incomes required to
revitalize older urban
neighborhoods. A 2002
study suggests that 1,500 to

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 69 of 190

2,500 new housing units within walking distance are required to sustain a new block of
main street retail. As public financial resources shrink, adding density is often critical to
pay for parks, street trees, community services, and other “building blocks” of livability.
Increasing densities also promotes diversity by supporting a wider range of housing
types within a neighborhood.
D. Comparative Densities
A given density within the same
area can take dramatically different
forms. Single-family housing
developed at 8 to 12 units per acre can
resemble a crowded suburb or a classic
village neighborhood. A mix of single-
family and multifamily housing at 15 to
25 units per acre can resemble an
unremarkable apartment complex
within a parking lot. At 30 to 50 units
per acre—the density of traditional
urban neighborhoods—a development
can take the form of isolated high-rise apartment buildings.
E. Planning and Design Consideration
Many communities support a range of densities; it is common for urban
neighborhoods to comprise 100 or more units per acre, with a broad mix of housing
types and heights. Design can help a project capture the benefits of greater density
while giving it a scale that feels appropriate. Extend the surrounding neighborhood
fabric into the site by employing similar materials, maintaining continuity along the street,
designing comparable rooflines and floor-to-floor heights, and making transitions in
scale that reflect nearby buildings. Likewise, consider a wide range of densities within
a mix of land uses. A single new housing development can mix rowhouses, lofts, and
midrise and high-rise apartments. Older single-use retail centers have been
successfully redeveloped with housing on the upper floors. Mixed-use buildings can
also achieve greater densities, e.g., office and research facilities with below-grade
parking, residential-hotels or commercial hotel–residential use.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 70 of 190

When determining the appropriate density of a site, however, take into account the
site context, the aspirations and goals of the community, the economics of development,
and the building’s or project’s civic role, among various factors. When scale and density
are considered together, they can help developers create public spaces, new buildings,
and neighborhoods that respect the past while pointing toward the future.

IV. Safety
The growth in the demand for security design poses challenges for planners and
designers in determining essential security requirements, knowing security technology, and
understanding the site and building design implications.
Security design is more than bars on windows, a security guard booth, a camera, or a
wall. It is a systematic integration of design, technology, and operation for the protection of
three critical assets: people, information, and property.
A. Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) Concepts
1. Defensible Space
“Defensible space” covers a range of mechanisms, real and symbolic barriers,
of strongly defined areas of influence, and improved opportunities for surveillance
that combine to bring the environment under the control of its residents.
2. Natural Access Control
Natural access control involves decreasing opportunities for crime by denying
access to crime targets and creating a perception of risk in offenders. Designing
streets, sidewalks, building entrances, and neighborhood gateways to mark public
routes and by using structural elements to discourage access to private areas
accomplishes this.
3. Natural Surveillance
Maximizing the visibility of people, parking areas, and building entrances
promote natural surveillance. This design concept intends to make intruders easily
observable, e.g., Doors and windows that look onto streets and parking areas,
pedestrian-friendly sidewalks and streets, front porches, and adequate nighttime
lighting.
4. Territorial Reinforcement
Physical design can create or extend a sphere of influence. In this setting, users
develop a sense of territorial control, which discourages potential offenders from

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their criminal intentions. Territorial reinforcement is promoted by features that define
property lines and distinguish private spaces from public spaces such as landscape
plantings, pavement design, gateway treatments, and fences.
5. Management and Maintenance
Operational and management concepts that maintain buildings and facilities in
good working order and that maintain a standard of care consistent with national
and local standards contribute to the security effort. Equipment and materials used
in a facility should be designed or selected with safety and security in mind.
6. Legitimate Activity Support
Legitimate activities for space or building are encouraged with natural
surveillance and lighting and architectural design that clearly defines the purpose of
the structure or space. Crime prevention and design strategies can discourage
illegal activity and protect a property from chronic problem activity.
B. CPTED and Community Design
1. Provide a clear border definition of controlled space.
2. Provide clearly marked transitional zones.
3. Locate gathering areas to easily controlled areas.
4. Place safe activities in unsafe locations.
5. Place unsafe activities in safe locations.
6. Design the use of space to provide natural barriers.
7. Improve scheduling of space.
8. Design space to increase the perception of natural surveillance.

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity
Project SimCity Development
 Rationalize the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based
on the elements and principles of creating a community sense of space and sense of
time. Support with the required screenshots
2. Study Questions
a. What are the elements that create scale and meaning in urban design? Describe each
briefly.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 72 of 190

b. What is the significance of establishing clear signs and symbols important for
community development? Why do you say so?
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment
 Using your photographs from the previous lesson, describe the signs and symbols
depicted by your community. Use the main section titles as a guide. You can add new
photographs if needed.
4. Discussion Forum 2: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

References:
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey
Urban Design Compendium Vol. 1 The Housing Corporation. Retrieved from
https://www.diba.cat/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=263508c9-9337-4076-bf53-
2f0f2318364c&groupId=7294824#:~:text=The%20purpose%20of%20the%20Urban,developing
%20and%20restoring%20urban%20areas.&text=It%20is%20principally%20about%20the,desig
n%20in%20creating%20the%20product.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 73 of 190

Topic 6. THE RESPONSIVE URBAN ENVIRONMENT

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Discuss clearly the principles for responsive and good quality urban design.
2. Understand the significance of creating a responsive urban environment through urban
design.

Test what you know

1. Video Resource:
A vision of the responsive city of the future | Gerhard Schmitt | TEDxTUM. Source:
https://youtu.be/76pnQkP-xG4
2. Discussion Question: What is the definition of a responsive city of the future based on
the video clip? Why do you say so?
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works? What can you learn from
their answers?

Discussion
I. Qualities of a Responsive Urban Environment
The quality of the urban environment is an important factor in the way of providing health
and life satisfaction. The dynamics, vitality and attractiveness of urban environments have
a great influence on the creation of sensory richness and place attachment. Environment
and place attachment meanwhile create the feeling of pride, effectively increase the social
responsibility and people participation in the affairs of their quarter and city.
1. Permeability refers to the connectivity of urban structure
2. A variety of mixed-use refers to different living and working activities present within the
neighborhood.
3. Legibility means the possibility of organizing an environment within a visually
comprehendible and coherent pattern.
4. Robustness describes the vitality and functionality of an urban community.
5. Visual appropriateness describes the quality of appearance or the aesthetics of an area
giving people the awareness of the choices available
6. Richness describes the people’s choice of diverse sensory experiences of the
environment.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 74 of 190

7. Personalization pertains to the level of involvement and participation of the public in the
development of their community.

II. New Urbanism and Responsive Urban Design

New urbanism is defined as the process of reintegrating the components of modern
life—housing, workplace, shopping, and recreation—into compact, pedestrian-friendly,
mixed-use neighborhoods and set in a larger metropolitan framework providing open space
and transit. Several forms of new urbanist development have been enabled or required
through development regulations.
A. Traditional Neighborhood Development (TND)
The Traditional Neighborhood Development (TND), also referred to as
“neotraditional” development, is a
style of development that works to
emulate many of the features of
urban neighborhoods of 50 to 100
years ago. It stresses a walkable
scale, and the integration of
different housing types and
commercial uses, and the building
of true neighborhood centers with
civic uses. TNDs were the first
new urbanist forms to be
recognized by development
regulations, most commonly
through the enactment of a TND
ordinance, a free zone, or a special
zoning district with mixed-use
standards, wide street and building
design standards intended to establish pedestrian-friendly streetscapes, and its plan
review process.
B. Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)
A Transit-Oriented Development (TOD) is essentially a compact development built
around transit stops. The attributes of a TND—higher density, walkable scale, and mix
of uses—are good generators of transit usage. The concept includes neighborhood and

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 75 of 190

community levels of TODs to accommodate different land-use mixes and development
intensities in conjunction with different transit types. TOD regulations are generally
enacted as an overlay or special zoning districts with mixed-use standards and
pedestrian-oriented street and building design standards that focus on a central transit
stop.
C. Form-Based Zoning
This approach seeks to regulate
building form rather than, or in
addition to, land use. It establishes
zones of building type based on
pedestrian accessibility and the scale
and character of surrounding
development, but largely allows
building owners to determine the use
of the buildings. Form-based codes typically contain a regulating plan that identifies
which building envelope standards apply to which block frontages; building envelope
standards that set basic parameters for building height, setbacks, roof design, and
fenestration; and architectural and streetscape standards.
D. Transect-Based Code
A Transect-Based approach is based on a series of habitats, or “ecozones,” or a
continuum from wilderness to the urban core. The Eco-zones are distinguished by
varying density and character of the built environment. Design standards regulate

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 76 of 190

development in each for building setbacks, height, and façade treatment, as well as for
parking location, street design, and creation of a public realm. Regulation of uses is
limited, principally to encourage mixed-use development.

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity
Project SimCity Development
 Describe the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based on
the qualities and principles of responsive environments. Support with the required
screenshots
2. Study Questions:
a. What is a responsive urban environment? Explain briefly.
b. Differentiate the different urban design approaches.
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment
 Using your photographs from the previous lesson, describe the environmental
responsiveness of your community. Use the main section titles as a guide. You can
add new photographs if needed.
4. Discussion Forum 2: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

References
Dobbins, M. (2009). Urban design and people. John Wiley & Sons.: Canada
Shaykh-Baygloo, R. (2017). Citizens’ perception on urban responsive environments and its role in place
attachment (Case study: City of Arak). Journal of Geography and urban Space Development,
4(1).
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey
The value of urban design. The economic, environmental and social benefits of urban design. (2005).
The Ministry for the Environment. Retrieved from
https://www.mfe.govt.nz/sites/default/files/value-of-urban-design-full-report-jun05_0.pdf

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 77 of 190

Topic 7. THE URBAN PATTERN: SPACE AND AESTHETICS

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Identify the factors affecting the urban pattern.
2. Understand the impact of the urban pattern on space and aesthetics,

Test what you know

1. Video Presentation
Triumph of the City: Urbanism and Why it Matters. Source:
https://youtu.be/zSnt0MTMcbw
2. Discussion Question: Which urban form mentioned in the video clip do you prefer? Why
do you say so?
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?

Discussion
I. Urban Connection and Linkages
A. What is an urban connection?
Towns exist for interaction. They depend upon movement systems – roads,
streets, footpaths, public transport routes, and service utilities (water, gas, electricity,
etc.), which make urban life possible. These connections allow towns to work and link
to the wider world. None of these movement systems exist in isolation. Aside from
allowing movement, these systems are a crucial component of the building character.
As such, these connections need to be an integral part of the urban fabric.
B. Why are urban connections important?
The success of a town or new development depends on how well their connections
work. The measure of success is not just their functional performance, but on how
they contribute to the quality and character of the urban area by:
a. Linking up
New developments need to be clearly linked to existing routes. The more
direct links there are, the more successful will be the integration of new and old.
b. Movement choices
Connections should give people choices in how to make their journeys, with
a presumption in favor of walking, cycling and public transport.
1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 78 of 190
c. A sense of place
Making connections is an essential part of creating a sense of place. Thus,
design roads, streets and the routes for utilities in response to the local context.
d. Safe routes for all
Maximize choice on safe routes for people to move around. Segregated
routes for people on foot and cycles are not always the best solution.

e. The parking problem

Parking is as important as linkage. A poor parking strategy is destructive.
f. Better traffic management
Design the layout of buildings and spaces to help control the flow and density
of traffic. Signs and add-on traffic calming features are only additional measures.
C. Type of Connections
a. The Pedestrian Environment
The needs of people on foot require careful analysis and should be paramount
in the development layout. Pedestrians, cyclists and vehicles can mix safely for
low speeds street designs. Consider conventional streets that provide the most
convenient, direct routes to places that cyclists and pedestrians, like everyone
else, want to get to.
b. The Cyclist Environment
Like walking, many of the measures to encourage cycling are low key and
simple. Providing direct and convenient traffic-calmed routes, with a safe place
for people to leave their bikes at their destination, can encourage cycling. Cyclists
need clear, direct routes which take them to the shops, school or stations without
stopping short at awkward junctions or obstacles.
c. The Public Transport Connection
Over greater distances, the best alternative to the car within an urban area is
generally the bus or public transit. The movement framework for new
development should provide for direct public transit routes or easy access to an
existing one. Discussions with potential operators will identify what kind of service
can be provided and the type of bus to be used.
A bus or transit route is viable if there are enough people within a 400 m radius
(5 min walk) of each stop. If bus stops are at 200 – 300 m intervals, a density of
around 80 persons per hectare will provide a catchment of 2,000 people per stop.

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One hundred (100) people per hectare provide up to 2,500 people per stop.
Densities below 80 people per hectare may not be attractive to bus operators.
More direct bust routes are preferred than those forming loops and dead ends.
D. Streets
Streets are important public spaces. Aside from providing access to buildings and
services, they also function for walking, cycling, play and meeting people. Further,
buildings framing the streets define these spaces.
Streets as traffic conduits are defined by (a) the capacity or the ability to
accommodate every kind of movement safely, and (b) the character or the role of the
street in the urban realm and the types of building and landscape and the enclosure
adjacent to it. Street classification includes:
1. Pedestrian-friendly streets focus on accommodating pedestrian traffic as
compared to conventionally designed streets. Pedestrian traffic here includes
bicyclists, the physically handicapped, transit users, and those of all ages on foot.
Pedestrian-friendly streets include yield or queuing streets along with narrower
vehicular traffic lanes. Yield streets require that one vehicle yield to another as
they pass.
Pedestrian-friendly
streets are also
becoming a popular
design strategy for
creating walkable
neighborhoods, new or
retrofitted. This trend is
associated with smart
growth, context-sensitive
design, new urbanism,
and other current land
development approach.
Efforts to calm traffic in
walkable environments
through street design have demonstrated a reduction in accident severity, accident
frequency, and environmental impact. When designed properly, narrower streets
have design speeds either equal to or less than 20 miles per hour. The

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 80 of 190

Abbreviated Injury Scale (AIS) indicates that when vehicles travel above 20 miles
an hour, the potential for serious injury increases greatly.
In determining the suitable width for a pedestrian-friendly street, context is the
single most important variable, depending on several factors, including but not
limited to:
 parking configuration;
 building use;
 degree/type of non-
motorist activity;
 truck traffic percentage;
 Accessibility Law
requirements
 location within the urban
fabric; and
 transit use.
2. On-street bikeways bring
enormous benefits to both the
cycling and non-cycling public.
Bikeways create opportunities
to incorporate exercise into
one’s daily routine and bring air, noise, and water quality benefits. They use public
dollars efficiently by reducing road maintenance costs and increasing the carrying
capacity of the transportation system. Bikeways improve safety for all users;
bicyclists feel they have a safe space on the road and tend to be more law-abiding,
and placing the motorists at greater ease knowing where bicyclists are apt to be.
Bikeways also help motorists to be aware of the presence of bicyclists and their
right to be on the road. However, the installation of bikeways may not always be
desirable from the public’s perspective—for example, removal of parking to install
bicycle lanes or traffic diversion to create a bicycle boulevard.
A bicycle lane is that portion of the roadway designated by 6- to 8-inch (15.24-
to 20.32 cm) striping and bicycle pavement markings for the exclusive or
preferential use of bicycles. Bicycle lanes are typically provided on collector and
arterial streets. A bike route, also called a shoulder bikeway, on the other hand,

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 81 of 190

is a street upon which the paved shoulder, separated by a 4-inch (10.2 cm) stripe,
is usable by bicycles, although auto parking may also be allowed on it.

E. Transit Systems
1. Bus Transit
Bus transit involves using rubber-tired vehicles that, for the most part, operate
on fixed schedules and routes on a roadway. Diesel, gasoline, battery, or
alternative fuel-powered engines contained within the vehicles power them.
a. Local Services include bus transits that stop at every block or two along the
route. Bus transit is the most common type of service
b. Express Services connect several areas with the central business district
(CBD) or other major destinations. These services typically operate during
the morning and afternoon-evening peak travel hours. Express routes often
use freeways or major arterials and make fewer stops along the way to make
more predictable, faster trips.
c. Limited Stop Service is a combination of local and express service. The stops
may be several blocks to a mile or more apart.
d. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) is a type of limited-stop service. It provides high-
speed bus service regardless of traffic conditions and frequently operates in
a dedicated right-of-way. BRT combines the advantages of rail transit with
the flexibility and lower capital cost of bus service. BRT systems often make

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 82 of 190

use of transit signal priority systems to minimize delays at signalized
intersections.
2. Rail Transit
a. Location. Rail transits can operate on an exclusive right-of-way, semi-
exclusive right-of-way (tracks that cross streets at grade), or on a shared right-
of-way (tracks embedded in a roadway).
b. Speed. Vehicles on shared right-of-way travel with the speed of the rest of
traffic; vehicles in the exclusive right-of-way can operate at higher speeds.
c. Passenger volume. The number of passengers per hour a system can carry
is a function of the size and number of vehicles and the frequency of trips.
d. Cost. The cost of a system is a function of infrastructure and facility costs.
3. Streetcar/Tram
Streetcars are modern electric railway vehicles designed to fit the scale and
traffic patterns of the neighborhoods through which they travel. Streetcar vehicles
are narrower and shorter than other rail cars. They run in mixed traffic and, except
at stops, accommodate existing curbside parking and loading. These systems
serve as a medium- to high volume circulator services and often serve as
collectors and distributors for regional transit systems.
4. Intermodal and Multimodal Transit Facilities
Intermodal facilities allow for transfer between transportation modes.
Multimodal facilities also provide transfer opportunities but also serve each mode
independently, often functioning
as a transportation hub for major
components of the system.
Intermodal and multimodal
facilities help a community
achieve a balanced
transportation system, one that
supports all transportation needs.
F. Parking and Servicing
Cars are stationary most of the
time. Where and how they are
parked can be a major factor in the
quality of development. One other consideration is how to incorporate parking in

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 83 of 190

development without allowing it to dominate everything around. Cycle parking is also
important, although often overlooked.
Parking lots should offer direct and easy access for people walking between their
vehicles and the building entrances. Pedestrians usually walk in the aisles behind
parked vehicles; aisles perpendicular to the building face allow pedestrians to walk to
and from the building without squeezing between parked cars. Grade walking areas
to prevent standing water. Likewise, design parking lots to have reduced paved areas,
to minimize runoff problems, and to provide areas for trees and other vegetation where
possible. Also, consider provisions for access for fire rescue and transit vehicles, as
well as safe and efficient circulation routes. Accessible design requires designating
parking spaces and curb ramps near building entrances.

II. The Urban Pattern

A. The pattern of the city describes how the different functions and elements of the
settlement form are distributed and mixed spatially. The size of its grain can measure
this pattern. The grain is fine when similar elements or functions are widely dispersed
throughout the district without forming any large clusters. On the other hand, the grain
is coarse if different elements and functions are segregated from each other in a way
that extensive areas of one thing are separated from extensive areas of other things
B. Road Networks
A road network consists of different types of roads that offer specific functions.
Local roads are at the bottom level of the functional classes, tending to be associated
with access to buildings. Collector roads pick up traffic from local roads to major
arterials. Traffic flows are then channeled to upper-level roads such as intercity
highways. Special road network patterns connect nodes and link certain road types
following the network grammar. When a pattern is fixed, the linkage of the private and
public domain movement is consequently determined. Thus, the network pattern can
be a primary determinant of the connectivity, continuity and efficiency of a road system
and can profoundly affect travel patterns. An appropriately designed road network
pattern can create safe, quiet, and healthy environments and thus can contribute
significantly to the quality of life and sustainability of an area.
C. Functional Classification System for Urban Streets
All urban streets provide some mixture of mobility and access. Access refers to
the connection to immediately fronting properties. The functions can be accomplished

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 84 of 190

well under a wide variety of network patterns. However, regardless of pattern, the
factors most important for traffic are connectivity and legibility.
Streets are classified according to mobility and access. Arterial streets located
provide large amounts of service to through traffic, but little or no access to
surrounding land. Local streets provide unlimited access to adjacent properties, but
little service to through travel. Collector streets provide property access with mobility
appropriate for connecting local streets to the higher-speed arterials.
1. Principal Arterials
Principal arterials provide long-distance “trunkline” continuous routes within
and between urban areas. Typically, they carry high volumes of traffic at high
speeds. Freeways, including interstates, are principal arterials.
2. Minor Arterials
The backbone of the urban street network, minor arterials provide continuous
routes through urban areas and carry more than half of all vehicle miles of travel.
They may be state, county, or city streets.
Most trips include arterial streets. They contain most of a city’s commercial
and institutional uses, which challenges traffic scenario because of their
attractiveness as business addresses fostered by the traffic function of the streets.
3. Collector Streets
With continuity over short segments (one-fourth to one-half mile; 0.4 to 0.8 km),
collector streets are minor tributaries, gathering traffic from numerous smaller
(local) streets and delivering it to and
from minor arterials. Most collectors
are usually city or county streets and
are bordered by properties (both
business and residential) with
driveways to the street.
4. Local Streets
Local streets comprise 90% of
street mileage but carry less than 10
percent of the total vehicle miles of
travel. These streets may be short in length or frequently interrupted by traffic
control devices (stop signs or signals).

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 85 of 190

Travel distance on local streets is short, typically to the nearest collector street.
Speeds are low (20 to 30 mph; 32.2 to 48.3 km/hour). Local streets often have
numerous driveways, as they are the addresses for most homes, as well as many
non-residential land uses (professional office, small industrial, churches) not
requiring visibility to large numbers of passing motorists.
D. Street Connectivity
Street connectivity can be defined as the quantity and quality of connections in the
street network. The purpose of the street network is to connect one place to another.
Thus, the design of the street network determines the directness or indirectness of the
connections and the number of paths connecting two places. A traditional rectilinear
street grid provides
relatively direct
connections and multiple
routes, giving it high
connectivity. In contrast,
the curvilinear networks
dominated by cul-de-sacs,
typical of modern
suburban subdivisions, often provide relatively indirect connections and few routes
and thus have low connectivity.

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 86 of 190

Street connectivity has important implications for travel choices and emergency
access. Longer distances reduce the likelihood that an individual will travel to that
destination or will choose to walk or bike. For that reason, planners and public health
officials have expressed concern that networks with low connectivity discourage
walking and biking, thereby increasing vehicle travel and reducing physical activity.
Emergency service providers have also expressed concern over low-connectivity
networks, which may contribute to longer response times and limit the number of
routes for emergency access or evacuation
E. Traffic Calming Approaches
Traffic calming measures have been used primarily on residential streets but are
sometimes used on collectors and arterials. Communities are increasingly using
center medians in roadways, along with other traffic calming measures to create
boulevards and parkways as alternatives to standard arterial streets. Traffic calming
measures affect both vehicle speed and volume on roadways.
Many communities use traffic calming programs that include the “three Es”—
education, enforcement, and engineering. These programs involve major campaigns
to educate the public and increase enforcement in problem areas, in addition to
implementing traffic calming programs. In traffic calming programs, the most
important elements are public involvement and procedures for the selection of
appropriate traffic calming devices. Poor public input processes can result in a failed
traffic calming program.

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 87 of 190

Project SimCity Development
 Rationalize the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based
on the patterns defining the urban space quality and aesthetics. Support with the
required screenshots.
2. Study Questions
a. Identify the street patterns mentioned. Describe each briefly.
b. How are streets classified? Identify and differentiate each street type.
c. What is the significance of calming traffic approaches to urban space and aesthetics?
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment
 Using your photographs from the previous lesson, describe the urban space and
aesthetic quality of your community based on the patterns observed. Use the main
section titles as a guide. You can add new photographs if needed.
4. Discussion Forum 2: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

References
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey
Urban Design Compendium Vol. 1 The Housing Corporation. Retrieved from
https://www.diba.cat/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=263508c9-9337-4076-bf53-
2f0f2318364c&groupId=7294824#:~:text=The%20purpose%20of%20the%20Urban,developing%20
and%20restoring%20urban%20areas.&text=It%20is%20principally%20about%20the,design%20in
%20creating%20the%20product.
Zhang, Y., Wang, X., Zeng, P. & Chen, X. (2011). Centrality characteristics of road network patterns of
traffic analysis zones. Transportation Research Journal: Journal of Transportation Research Board,
(2256), 16 – 24. DOI: 10.3141/2256-03

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Topic 8. URBAN DESIGN DOCUMENTATION: THE SYSTEM OF DESIGN AND
PROCESS OF PRESENTATION

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Describe the urban design planning, documentation process and methods of presentation.
2. Recognize the importance of the proper urban design process in community development.

Test what you know

1. Video Presentation:
Commercial mosaic urban design process and presentation. Source:
https://youtu.be/J6R3lYj7xtM
2. Discussion Question: Illustrate the urban design process used in the study. Describe the
planning process and methods of presenting the concept briefly.
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What were the similarities
of their answers with yours?

Discussion
I. Plan Making
A plan is an adopted statement of policy, in the form of text, maps, and graphics, used
to guide public and private actions that affect the future. A plan provides decision-makers
with the information they need to make informed decisions affecting the long-range social,
economic, and physical growth of a community.
A. Purposes of Plans
Plans are used when making decisions concerning the future of an area or a
specific topic under consideration.
a. Housing needs—and recommend a program to meet them
b. Transportation needs—and propose alternative systems and modes to meet
them
c. Open-space preservation areas—and present mechanisms to protect these
areas permanently
d. Priority investment areas—and recommend programs to stimulate growth
e. Strategies for a specific area, such as downtown, corridor, or neighborhood

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f. Provide residents, local officials, and other interested people with an overview
and projection of development and conservation in the planning area, along with
a summary of trends and forecasts.
g. Serves as the basis for the local government enacting and administering
regulatory measures, such as zoning and subdivision laws, and establishing
urban growth boundaries.
h. Serves as the basis for making budget allocations for capital improvements, such
as parks, utility systems, and streets.
i. Serves as the basis for many other public programs, such as those relating to
growth management, historic preservation, economic development,
transportation systems, and open-space preservation
B. The Planning Process
The process of plan-making should be viewed as a continuous cycle. There are
interrelationships among the phases of the planning process. The information gained
at a later phase can inform the outcome of an earlier phase. It is important to
recognize the iterative nature of planning and to allow for continuous cycling to occur.

Enhanced Comprehensive Land Use Planning Process

Source: https://primumnilnocerefiles.files.wordpress.com/2017/06/enhancedclupandzo_llmh_.pdf

C. Types of Plans
a. Comprehensive Plans
The comprehensive plan is the adopted official statement of a local
government’s legislative body for future development and conservation. It sets
forth goals; analyzes existing conditions and trends; describes and illustrates a
vision for the physical, social, and economic characteristics of the community in
the years ahead; and outlines policies and guidelines intended to implement that
vision.

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Comprehensive plans address a broad range of interrelated topics in a
unified way. A comprehensive plan identifies and analyzes the important
relationships among the economy, transportation, community facilities and
services, housing, the environment, land use, human services, and other
community components. It does so on a communitywide basis and in the context
of a wider region. The most important function of a comprehensive plan is to
provide valuable guidance to those in the public, and private sector as decisions
are made affecting the future quality of life of existing and future residents and
the natural and built environments in which they live, work, and play.
1. Reasons to prepare a comprehensive plan:
 View the “Big Picture.”
 Coordinate local decision making.
 Give guidance to landowners and developers.
 Establish a sound basis for decisions.
 Involve a broad array of interests in a discussion about the long-range
future.
 Build an informed constituency.
2. Elements of a Comprehensive Plan
 Issues and opportunities element is a narrative report that articulates the
values and needs of citizens and other affected interests about what the
community should become.
 The land use element shows the general distribution, location, and
characteristics of current and future land uses and urban form. In the
past, comprehensive plans included color-coded maps showing
exclusive land-use categories, such as residential, commercial,
industrial, institutional, community facilities, open space, recreational,
and agricultural uses. It commonly includes: (a) Future land use map
and (b) Land use projection
 The transportation element commonly addresses traffic circulation,
transit, bicycle routes, ports, airports, railways, recreation routes,
pedestrian movement, and parking. This element considers: (a)
Performance of streets, (b) Thoroughfare plan, (c) Transit, and (d) The
transportation/land-use relationship

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 The community facilities element includes the physical manifestations of
governmental or quasi-governmental services on behalf of the public.
These include buildings, equipment, land, interests in land, such as
easements, and whole systems of activities. The community facilities
element considers: (a) operation by other public agencies, e.g., library
districts, independent school districts, etc., and (b) parks, open spaces,
and cultural resources
 The housing element assesses local housing conditions and projects
future housing needs by housing type and price to ensure that a wide
variety of housing structure types, occupancy types, and prices (for rent
or purchase) are available for a community’s existing and future
residents. The housing element encompasses: (a) Jobs/housing
balance, and (b) housing stock.
 The economic development element describes the local government’s
role in the region’s economy; identifies categories or particular types of
commercial, industrial, and institutional uses desired by the local
government; and specifies suitable sites with supporting facilities for
business and industry.
 The critical and sensitive areas element addresses the protection of
critical and sensitive areas. These areas include land and water bodies
that provide habitat for plants and wildlife, such as wetlands, riparian
corridors, and floodplains; serve as groundwater recharge areas for
aquifers; and areas with steep slopes that are easily eroded or unstable.
 The natural hazards element documents the physical characteristics,
magnitude, severity, frequency, causative factors, and geographic extent
of all-natural hazards. Hazards include flooding; seismic activity;
wildfires; wind-related hazards such as tornadoes, coastal storms, winter
storms, and hurricanes; and landslides or subsidence resulting from the
instability of geological features.
 The agriculture element contains agriculture and forest preservation
elements. This element focuses on the value of agriculture and
forestlands to the local economy, although it can also include open
space, habitat, and scenic preservation.

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b. Urban Design Plans
The urban design gives the three-dimensionality to policies described in a
comprehensive plan. It focuses on the design of the public realm created by
both the public spaces and the buildings defining them. Urban design views
these spaces holistically through a collaboration of the different disciplines
responsible for the components of cities into a unified vision. Compared to
comprehensive plans, urban design plans generally have a short time horizon
and are typically area or project-specific.
Urban design plans require interdisciplinary collaboration among urban
designers, architects, landscape architects, planners, civil and environmental
engineers, and market analysts. The central role of the urban designer is to
serve as the one who can often integrate the work of a diverse range of
specialists.
1. Reasons to prepare an urban design plan
 Forging vision
 Devising strategies
 Creating good locations
 Marketing sites or areas
 Forming “treatise.”
2. Key elements of the urban design plan
 Urban design plan
 Design guidelines for buildings
 Design of the public realm—the open space, streets, sidewalks, and
plazas between and around buildings
 “Public interest” issues of buildings include massing, placement, and
sun, shadow, and wind issues
3. The urban design planning process
An urban design planning process has much in common with a
comprehensive planning process.
 Public outreach
 Involvement of major stakeholders
 Multidisciplinary planning team
 Focus on implementation

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 Design as a tool for decision making
4. Components of the Urban Design Plan
 Streets framework plan and street sections
 The open space framework plan
 Perspective drawings
 Design guidelines
 Implementation and phasing plan
5. Types of urban design plan
 Neighborhood plans often address the location and design of infill
housing, new parks, and community institutions; main street
revitalization; housing rehabilitation guidelines; and street
reconfiguration. Sponsors of neighborhood plans include cities,
community development organizations, foundations, and private
developers.
 Downtown Plans are usually part of a larger economic development
strategy focused on attracting jobs, residents, and visitors to downtown.
The development scale is relatively dense and multistory, which requires
sensitive treatment of the public realm for pedestrians. Downtown urban
design plans often include mixed-use buildings, historic preservation,
adaptive reuse, height and density, setbacks, views, parking strategies,
transit corridors and nodes, streetscapes, waterfronts, street networks,
highway access, redevelopment policies, zoning overlays, incentive
districts, new stadiums and convention centers, and entertainment and
cultural districts.
 Mixed-use developments are typically one-owner, site-specific projects.
Among the various types are infill projects in downtowns, brownfield
reclamation projects, lifestyle centers (also called specialty retail
centers), and office/technology developments. Office, retail, and
housing are among the typical uses in mixed-use developments. Project
sizes can range widely, from a few acres to hundreds of acres. A central
goal is to develop a pedestrian-friendly place to live, work, and play.
Sponsors of mixed-use developments are often private developers,
redevelopment agencies, and large institutions, such as universities and
medical centers.

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c. Other Types of Plans
1. Regional Plans cover geographic areas transcending the boundaries of
individual governmental units but sharing common characteristics that may
be social, economic, political, cultural, natural-resource-based, or defined by
transportation. They often serve as the skeleton or framework for local
government plans and special district plans, supplying unifying assumptions,
forecasts, and strategies.
2. Neighborhood Plans focuses on a specific geographic area of a local
jurisdiction that typically includes substantial residential development,
associated commercial uses, and institutional services such as recreation
and education. Many of the same topics covered in a local comprehensive
plan are covered in a neighborhood plan.
3. Transportation plan guides the investment in, and timing of, improvements
to the transportation network to meet community mobility, accessibility,
safety, economic, and quality-of-life needs. Effective transportation systems
are central to maintaining the productivity, health, and safety of communities
and regions.
4. Housing plans address the legal requirements of housing and its affordability
5. Economic and development plans guide a local or regional effort to stimulate
economic growth and to preserve existing jobs. Economic development may
also be aimed at ensuring increases in real wages, stabilization or increase
of the local tax base, and job diversification—making the community or
region less dependent on a few employers and thus insulating it from
economic downturns in specific industries.
6. Parks and open-space plans outline a systematic approach to providing
parks and recreation services to a community. Parks and open-space
resources within a community include environmental, recreational, scenic,
cultural, historic, and urban design elements. Planning for parks and open
space takes place at national, state, and local levels.
7. Critical and sensitive areas plans are generally defined as lands or water
bodies that provide protection to or habitat for natural resources, living and
non-living, or are themselves natural resources that require identification and
protection from inappropriate or excessive development. In some

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communities, critical and sensitive areas may also include historic structures
or archaeological features.

II. Projection and Demand Analysis

Projections may be employed in needs analyses for schools, park facilities, hospitals,
social service agencies, and libraries. Assumptions about future household size are
incorporated into cost-revenue and other impact analyses of proposed developments.
Finally, the private sector draws upon projections in making business decisions, such as
through market analyses for shopping centers and housing.
Knowing the detailed characteristics of future populations, such as growth in preschool
or elderly populations, permits an analyst to determine whether, for example, there is a
market for more nursery schools or more nursing homes.
A. Projections Versus Forecasts
A population projection is a prediction of future demographic conditions that will
occur if the assumptions inherent in the projection technique prove true. In contrast, a
population forecast makes judgments about the likelihood of assumptions behind the
projection. Thus, it is common to see in comprehensive plans a range of projections
(i.e., high, medium, and low), with the plan’s authors selecting a particular set as the
official forecast to drive other analyses and decisions, such as the determination of the
need for additional urbanized land.
1. Births, Deaths, and Migration
Population projections incorporate three components: births, deaths, and
migration. Depending on the projection technique, these components may be
calculated in detail, to understand their relationships.
a. Births
Births are the product of the number of women in their childbearing years
(ages 15 to 44) multiplied by either a general or age-specific fertility rate. The
rate may be obtained from state or county health departments, and it may vary
depending on age, race, and socioeconomic status. For example, college-
educated women may be more likely to postpone giving birth until their late
twenties or early thirties, or even beyond. In contrast, in a region of the country
where cultural or religious norms favor large families, births may occur early and
frequently in a woman’s childbearing years.

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b. Deaths
Deaths are influenced by access to and quality of health care, income (which
determines how much health care one can afford), and the use of preventive
medicine. The death rate is the number of deaths in a period divided by the
middle period population. The survival rate is one minus the death rate. The
excess of births over deaths is called “natural increase.”
c. Migration
Migration is the number of persons moving into an area, less the number of
persons moving out. It is the hardest component to calculate, and most
projections break down here, even in sophisticated models. Regional economic
differences, cost and availability of housing, and level of public services
influence migration. Real job and wage growth over time should result in a
positive migration number. However, an area’s natural amenities, which make
a community attractive to retirees or second-home purchasers, can also be a
factor in migration, absent strong economic growth in an area’s basic or export-
oriented industries.
2. Special Populations
Special populations include people associated with military bases, tourists,
prisons, and colleges and universities. The size of a special population may have
no connection to the general trends affecting the area. A special population can be
stable for long periods, balloon quickly, and deflate, or, in the case of military bases,
disappear rapidly through a closure program. It is best to develop a detailed
understanding of the nature of the special population and set out the projection for
it separately. For example, for a college or university population, contact the
administrators to determine if there are plans to expand or contract enrollment.
B. Projection Techniques
1. Linear Model - A linear model assumes that population growth or decline is a
constant amount over time
2. Exponential Curve - or nonlinear projection technique assumes that population
growth or decline will occur at a constant rate over time.
C. Population Projection Outcomes
Projections have technical and political dimensions, and it is the political dimensions
that are often the most difficult to address. Projections may conflict with a local
government’s or its residents’ aspirations about its future.

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A planner working for a county planning agency whose projections show the central
city of the county in continued decline may find the projections challenged even though
they reflect the near-term reality. Projections that anticipate exponential growth for a
suburban government that sits astride an interchange may come under fire from slow-
or no-growth advocates living there who view them as self-fulfilling prophecies.
Alternately, a state transportation department may favor an “enhanced” projection to
support and represent economic progress or a corresponding decline in quality of life.
D. Community Projections
Sometimes, the adjustment of a series of individual community projections by a
control projection total developed by an external planning agency that results in the
individual community projections is all scaled back proportionally by the same ratio.
1. Cohort-Survival
The most detailed community projection technique, and one commonly taught
in planning schools, is cohort-survival or cohort-component. This technique relies
on data from the Census Bureau and local and state health department records.
This technique focuses on individual age, sex cohorts, (and sometimes race), the
effects of births, deaths, and migration over time.
The results of the cohort calculations are then summed to give a total for the
projection areas. The cohort survival technique, which produces a detailed picture
of what is going to happen to population, is particularly useful when a planner wants
projections that will assist in the planning of facilities, such as hospitals and schools
that depend on the age of the likely users. The private sector may use this same
information to determine the future market for its products. At some point, that bulge
may produce a demand for entry-level housing as households form when the cohort
reaches its twenties.
2. Economic-Based Model
Economic-based models link job growth with the population by looking at the
relationships of total employment and labor force to the population in a given year
and using them to adjust migration rates on the theory that job or wage growth or
decline will affect net migration. This model is typically used in university research
institutes or government planning offices.
E. Population Projections Issues for Policy Makers
The following are a sample of the types of issues that may be faced by decision-
makers when conducting or using population projections:

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1. What do changes in the economic fabric of the region or local government portend
for population growth or decline?
2. Are the projections aspirations or goals?
3. What is happening to household size?
4. What population-based standards are appropriate?
5. Is demand for the planning activities for which the projections are to be used strictly
population-based, or do other factors come into play, such as income or changes in
tastes or preferences?
6. How does the age composition of the population affect demand, as in the case of
schools and hospitals?
7. Are projections technically reliable and replicable? Will more exotic projection
models produce a superior result?

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity
Project SimCity Development
 Describe the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based on
the vision and objectives that you have identified in Topic 1. Support with the required
screenshots.
2. Study Questions
a. What are the common elements between a comprehensive land-use plan and a
neighborhood plan?
b. List down five (5) community data or information necessary for a holistic urban design
plan. Describe the significance of these data to the urban design process briefly.
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment
 Using your photographs from the previous lesson (you can add new photographs if
needed), is there evidence of a planned neighborhood? Why do you say so?
4. Discussion Forum 2: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. Do you agree with the
analysis of your classmates? Why do you say so?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

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References
Gottdiener, M. & Budd, L. (2005). Key concepts in urban studies. SAGE Publications Ltd.: London
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey

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Topic 9. PRINCIPLES, RULES, AND PROCESS IN URBAN DESIGN

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Describe the factors affecting the urban design process.
2. Understand the opportunities and limitations

Test what you know

1. Video Resource
7 Principles for building better cities | Peter Cathorpe. Source:
https://youtu.be/IFjD3NMv6Kw
2. Discussion Question: What is the importance of setting rules in the urban design
process?
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?

Discussion
I. Principles of Urban Design
1. Good design makes better places
The overall value of urban design in making places is guided by civic purpose.
Indicators to good design include rising property values, business receipts, retail or
office stability or growth, visitation, meeting diverse housing needs, and functioning
efficiently. Equally important are subjective measures. These are visible factors like
whether people are coming to a place, using a place, enjoying themselves, feeling safe,
inviting others to join them, hanging out, making it their own, keeping up the place,
looking out for each other, and so on. These kinds of responses to places are keys to
active participation in place improvements
2. Design places to reflect the people who are or will be there
Unlike buildings or private landscapes, places are in public, for the public, paid for
in large part by the public, and ultimately judged by the public in their activities, with
satisfaction or not. Places are mostly public, activities are mostly public, social, and in
motion over time, and the “client” at one level is everybody and, at the other, is the public
body that exercises authority over the place. Urban design addresses shared space
and the integration of time and motion factors into design. It focuses on knitting together
a ground that satisfies people’s diverse sets of needs, from functional to symbolic.
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Urban design is about the design of a place for the whole of the people who inhabit,
traverse, and use it. Efforts must be made to both clarify and enrich the transition
between the public realm and the workplace or home place in ways that add value,
comfort, convenience, and amenity to these more private experiences. If the measure
of successful places is people’s satisfaction with them, measurable in both subjective
and objective behavioral responses, then it is worth becoming more knowledgeable and
better prepared to meet and exceed that criterion.
3. Design places consciously and holistically
Design and design quality should always be considered in any developmental
process, by the stakeholders, at any scale. This principle involves various urban design
disciplines together with interested citizens and organizations to imagine (1) how the
place should look, and function, and (2) identify the design elements, their interactions,
and the coordination processes necessary to move toward a better overall outcome. It
is also important to carefully consider the merits and possibilities of each of the parts
interacting with each other and to create a better whole, not as freestanding and
dissociated parts. Well-designed pieces in a wholly designed place contribute mightily
to its character, quality, and legibility, sometimes even its delight.
4. Design is an essential skill
Civic space is that people all share in their daily comings and goings. People either
feel good or bad about their experiences and sensations in this common ground, or they
simply take it for granted. People do respond negatively and positively to images of the
civic spaces they encounter. Moving civic design towards making people feel better
about their places, their cities, maybe themselves, may lead to the commitment of time
and resources. The design quality is central to these responses. Attaining some
capability in any or all of the areas of urban design will improve the chances that both
practitioners and people in the community who care can engage and influence the civic
design process for the better.
5. Beware of “Solutionism”
The process of making places that work and satisfy doesn’t have a beginning and
an end in the way that building projects or other time- and budget-specific projects might
have. While there may be a certain solution to a piece of the puzzle, the solution as a
whole must itself be flexible so that it can attach itself to what is there and what might
ensue.

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Problem-driven design assures that the larger context, both spatially and temporally,
and socially and culturally, and the interaction between parts and whole is within the
forefront of any visioning or conceptualizing process. Solution-driven design, on the
other hand, risks applying the “magic bullet” model to solve problems, reaching for the
answer before asking the questions. This disconnect between problem and solution
becomes exaggerated in the culture and practice of modernism in city design and
planning, where problems were “dumbed down” to meet the solutions offered. Urban
design contributes best when problems and solutions interact with each other until each
contributes to the synthesis that can improve the civic environment.
6. Design in the context of time (and motion)
The element of time in design and development has many dimensions. The
dimensions of time apply differently and at different scales— places, neighborhoods,
towns and cities, and regions. The key factors inform design and development
strategies to understand a place’s and its people’s context and status. It is important to
review historical maps, current policies, short- and long-term plans of all relevant
agencies, and the timelines of capital improvement budgets.
Time of day is also a crucial factor in design at all scales. Not just where the sun
rises, crests, and falls in different seasons, not just latitudinal or climate factors, but the
pulsing of human activity through the course of the day play important roles in shaping
better places. Places tend to focus on people’s public, civic, and social activities
throughout the day. The intensity and nature of these activities respond to the rhythms
of daily life.
Another dimension of time is motion. Although the buildings, the trees, the other
elements in the streetscape may not move, people see them differently based on their
motion through a place or by the forces of time, climate, and other changing forces. In
this context, the motion should join with other parameters that allow a designer to
employ this understanding to shape the dynamic experience of places.

II. Urban Design Rules

A. Zoning
Zoning lies at the seam between private and public property. Zoning directs how
a property can be used, what can be built, the size, height, placement, often the
shape and sometimes even the materials of any building provided for that use, as
well as requirements for open space, parking, and loading. These provisions are

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typically found in a zoning ordinance or land-use code, where a text describes in
detail the provisions for each zoning classification, and a map describes where all
the different classifications are located.
B. Comprehensive Plans
The comprehensive plan, which may have a variety of local names, like a
general plan, master plan, regulating plan, comprehensive development plan, and
so on, projects an overall long-range vision for how an area should develop. It
covers the whole of a jurisdiction’s area and includes all of the elements of its built
environment. The core elements usually include land use, transportation, housing,
economic development, the environment, public facilities, public safety, parks and
recreation, and increasingly, urban design. It suggests how these elements affect
each other and how each should proceed toward achieving the overall vision. It
often includes a public improvements plan that projects costs and funding sources
to build prioritized streets, sewers, parks, and other infrastructure that will advance
the plan. Policies beyond those directly manifested in the physical place are
sometimes included as well, like public education or equity policies.
C. Public Improvement Plans
Comprehensive plans lay the basis for public improvement plans that both
define public project priorities and shape the capital budget. Comprehensive
Development Plans (CDP) (or may have different names in different jurisdictions)
are listings of capital projects, sometimes just listing the jurisdiction’s capital funding
sources, sometimes listing matching funding sources (like the local or national
government, or private). The public improvement plan reveals where, how, and
when streets, sidewalks, and storm and sanitary sewer facilities are built. Or which
public facilities (like parks, libraries, and schools) will be built or improved. Or how
these priorities stack up against stated policy or new policy initiatives. And how
public improvements track (or don’t) private, district, or neighborhood development
strategies. In many jurisdictions, this information may be held in different agencies
using different criteria and formats.
D. Subdivisions
Subdivision regulations nowadays have their widest application in residential
properties, from single-family homes to condos (which have their covenants, codes,
and restrictions). In the land assembly or disposal process, they may apply to
commercial or industrial properties as well. Normally, they set forth how and where

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land can be subdivided, or parceled out for the sale and the construction of whatever
kinds of structures are allowed under zoning. The subdivision process usually
begins with the requirement for a preliminary plat. This map shows topography,
natural features, and how streets will be laid out; where utilities will go, and what
easements may be required for public purposes, all under public works design
standards. Also, the plat shows lot lines with the size of the lot and some indication
of what part of the lot can be built upon. Once the preliminary plat is approved, the
subdivided, usually a developer or home builder, may proceed to the construction
of infrastructure, subject to posting a bond that guarantees construction consistent
with the jurisdiction’s regulations. Before any lots can be conveyed to prospective
buyers, the plat needs to be finalized and certified by the appropriate jurisdictional
authority, usually the planning commission and recorded in the tax assessor’s office
so that all can see in clear detail who owns what and what the conditions of that
ownership may be.
E. Public Works Standards
Public works codes come in different forms and have different names across
jurisdictions, but together they lay down a set of rules every bit as defining civic
space as any of the other codes. Typically public works codes address the design
of streets, sidewalks, signs, street lights, traffic signals, sewers, and stormwater
runoff, and they set the parameters for utility location, which accommodates the
oncoming car as efficiently and safely as possible. As a result, most public works
codes reflect one-size-fits-all standards that prioritize the car and its movements
over all other considerations in designing the public right-of-way. It flows from a
rational and linear thought process that prioritizes a single problem over all others:
Move the car quickly and safely.
Times are changing, though, as the persistent community- and market-driven
search for better ways is forcing the transportation and traffic engineering disciplines
to reconsider their standards and the bases on which they have been promulgated.
Just as with architecture, landscape architecture, and city planning, engineering as
an isolated discipline often defies the logic of common sense. The place-building
disciplines and processes ensure that the job is not to discount the design and
technological expertise that has built up through the years but rather to incorporate
it to serve more integrated and holistic community design and building purposes.

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F. Land Development Rules
These land development rules may govern to varying extents transportation,
environmental protection, and housing and urban development issues, among
others.
G. Special Purpose Rules
These rules also have significant impacts but are targeted to limited situations
or to specific districts in the world we experience. These include codes designed to
protect or advance special interests or design review provisions that supplement the
blunt instrument of zoning with a finer grain and more subtle guidance for places of
special community concern. E.g., historic preservation, signs, overhead utilities,
environmental rules, etc.
H. Financing Rules
Tax-based funding sources for public infrastructure or other civic improvement
projects, local governments may have access to funding that may be available to
assist projects deemed to be in the public interest. Usually, this is in support of the
revitalization of blighted or disinvested areas or lower-income neighborhoods or
affordable housing. The sources of these funds may be local, state, or federal, and
they may be used to leverage each other for private or foundation funding.

III. The Urban Design Process

A. The urban design process is
1. The design process is not linear but dialectical, taking the form of an argument
between problem and solution. It also employs the scientific ways of generating
logical deductions from theory. Likewise, an important feature of the design process
is the exploration of problem definition through the examination of solutions or partial
solutions.
2. Urban design, like any other design activity, involves creative thinking. It is also
iterative or cyclical, which it has in common with the general planning method.
3. Fundamental to the urban design process is the generation of ideas and design
concepts. Theory may be a rich source of ideas, but it is by no means the only one.
Ideas can be generated in ways which fall outside the scope of inductive or
deductive reasoning. Artists and creative designers make use of analogy in their
work. An analogy is a very useful tool for the creative designer. The use of analogy

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can be used to circumvent a mental block, a way of short-circuiting the design
process. The alternative of waiting for inspiration to find new ways of seeing an old
problem may be unproductive or, at best time-consuming.
B. Types of Urban Design Planning Method
1. Synoptic Planning
 This system is a top-down approach rooted in rationalism and utilitarian
philosophy.
 It is a method proceeding from analysis to target definition, followed by a
search for alternatives and their comparison. It also includes a process of
implementation with techniques for feedback and information.
2. Incremental Planning
 It is rooted in liberalism and theories about social learning.
 According to this theory, commonly accepted values cannot define clearly
define goals. Thus, only a limited number of alternative actions are
considered in any development context, which is not very much different from
the status quo.
 In incremental planning, a good solution is not defined by the degree of goal
achievement, but by the feasibility of the implementation of solutions within
the available means and degree of agreement among key decision-makers.
3. Transactive Planning
 This system is a bottom-up approach that places great emphasis on mutual
learning and dialogue between the affected sectors.
 It seeks to build decentralized planning bodies, which can give the people
more control over the social processes that are affecting their welfare.
 Transactive planning is just as concerned with planning’s effect on people’s
self-esteem, values, behavior and capacity for growth through cooperation as
necessary consequences of the plan.
4. Advocacy Planning
 It implies that planners become spokespeople for various groups.
 The planner contributes to the development process by creating a situation
with many competing plan proposals.
 This module of planning provides for minority groups to be heard more clearly,
and therefore, the public receives better information about alternative options.

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5. Radical Planning
 It can be an anarchist-inspired approach emphasizing decentralized control,
and the experimentation with alternative societal organizations, which
includes environmentalist movements.
 It can also focus on the impacts of the economic system on class conditions
and the role of planning in the struggle. This Marxist version of radicalism
proposes socialist government control of the means of production and that
production, instead of being governed by political motives, should be directed
towards meeting societal needs as defined through the political process.

III. Urban Analysis

Urban analysis links an understanding of a place and its context with generally
acceptable urban design concepts and strategies. Whether the place in question is a
specific site, a city street, a neighborhood, downtown, or a region, a thorough understanding
of the place helps guide the choice of the most appropriate type of project.
The type of analysis chosen should support the desired outcome or predetermined
design. Any type of urban analysis needs to begin with the project goals. Understanding
the goals and what the client, the city, the developer, or the citizens hope to achieve through
the project can help determine the most appropriate type of analysis for ascertaining the
project’s potential for success. The process of analyzing the physical environment in urban,
suburban, and rural areas can be performed on many scales.
A. Urban Analysis Factors
1. Community Key Elements
a. Census Information
Census data do not include individual or collective values, but they do provide an
overview of the demographic characteristics of the residents in a particular
community. Statistics available for analysis include age, employment, income,
household size and tenure, and commute distance. Census information can be
analyzed through a series of summary charts and/or bar charts.
b. Previous Planning Efforts
Previous plans may also be a resource to investigate. Understanding why
previous plans were or were not successful, as well as what kind of public support

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they garnered, can help guide future projects and may help in establishing
community values.
c. Public Process
A community’s perception regarding itself and its environment is an important
element to gauge. No matter what the physical or economic analyses say about
a place, for a project to be successful, it needs the support of people who live,
work, and play there.
2. Regulations and Ownership Key Elements
a. Zoning and Land Use
Documenting the zoning classifications both within and surrounding a project
area or site will define the existing potentials for use, along with the building
envelope and densities limitations. Plans or section diagrams are useful for
illustrating allowable development characteristics such as building heights, floor
area ratio (FAR), allowable residential densities, building setbacks, and parking
requirements. A map of existing land use should be independently prepared
and compared to the uses allowed by zoning.
b. Design Guidelines
Design guidelines supplementing the
zoning code shape the architectural
character of their communities. Design
guidelines clarify and recommend elements
such as windows and doors, private
plantings, building and roof shapes, and
signage are an appropriate starting point for
the definition of character in a proposed
development and describe the appropriate
type of building for a particular site, street, or community. A summary map or
memo can illustrate the implications of such guidelines for a particular site or
area.

c. Property Ownership
The type and character of buildings in a place contribute many important
aspects of a community, and in some cases, may be a direct result of the

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patterns of property ownership. Property lines, property ownership, and the
shape, pattern, and size of parcels are key
factors in the built environment’s appearance.
The patterns of land ownership—such as public
versus private owners, multiple owners for
multiple properties, single owners for multiple
properties, and small-scale lots versus larger
“superblocks”—can be a strong indicator of the
likely pattern of urban form. Multiple ownership
projects, including public/private partnerships,
are becoming more common. Therefore,
documenting all the relevant property lines and
ownership is important to identify the
contribution of various parties and guide the
balance of development funding and investment
returns. Property lines and ownership can be
analyzed through parcel maps.
3. Key Elements of Continuity
a. History
The process of how a community changed
or remained consistent in physical patterns can
reveal a lot about its character and its
susceptibility to change. Likewise, recognized
historic areas, broaden the perspective to study
the patterns of building, roads, and landscape
features over time to understand how and why
communities developed the way they did.
Mapping changes in the landforms and
topography over time can indicate the location of historic shorelines and
wetlands or former agricultural lands, sensitive landscape features that have
been lost, and remaining natural features that may merit preservation.
b. Patterns of Development
As communities develop over time, they often create unique patterns in the
type, scale, and location of buildings. Similar in nature to a figureground
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diagram, a Nolli Map, named for Giambattista Nolli’s groundbreaking map of
1748 Rome, is a useful tool for exploring the continuity of the perceived public
space in a community. This type of analysis can help understand the use of
ground floors of buildings to augment the public realm, guiding future
developments.
4. Key Elements of Character
a. Urban Form
Collectively, the scale and character of individual buildings and the
topography of a place create an overall urban/built form. Analysis of urban form
can highlight patterns ranging from the
general shape of development to the
integration with the larger natural
environment. Figureground drawings and
block pattern diagrams are useful tools in
understanding the general scale and grain of
development in a particular built environment.
b. Topography
Topographic features such as slopes or
the presence of a floodplain can limit the type
of development allowed in a place. A
thorough understanding of the overall
topography of a place is also useful for understanding original settlement patterns
and locating new development appropriately. Analysis of the overall landform
can be achieved with topographic maps that identify specific landforms that limit
development, such as hills or bodies of water, or areas that are suitable for
development, such as areas of flat land. Such information should be
supplemented with other environmental data, such as the location of aquifer
recharge areas.

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c. Views
The process of building cities and
suburbs simultaneously frames views of the
natural environment and creates a multitude
of human-made views, from city skylines to
residential tree-lined streets. Understanding
which views are important, whether they are
point views (views toward a single object or
group of objects), panoramic viewsheds, or
linear views, can help guide the scale of
development. Views and viewsheds can
also be analyzed through section drawings,
showing how street edges frame particular
views and how the scale of development or
the placement of buildings on a particular
site can allow or block views to the
surrounding landforms.
d. Open Space
The number of parks and other
recreational and non-recreational open
spaces is often a useful gauge for the
number of residents a community can
comfortably support. Open space can also
be analyzed to document the ownership of
open space in a community to ascertain if
there is an appropriate balance between
public and private ownership. A plan
drawing, indicating the different types of open spaces and ownership, is the most
common type of diagram used to understand the open-space system in a
community.
e. Activity Nodes
The pattern of land can help identify major activity centers. While quiet
residential neighborhoods are often considered the backbone of the city, recent

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interest has focused on major mixed-use
activity centers, from the main street to the
reinvented mixed-use shopping centers.
Patterns and locations of existing activity
nodes can be useful to guide locations of
future activity nodes, either as expansions of
existing nodes or creation of entirely new, and
possibly competing, activity nodes. In
addition to zoning maps, plan diagrams can
be used to document individual activity
generators and the larger area from which
activity nodes draw or could draw population.
f. Architectural Character
Analyzing a community’s architectural character can identify significant
buildings, provide insight on a community’s values, and help determine the types
of buildings residents would like to see in the future. Usually, a few individual
buildings are more memorable within a particular community. These buildings
often have some historical or architectural significance. They are given landmark
status, although, in some instances, they are simply buildings that are important
to residents and are considered for protection under local criteria. Also, a
collection of architecturally or historically significant buildings in a neighborhood
or district often provides more information about the desired architectural
character of a community than a single historic structure. Axonometric sketches
of typical building types and elevation drawings of typical street façades or
individual building façades can be used to document a community’s architectural
character.
g. Streetscape
Street character is established by the width of streets, the regular or irregular
pattern of buildings facing those streets, the tree planting along those streets and
specific design features such as lighting, paving, and street furniture. Mapping
more or less consistent characteristics of street design, often along with patterns
of open space, is an important component for public realm analysis. Streetscape
and public realm standards or guidelines may also be available to guide the type
of streetscape elements for future development projects. Analysis of
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streetscapes is usually presented through plans and sections of streets and
sidewalks, indicating the type and location of amenities.
h. Environmental Concerns
Documenting the environmental aspects of a community will likely include
both natural areas for protection and conservation and built areas where new
development may involve clean up and restoration. For redevelopment or infill
sites, remediation is often required before the development can occur. Plan
diagrams can be used to document sensitive environmental sites, such as
riparian zones or wildlife habitats that need to be protected and sites that require
environmental remediation.
5. Key Elements of Connections
a. Street Network and Rights-of-Way
 Street types
 Pattern and capacity of the street network
 Rights-of-way recorded for the area, showing ownership of streets and
sidewalks and often indicating the potential for changes and/or expansion of
roadways within that ownership
 Local, community, and regional connections, both existing and needed.

b. Traffic Parking and Collection Data

 Record of traffic flow and current levels of service (LOS)
 The capacity of roadway segments
 Collision data as an indicator of existing problems in design or operations

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 Parking facilities (on-street
and off-street), usage and
capacity
 Parking standards and
guidelines for the area,
including location, size, and
ratios
 Record of parking issues and
complaints in terms of
adverse impacts, as well as
transit-first policies that may
limit parking provision in
dense urban areas
 Planned improvements to the
roadway network
 Local community policies about street standards, such as acceptable levels
of service and policies encouraging walkable neighborhoods and affecting
street and sidewalk widths
c. Transit Modes and Services
Identification of all available and planned modes of public transportation,
including the following:
 Commuter, regional, and interstate rail access
 Light rail
 Local and regional bus service
 Fixed guideway buses
 Special shuttle bus services
 Water transportation such as ferries and
water taxis
 Where appropriate, a record of ridership
data, location of transit stops, service
headways, and potential for expansion

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d. Bicycles and Pedestrians
 Bicycle routes, by classification, and existing or required bike lanes that may
require added street right-of-way, both commuter and recreational routes
 Pedestrian network, including sidewalks and special pathways needed to
accommodate handicapped access
 Desired pedestrian paths of travel
e. Utilities and Services
 Location, capacity, and planned network changes as relevant for essential
utilities and services, including the following:
o Water
o Sewer
o Power
o Communications
 Community facilities and services, such as libraries, schools, government
services, daycare, recreational centers, and other key community services
B. Economic and Market Setting Analysis
An urban analysis which engages economic and market issues in a variety of
ways, including: (a) an analysis of the real estate economics that support new
development proposals, (b) an assessment of the market demand, including unmet
needs for residential, retail, office, or other land uses and specific building types; and
(c) fiscal analysis, by which a community judges its ability to provide the services
needed for a newly planned district or site development or public use proposal.

C. Fiscal Impact Analysis

Fiscal impact analysis compares local government costs against local government
revenues associated with land-use policies and specific development projects. It
projects net cash flow to the public sector resulting from development. The analysis
forecasts when a community could face budget deficits. Local governments are then
able to weigh land-use policy decisions, acceptable levels of public services, plans for
capital investments, and long-term borrowing needs, in addition to prompting local
officials to evaluate current and future revenue sources.

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IV. Legislative Requirements
A. The Environmental Impact Assessment (PD 1586)
Environmental impact assessment involves systematically identifying, evaluating,
discussing, and documenting the potential beneficial and adverse consequences of
implementing a project, development, or program to the community and natural
resources. The assessment may consider ecological features and communities,
combined with economic, cultural, aesthetic, health, safety, and neighborhood impacts,
and identify the potential trade-offs across these resources. Likewise, critical elements
in the environmental impact assessment process are identifying possible measures to
avoid, reducing potentially adverse impacts, and maximizing the project or program’s
beneficial effects. This comprehensive consideration of project effects early in project
development can make the difference between successful project implementation and
a project that is not feasible.
A. The Role of Environmental Impact Assessment in Project Planning
 Ensures compliance with pertinent environmental laws
 Increases environmental quality
 Improves community design
 Reduces project costs
 Reduces in the time required to implement projects
 Increases community support
B. Environmental Impact Assessment Consideration
a. Legal and Regulatory Context
Environmental laws and regulations provide important foundations
governing environmental impact assessment. Early consultation and
understanding of these laws and regulations are important.
b. The Natural Environment
The natural environment includes air, land, water, and other biological
resources that could be affected by the implementation of a project or program.
c. The Human Environment
The analysis of a project’s effects on the human environment should include
land use and development, communities and neighborhoods, historic and
archaeological resources, transportation systems, and economic impacts.

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d. Land Use and Development
The impact assessment should focus on the proposed project’s
compatibility in terms of density, scale, and intensity of use with existing and
planned land-use activities on and adjacent to the project site, and compatibility
with the existing and planned character of adjacent land uses and development.
An important element of the analysis is the degree to which the project might
support or discourage land-use conversions, and the extent to which these
conversions are consistent with longer-term community goals and objectives.
e. Communities and Neighborhoods
Community and neighborhood impact assessment is an iterative process
that focuses on the character of the area combined with the aspects of the
social environment that area residents’ value and that contribute to their quality
of life.
A complete impact assessment process successfully develops a project
that responds to community needs and encourages the affected communities
and residents to be involved proactively in discussing and understanding the
potential benefits and negative consequences of the project.
f. Historic and Archaeological Resources
Historic and archaeological resources are important for their cultural value,
are often distinguishing characteristics of the community fabric, and help to
shape community identity. These resources are protected by various national
and local laws and regulations on the project's effects on the resources
considering both the resource and the context.
g. Transportation Impacts
Transportation system impacts associated with a proposed project can
include increases in demand for existing infrastructure, effects on the level of
service on affected roadways and at intersections, enhancements or limitations
on access and mobility, changes in pedestrian and vehicular circulation
patterns, and effects on safety. These impacts can cause the need for
additional improvements to transportation infrastructure as a condition of
implementing the project, or the payment of fees instead of improvements.
h. Economic Impacts
Economic impacts include assessment of project costs and benefits. These
costs and benefits can be assessed at both the regional and site-specific

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scales. Fiscal impacts associated with the project, as well as who pays and
who benefits, should be addressed
B. Eminent Domain, Property Rights, Police Power, Nuisance, Vested Rights, and
Zoning Regulation
a. Eminent Domain
Eminent domain is the power of the government to take property for public use
with just compensation; it is one of several powers fundamental to a functioning
government. Traditionally, the eminent domain referred to government action,
which directly appropriates private property, most commonly through a
condemnation process. Recently, however, the courts have recognized it as
applicable when government adoption of police power regulations may restrict a
property’s use to an extent equal to appropriation. These indirect appropriations
of property are called “regulatory takings” or “inverse condemnation” and have
been the focus of many court decisions in recent years. A special regulatory
takings issue involves situations where the government approves development on
the condition that the developer provides, dedicate land for, or contribute money
for improvements to public facilities and services.
b. Property Rights
“Bundle of Rights” refers to the collective property rights held by individuals
and entities to own and use land. The bundle is the totality of the rights of property
ownership. In the case of real property (e.g., land and buildings), it embraces the
following rights:
 Quiet enjoyment of the property.
 Occupy the property and
exclude others.
 Sell, lease, donate or bequeath
the property.
 Mortgage the property or grant
easements.
 Subdivide the property or build
and remove improvements.
 Control the property’s use within
the law.

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The bundle also embraces public rights to tax or assess the property, to control
its use and development, and to acquire it for public use (with just compensation).
Land-use regulations restrict private property rights to protect the public’s
health, safety, morals, and general welfare. Hence, land-use regulation always
involves a balance—and often conflicts—both between private and public property
rights and among private rights.
c. Police Power
Police powers refer to the rights of the government to establish laws and
ordinances to preserve public order and tranquility and to promote the public
health, safety, morals, and general welfare. A government exercises its police
power by imposing rules and regulations on individuals and a property owner’s
use of privately owned land. Both stop signs
and zoning regulations are examples of the
government’s exercise of its police power.
Under the police powers, the government
adopts zoning regulations that prohibit the
operation of industry and other noisy or noxious
businesses next to schools and neighborhoods.
Local governments also have the right to
legitimately use the police power to make or
keep a city beautiful, as well as healthy. It is
following the principle that cities today now
regulate community appearance, including
using zoning and land development regulations to control signs, billboards,
planting, and the appearance of buildings; and to preserve and protect historic
landmarks and sites.
d. Nuisance
The term nuisance refers to the use of one’s property in a manner that
seriously interferes with another’s use or enjoyment of his or her property (a private
nuisance) or is damaging to the community at large (a public nuisance). In a
private nuisance action, a claimed nuisance land use is usually adjacent or close
to the property of the claimant, who seeks to prohibit the use by injunction and
obtain monetary damages for injuries suffered.

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Zoning was originally based, in part, on nuisance avoidance. It consisted of a
comprehensive scheme for separating incompatible land uses into mapped zones
of districts. Because of the adoption of zoning in most communities, landowners
use private nuisance suits less frequently to resolve land-use disputes.
e. Vested Rights
A vested right is the right to use the property in some way that the government
may not limit or extinguish, such as by the adoption of new or modified regulations.
Common law, statute, or both, establish vested rights. Under common law, a
vested right generally exists if a developer has made substantial or extensive
expenditures in reasonable reliance on governmental action. Whether such a
vested right exists involves determining what constitutes sufficient governmental
action to trigger reasonable reliance, whether expenditures were made in reliance
on the action, and whether the expenditures are substantial or extensive.
The zoning of property generally does not confer vested right protection
against its subsequent rezoning. Furthermore, a vested right may be lost if the
permit issuance or approval that established it was based on an intentional
misrepresentation of information about the development, or if the development
creates a hazard to the public health, safety, morals, or welfare.
f. Zoning Regulation
A zoning ordinance divides a local government’s jurisdiction into districts or
zones, which regulates the following:
 Types of land use allowed
 Intensity or density of development
 Height, bulk, and placement of structures
 Amount and design of parking
 Other aspects of land-use and development activity
Zoning ordinances also contain standards common to all districts and a set of
procedures for applying, administering, and enforcing its regulations. Finally, the
ordinance will contain a map or series of maps that show precise boundaries for
various zoning districts.
C. Philippine Laws on Urban Design and Community Architecture
a. Agenda 2030 AND THE Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
SDG 11 aims to “make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient,
and sustainable

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b. The Urban Development and Housing Act of 1992
This Act aims to provide for a comprehensive and continuing urban development
and housing program and establish the mechanism for its implementation.
It first stipulates the principles governing the urban development and housing
program. For instance, the state shall ensure the rational use of land, provide
affordable housing for underprivileged and homeless citizens.
c. Local Government Code (LGC 1991)
Sec. 16 – To promote the general welfare, the LGUs shall ensure and support
the “preservation and enrichment of culture, promote health and safety, enhance
the right of the people to a balanced ecology, encourage and support the
development of appropriate and self-reliant scientific and technological
capabilities, improve public morals, enhance economic prosperity and social
justice, promote full employment among their residents, maintain peace and
order, and preserve the comfort and convenience of their inhabitants.”
d. National Urban Development and Housing Framework
The NUDHF provides an overarching framework for urban development and
housing, consisting of a vision, policy statements, and strategies, encompassing
core development sectors and spatial elements. It is intended to guide the efforts
of the Philippine government, private sector, and other stakeholders in improving
the performance and efficiency of the country's urban systems
e. RA 11201 – Department of Human Settlements Act
f. An act creating the Department of Human Settlements and Urban Development,
BP 220 – Socialized and Economic Housing Law
g. PD 957 - Subdivision and Condominium Buyers’ Protective Decree
h. PD 1216 - Defining Open Space in Residential Subdivision
Defining “open space” in residential subdivisions and amending section 31 of
presidential decree no. 957 requiring subdivision owners to provide roads,
alleys, sidewalks and reserve open space for parks or recreational use
i. PD 1096 - National Building Code of the Philippines

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Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity
Project SimCity Development
 Rationalize the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based
on the zoning of areas that you had done. Support with the required screenshots.
2. Study Questions
a. What urban design planning model should be used when community participation is
important? Why do you say so?
b. Identify the key elements in an urban analysis process.
c. Identify the controlling or regulating elements in urban design. Describe their
significance to the urban design analysis process.
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment
 Using your photographs from the previous lesson (you can add new photographs if
needed), are there evidences of a planned neighborhood? Why do you say so?
4. Discussion Forum 2: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. Do you agree with the
analysis of your classmates? Why do you say so?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

References
Gottdiener, M. & Budd, L. (2005). Key concepts in urban studies. SAGE Publications Ltd.: London
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley & Sons,
Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey

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Topic 10. DESIGN REQUIREMENTS OF SPECIFIC PLACES IN TOWNS & CITIES

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Describe the general principles in designing public spaces within the urban realm.
2. Understand the importance of well-planned public spaces to the overall urban environment.

Test what you know

1. Reading Assignment:
Richards, P. (2017). The public realm as a generator of urban design. The Journal of
Public Space, 2 (1). ISSN: 2206-9658. Retrieved from
https://www.journalpublicspace.org/index.php/jps/article/view/249/248
2. Discussion Question: What are the four (4) main criteria that should be considered in
designing the public realm? How do these criteria define the public realm as a generator of
the urban form?
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?

Discussion
I. Cluster Housing and Planned Unit Development (PUD)
Very large developments, with thousands of individual dwellings, require a variety of
support services, including schools, public facilities, parks, commercial centers, and
places of employment. The Planned Unit Development (PUD) concept emerged from
well-planned mixed-use development. Although new PUDs were primarily residential, a
wider range of development types now uses it. PUD regulations typically merge zoning
and subdivision controls, allowing developers to plan and develop a large area as a single
entity, with the design flexibility to mix land uses, housing types, and densities, and with
project phasing.
The Planned Unit Development (PUD) is a tool municipalities use to encourage or
require flexibility, creativity, and innovation in the planning and design of developments
towards a variety of objectives. In the 1960s, the PUDs emerged as a means to
accommodate the planning and development of “new communities” that included a
variety of uses, densities, and building styles. PUDs emerged as an alternative to the
residential subdivision and lot-by-lot development practices associated with the post-

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World War II period. Early PUD
development, also known as
planned residential development
(PRD), refers to residential
development with variable housing
or lot types on large parcels of land,
together with common open spaces
and community and recreation
facilities.
The mixed-use development
envisioned for newly planned
communities did not fit well within
conventional zoning and subdivision regulations. The PUD concept, however, allowed
the incorporation of a variety of uses, including a mix of housing types, such as garden
apartments, townhouses, and single-family homes, as well as other uses that might not
otherwise be allowed under zoning. PUDs can also be used to encourage or require
clustered development and are increasingly used in more rural settings to protect
farmland and open space.
A. Application of PUD
 a compact, pedestrian-oriented, mixed-use development, especially in
downtowns, villages, and new town centers;
 affordable housing;
 open space preservation and project compatibility with surrounding rural lands;
 flexibility in lot layout and site design, including the placement and design of
buildings, parking and circulation, open areas, and related design considerations
that will “best achieve the goals of the area as articulated in the municipal plan
and bylaws” for a particular site and its surroundings;
 the efficient use of public facilities and infrastructure; and
 energy-efficient forms of development
B. Types of PUD
1. Planned Residential Developments (PRD)
PRDs, are a type of PUD that includes primarily residential uses. In rural
districts, PRDs encourage or require limited, clustered, low-density residential

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development, while emphasizing the protection of important natural features and
resource lands identified in the municipal plan. In more urban or village settings,
PRD standards may allow a mix of housing types and promote a more
pedestrian-oriented neighborhood design that incorporates moderate to high
densities of development, street trees, sidewalks, and parks.
2. Non-residential PUD
A municipality may identify certain limited areas or situations for PUDs that
include only non-residential uses, for example, regional commercial centers or
industrial parks. In regional commercial centers, PUD provisions may
emphasize compact layout and design, a pedestrian scale of development,
urban streetscapes with pedestrian amenities, high-quality landscaping, and
shared unobtrusive parking areas. However, in industrial parks, PUD standards
could promote a more “campus” style of development with consistent design
elements, landscaping, dispersed parking and loading facilities, public transit
facilities, employee amenities such as recreational and day-care facilities, and
buffering and screening to minimize physical and visual impacts to neighboring
properties and uses.
3. Mixed-use PUDs.
One of the most common uses of PUDs is to promote or require an integrated
mix of residential and non-residential uses at moderate to higher densities of
development. This development is usually found in traditional town and village
centers, new town centers, and other designated growth centers. Depending on
the vision, the standards for PUDs may emphasize the appropriate mix of uses,
such as the siting, orientation, and design of buildings to ensure some privacy
for residential uses and to create well-defined streetscapes and public spaces
that incorporate pedestrian amenities, public transit facilities, and on- and off-
street parking
C. Benefits of a PUD
1. Modifications, including the authorization of uses, densities, and intensities of
development that are otherwise not allowed under regulations, are permitted as
long as it is within government provisions of densification.
2. Open Space Standards include standards for the reservation or dedication of
common land or other open space for the use or benefit of residents of the

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proposed development. These standards must include provisions for
determining the amount and location of common land or open space and for its
improvement and long-term maintenance.
3. It authorizes municipalities to modify or waive zoning uses, densities, and
intensities that would otherwise apply to a proposed development

II. Areas for Priority Development (APDs)/ Mixed-Use

Development and Commercial Centers
Mixed-use developments create vibrant urban environments that bring compatible
land uses, public amenities, and utilities together at various scales. These developments
seek to create pedestrian-friendly environments, higher-density development, and a
variety of uses that enable people to live, work, play, and shop in one place, which can
become a destination
A. Objectives of Mixed-use Development
1. Vitality
Placemaking encourages human activity and has been one of the greatest
achievements of mixed-use development. By revitalizing and diversifying urban
areas such as downtowns, waterfronts, transit nodes, and infill sites, become
community destinations.
2. Sustainability
Mixing uses and allowing for higher development intensities creates more
efficient and less wasteful buildings and spaces, which can be less of a burden on
the environment.
3. Sense of Community
Mixed-use developments cater to a diversity of people and uses in one place,
thus, providing opportunities for community interaction.
4. Convenient Access
The proximity of diverse uses makes it possible to reduce vehicle trips and
encourage transit ridership. Mixed-use developments can support higher transit
use and may be a catalyst for siting transit facilities in the area.
5. Pedestrian-Friendly Environment
Mixed-use developments provide more opportunities for convenient and safe
pedestrian access

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6. Sharing of Utilities and Amenities
Mixed-use development can result in more efficient use of land and
infrastructure. For example, retail uses can share parking facilities with residential
uses, because their peak hours for parking do not overlap substantially; thus,
reducing the cumulative parking requirement appreciably. Similarly, stormwater
facilities, sewer, common area maintenance, and central heating, ventilation, and
air conditioning can also be shared.
7. Longer Hours of Active Street Life
The range of uses can be active at different times of the day or on different
days of the week, which activates the place for longer hours than is possible for
any single use.
8. Safety
Mixing residential,
commercial, and
professional activities
within a compact area
ensure activity
throughout the day and
evening, creating a
sense of safety. For
example, the presence of
people living in
apartments above stores
helps reduce the
potential for vandalism
during off-hours,
because there are no off-
hours.
9. Historic Renovation and
Adaptive Reuse of
Structures
Renovating historic
buildings and using them

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in new ways helps preserve the older urban fabric while providing architectural
diversity in mixed-use developments
B. Types of Mixed-use Development
1. Vertical Mixed-Use Buildings
Vertical mixed-use development combines different uses in the same building.
The lower floors generally have more public uses, with private uses on the upper
levels. E.g., residential space over commercial establishments, street-level retail
with an office tower above, residential and hotel uses in the same building, and
retail and a parking structure with multiple uses above. Vertical mixed-use
development can have any number of revenue producing and mutually supportive
uses in the same building.
2. Horizontal Mixed-Use Sites
Horizontal mixed-use development combines single-use buildings on distinct
parcels in a range of land uses in one planned development project. This approach
avoids the financing and code complexities of vertically layered uses while
achieving the goal of placemaking that is made possible by bringing together
complementary uses in one place.
3. Mixed-Use Walkable Areas
These developments
combine both vertical and
horizontal mix of uses in an
area ideally within a 10-minute
walking distance or a .25-mile
radius of a core of activities.
C. Development Partnership
Mixed-use development often
involves both private and public
sectors, and thus benefits from the
efforts of the partnership.
However, these two sectors
generally have a few differing objectives. The private developer generally has financial
gains to pursue, whereas the public sector is concerned with social gains for the

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community at large. Sharing the risk between the public and private sectors can also
be beneficial
D. Challenges to Mixed-use Development
1. Zoning Ordinance
Conventional zoning typically allows for one single quality or function in an area
at the exclusion of all others, making the implementation of mixed-use
development difficult. There are some communities, however, that permit
cumulative zoning and allowing lesser impact uses in higher-impact zones (e.g.,
residential allowed in commercial zones). At the district, neighborhood, and town
center scale, providing only one dominant building function, use, or type creates a
less vibrant and engaging experience. Mixed-use developments, made possible
by modifying zoning ordinances, can accommodate a broader range of compatible
uses.
2. Financing
Private sector investment and subsidies for mixed-use development are often
more complicated and more difficult to obtain than conventional developments.
Mixed-use projects are not as commonly pursued. Therefore, there are fewer
established programs for them. Higher up-front costs also often deter financing
institutions from lending money for mixed-use developments. Developers of
mixed-use projects often have to be creative in assembling the necessary
financing.
3. Layering
Layering uses, as in vertical mixed-use development, increase the
development cost and the associated risk. Mixed-use developments can cause
planning and management complexities that might not otherwise exist in a single-
use project. Developers need to be aware and well informed of the timeline and

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cost implications from the onset of the project, to help reduce the complexities that
would evolve otherwise. Up-front efforts to inform local code officials of the
methods and conditions for mixed-use project review can be beneficial.
4. Approval Process
The diversity of uses can make the project’s approval process more complex,
as it involves representatives from numerous agencies and departments.
Stakeholders need to engage zoning board members and other agencies in
designing possible successful scenarios and case studies to help modify existing
approval methods and lead to a more efficient approval process.
5. Collaboration
Mixed-use developments require collaboration across numerous professions
to obtain the optimal mix of uses for a successful project within a community’s
Economic, social, and political requirements. All parties involved—landowner,
public sector, and developer—should understand each other’s objectives from the
beginning of the process and program to achieve maximum benefit

III. Industrial parks and districts

Industrial parks are areas within a community designated for activities associated
with and can include materials processing, materials assembly, product manufacturing,
and storage of finished products. Uses can include manufacturing facilities, warehouse
distribution centers, and truck terminals. Industrial parks can be stand-alone
developments within a community, or they can be adjacent to or part of a larger regional
industrial district spanning several contiguous jurisdictions. These parks and districts
rely on the availability of large tracts of land, efficient transportation systems, and
sufficient infrastructure for their success and for their ability to integrate into the larger
community
A. Siting Parameters
1. Transportation
Industrial parks should be located near major transportation systems,
including regional and interstate highway systems, with an efficient system of
local roadways between the industrial park and the highway system. Access to
other types of transportation systems, such as rail, port, and airfreight, should be
available if they are characteristic of the region and in demand by the industry.

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2. Utilities and Infrastructure
Industrial parks require dependable utility systems. Sufficient supplies of
water for domestic fire protection and use in industrial processes should be
available, and sanitary sewer systems need sufficient capacity to support waste
generated in the park. Also, consider developing regional stormwater
management facilities to support the industrial park. Likewise, adequate
supplies of natural gas and electricity, and the presence of telecommunications
utility infrastructure are necessary.
3. Land Area
The land area needed for an industrial park can range from 20 acres to
hundreds of acres. An area between 50 and 100 acres in size allows for flexibility
for parcels, planting, and internal transportation and parking systems. Large,
rectangular tracts of land that are available for development at competitive prices
in the region should be considered as sites. Land should have minimal
impediments to development, to make it competitive in the marketplace.
Conditions such as steep topography, exposed bedrock, wetlands, sensitive
environmental areas, and irregularly shaped parcels can contribute to site
development costs and inefficient use of the land.
4. Labor Force
The ability to attract labor force from proximate areas to the park directly
relates to the development of the industrial park. The available labor force also
directly influences the type of industry and the likely success of the park. Among
the labor force considerations to assess are the following:
 Location of the labor force
 Characteristics of the labor force (skilled or unskilled)
 The relative cost of labor in the region
 Transportation systems available to bring the labor force to the industrial par
B. Site Design Considerations
1. Organizational Systems
Industrial parks tend towards the grid system to optimize flexibility in parcel
shape and size. Internal street patterns also follow a grid to accommodate
heavy truck traffic. Newer industrial parks, which often include office space and
require less excessive truck use, may use more curvilinear road systems that

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follow the natural contours of the land. Parcel sizes often vary, to capture
changing market conditions.
2. Circulation and Parking
Traffic, road, and parking standards depend on the uses allowed in the
industrial park. The Institute of Transportation Engineers (ITE) standards
should be reviewed when developing the circulation and parking system for the
area. These standards include road width and bearing capacity, truck loading
and turning requirements, traffic generation guidelines, and parking
requirements based on the type of use. Major access points should not conflict
with pedestrian movement or adjacent residential areas, and local traffic flow
should not be disrupted because of truck movement.
3. Buffers and Open Space
Most industrial parks require planted buffers to separate them from
residential uses, and tree covers. Modern industrial parks are often lower in
density than older industrial areas; some require between 70 and 80 percent
open space. Height and bulk standards, floor area ratios, and other density
standards for structures should be compatible with competing industrial areas
throughout the region, yet provide for land to be set aside for buffer zones,
greenbelts, and protection of environmentally sensitive areas.
4. Structural Elements
While utilitarian industrial parks with inexpensive structures and minimum
site improvements are often required for competitive reasons, the enhanced
design adds value to the industrial park, the community, the owners, and the
employees. Among the elements of enhanced industrial park design are
underground utilities, architecturally harmonious structures, planted areas, and
road systems that allow for safe and efficient movement.
C. Potential Impacts
1. Transportation: Increased traffic volume and overall impacts on local and
regional transportation systems
2. Community services: Increased demand for community services, including
utilities; police, fire and rescue; emergency services; and medical facilities
3. Pollution: Specifically, air pollution generated from increased traffic and/or
processes carried out throughout the industrial park; may also include
light pollution, water quality impacts, and noise

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4. Aesthetics: Ensuring compatibility of the design and operation of the industrial
park with the character of the community
D. Emerging Trends
1. Mixed Uses
Industrial parks of the past contain industrial-related uses, which include
manufacturing support facilities, office and office support, and research-related
uses. Today, there are already hotels and small retail activities, which located
within the periphery of the park or in places that enable traffic to flow without
intermingling with the core activities of the industrial park easily. Office uses,
showrooms, and other ancillary or support functions such as conference and
hotel facilities may be placed in the more visible areas of the park.
2. Eco-Industrial Parks
Eco-industrial parks are industrial parks in which tenants seek to minimize
or eliminate waste generation, energy use, and other environmental impacts
through symbiotic arrangements with other facilities in the park. Eco-industrial
can generally be described parks as having the following characteristics:
 Energy: They use existing energy sources efficiently, use waste energy from
other facilities, and use renewable energy sources such as wind and solar
energy.
 Material reuse: Other facilities re-use the waste generated by another facility
within the park, or this waste is marketed elsewhere. Particular facilities
need to use stormwater runoff. All the facilities work to optimize the use of
all input materials and to minimize toxic materials.
 Natural systems: Facility
and park design minimizes
environmental impacts
and reduces operating
costs by using natural
drainage systems, native
plantings, and low-impact
construction materials.
 Design and construction:
Design buildings and
infrastructure to be energy-efficient; minimize pollution generation; and be

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durable, easily maintained, and flexible in their use. Use established
standards such as Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
and ISO14000 for more sustainable in their construction and operation.

IV. Waterfronts/Coastal/Lakeside Community Planning

Current interest in the water’s edge and the flourishing of public spaces on waterfronts
across the Philippines is the result of a process going back for decades. Once places of
trade, military, or industrial advantage, or even places of neglect, waterfronts are
increasingly seen as economic and social assets to their communities. When
contemplating new waterfront projects, take into account the specific standards enforced
by federal and state regulatory systems.
A. Morphological Analysis
To understand a waterfront, study its evolution.
Consider the shoreline’s various stages of
development. Create a series of diagrams analyzing
the historical and current conditions of the water
edge, which will be critical in designing its future
uses. Also, understanding the sectional analysis of
coastlines is important when planning a new use on
the water and its connections to the built fabric of the
city.
1. Natural Edge. A natural edge diagram
describes the undisturbed conditions of the
shoreline’s ecosystem and its often wide variety
of species. Such natural conditions might be
used as a benchmark for waterfront restoration
2. Productive Edge. A diagram of the waterfront’s
historic productive uses can be helpful when
planning new uses on the water. Maintaining
productive waterfront uses is often a priority. Elsewhere, incorporate historical
artifacts in a new design as cultural and perhaps functional features, e.g., old
gantries, working piers, and cranes. Historic interpretation can be important for
the new design by creating a strong identity of a place rooted in the region’s past.
The renewed interest in waterfronts has resulted in the conversion of major areas
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of industrial, shipping, and transportation uses to more public uses. However,
identify potential economic anchors such as large civic or commercial buildings,
which can attract more uses over time.
B. Waterfront Types
Different waterfronts encourage different types of activities. River waterfronts
promote activities enhancing connections across the two riverbanks: physical and
visual connections are equally important in this kind of waterfront. Waterfronts by the
ocean or the bay connect the urban fabric to activity nodes along the water and
promote the use of piers for recreational activities. Finally, a body of water such as a
lake or a reservoir promotes activities around the edge, invites points of activity along
the shore, and is a great setting for water-related sports
C. Waterfront Design Components
Waterfront projects can have different scales, from a plaza to a greenway, and a
different character, from container port to wetland. Waterfront components can be a
series of open-space elements, a system of connections to the inner core of the city,
a new development on the water, or a strategy for sustainability.
D. Waterfront Design Strategies
1. Continuity: A continuous waterfront system for walking, jogging, biking, and
rollerblading.
2. Sequence: A sequence of recurring open spaces at significant points along the
water. Such places might have a special view or might be directly aligned with
major city streets.
3. Variety: Multiple uses along the water create successful synergies and
accommodate different users.
4. Connection: Visually and physically connect spaces along the waterfront and from
the new waterfront to the bay (with views and piers) and the city (through access
points and pedestrian circulation links).

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E. Waterfront Design Elements
1. Open Space
a. Plazas: Waterfront plazas are often part of larger waterfront developments,
such as commercial and recreational buildings along the water. They are
often hard-surfaced areas with seating, shaded areas, and prime views of the
water. In larger developments, plazas can be designed to allow for large
recreational gathering structures as well as providing amphitheaters or stage
areas where local civic events can be held. They also offer great opportunities
for displaying the historical memory of the waterfront through interpretive
features or art installations.
b. Parks: Along the water, parks can be hard paved areas or more natural soft
areas. A new park can also be connected to a local ecosystem, such as a
wetland, and larger natural areas, like greenways along the shoreline.
c. Piers: Piers can be interesting components in the redesign of waterfronts.
They can reinterpret history, provide views, and promote recreation such as
fishing. Incorporate safety elements such as lighting and railings, as well as
sitting areas with benches to rest and enjoy the view. Focal elements such as
art installations or small commercial buildings can be included at the end of a
pier to make walking and strolling along its length a more exciting activity
2. Connections
a. Paths: Design paths to accommodate biking and jogging, which among the
more iconic uses of a recreational waterfront. Water views and linear, often
unobstructed, connections along the water make these activities especially
pleasant. Use smooth paving materials in areas for bikes, and ensure that
path widths accommodate bikers and walkers alike, possibly with separate
rights-of-way.
b. Promenades: A promenade can connect spaces along the water or be a
destination in itself, offering recreational opportunities for strollers, joggers,
bikers, and in-line skaters. Depending on the specific character of the
waterfront, promenades can be constructed and sophisticated urban places
or natural and understated linear connections. Design elements such as
paving materials or light fixtures can vary according to such character.
Accommodate biking and jogging activities with materials that can withstand
the effects of the moist microclimate.

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c. Water connections for tourists: Tourism can be an economic engine driving
the waterfront redevelopment process. Water taxis and ferries can be tourist
attractions, as well as interpretive tools of an area’s productive past
d. Water connections as modes of transportation: When waterfronts are more
developed and can support a high number of residential buildings, water
connections can become an effective mode of transportation, linking
residence and workplace an easy and interesting transit alternative.
3. Development
a. Working waterfronts: In the past, waterfronts were the exclusive realm of
harbors, fishing fleets, shipbuilding, warehouses, and manufacturing plants.
Changing technology made some waterfront uses obsolete. Rising land
prices connected to the rediscovery of the water edge have also endangered
many local maritime enterprises. These enterprises can add to the local
economy and the city’s character. Consider retaining and promoting existing
maritime uses when possible, and integrate their needs with the overall plan
of the new waterfront. For large working ports, container handling, shoreline
configuration, updated equipment, regional distribution networks, and
environmental impacts are key planning issues. Planning efforts at many
ports seek to designate safe and inviting locations for the public to viewport
activities.
b. Infill and adaptive use:
Infill development is the
process of developing
vacant or under-used
parcels within the existing
urban area that are
already largely developed
and can be a catalyst for
change in forgotten areas
of a waterfront. Adaptive
use of historic buildings can be a powerful redevelopment strategy to create
new destinations and to reinterpret the waterfront’s past in new ways.
Successful renovations can generate dynamic synergies that can boost local
economies and provide a sense of place.

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c. Recreation and tourist
destinations: The
number of tourists it
attracts is often the
measure of a
waterfront’s success.
Educational,
recreational, and
interpretive features
and activities are often
found in the public
areas of a waterfront, where visitors exploring the character of the region can
readily appreciate a new identity anchored in the past.
d. New mixed-use development: After the initial success of waterfront
redevelopment, larger developments often follow. All uses benefit from the
prime location and the recreational opportunities a new waterfront offers.
Some jurisdictions invite residential uses along the water, to bring density and
vitality to the area. Be sensitive when locating residential uses at the edge to
ensure public access is maintained.
e. Art: Public areas along waterfronts offer great opportunities for education and
art appreciation.

V. Resort Community Design

1. Resort neighborhoods should
be developed around a variety
of viable, vital, and attractive
neighborhood centers, each
with its focus, but should not
compete with the community
resort center. The following
design guidelines should be
applied and refined in resort
neighborhoods and associated
centers:

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a. Clustered in a concentrated development pattern around an identifiable
neighborhood center.
b. Architecture should be on a human scale and should generally be limited to four
stories.
c. An internal resort transportation center should connect the community resort
center to other resort neighborhoods.
d. Physical and visual access to green or natural areas for recreation should be
maintained to provide a close connection to nature.
e. The use of architectural features and accent colors should be encouraged to
provide variation, interest and focal points within a center.
2. The community resort center should be attractive, exhibit a mountain character, and
be a vital and exciting focus of the resort. The orientation of land uses, and pedestrian
systems should provide a sense of place and community. A community resort center
needs to achieve a critical mass of building to become an attraction for tourist activities
and services. All elements of the transportation system, roads, transit, and pedestrian
systems should be designed to focus on the community resort center as the primary
destination within the resort. The following design guidelines should be applied and
refined in a community resort center:
a. A concentrated development pattern.
b. An identifiable core or focal point
c. A pedestrian-friendly environment, which provides for good flow and interesting
areas for lingering, gathering and window-shopping
d. A significant amount of outdoor public spaces, including spaces for outdoor
gatherings, dining, and nature and people viewing
e. Physical and visual access to green or natural areas for recreation and maintaining
a close connection to nature
f. Link to major transportation corridors/systems
g. Human scale architecture and generally limited to four stories, although higher
buildings may be considered when used as a focal point.
h. Encourage use of architectural features and accent colors to provide variation,
interest and focal points within the center
i. Provide furnishings and urban design elements to create a sense of place.

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3. Residential neighborhoods should provide attractive living environments for families
and individuals. The following design guidelines should be applied and refined in
residential neighborhoods and associated centers:
a. The perimeter of residential neighborhoods, especially where adjoining open
space and rural development should be easily identified, or the transition between
residential neighborhoods and adjoining open space and rural development should
clearly identify the boundary between developed (urban) and non-developed
(rural).
b. Building height should generally be limited to two stories.
c. Connection to major transportation corridors/systems should be provided.

VI. Parks and Open Spaces, Recreational Areas

Contemporary parks and open-space planning focuses on creating systems that
respond to local values, needs, and circumstances. The region of the country, physical
setting, landscape features, demographics, and socioeconomic characteristics are all
determining factors in the form that a community’s park and the open-space system will
take. In each system, parks and open spaces are defined under various classifications
that function individually and collectively to create a cohesive and balanced system.
Successful parks and open-space systems are often planned around distinguishing
landscape features or local themes that exhibit the unique qualities of a community. The
“city as a park” concept is a common theme, whereby parks and open spaces are key
factors in shaping the built form and character of a community. Perpetuating an
interconnected latticework of parks, natural open spaces, and trails throughout the
community is another theme. Common to all systems is the notion of creating a high-
quality living environment through the provision of parks, open spaces, trails, and
recreational amenities.

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A. Park And Open-Space Classifications

B. Development Parameters
1. Neighborhood Park
The design for these parks is uniquely tailored to the neighborhood it
serves, rather than the overall community. The common objective of all
neighborhood parks is to bring people together to recreate and socialize close
to home. Active, non-programmed recreation remains a mainstay of these

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parks. However, the contemporary design emphasizes providing a balanced
set of amenities that appeal to a broad range of individuals to increase park
usage. The broad palette of amenities typically found within a neighborhood
park includes the following:
 Play area for multiple age groups
 Accessible trail loop internal to the park, with a connection to the
community trail system and local streets
 Open maintained green space for informal use (2 to 3 acres optimal)
 Basketball half-court, volleyball court, hard-court area (for games such as
hopscotch and foursquare), or tennis court
 Ice skating (on a limited basis consistent with the overall communitywide
program)
 General site amenities, such as benches, picnic tables, trash containers,
and security lighting
 Picnic shelter and picnic area (for larger neighborhood parks)
 Aesthetic improvements and architectural elements—arbor structure with
benches and ornamental fencing, for example (The importance of this
design feature should not be underestimated. Aesthetically appealing
parks are far more likely to be used.)
 Ornamental landscape planting near active use areas
 Natural landscape planting and natural-based stormwater infiltration
systems
 Parking, on a limited on-demand-only basis. Frequently parking can be
provided on the street.
 Controlled-glare security lighting
2. Community and Large Urban Parks
The design for each type of park is a reflection of the community. The
common objective of community and large urban parks is to bring people
together to recreate, socialize, and find quiet space. Active, programmed
recreation is appropriate in these parks as long as it does not interfere with
other activities. As with neighborhood parks, the contemporary design
emphasizes providing a balanced set of amenities that appeal to a broad

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range of individuals to increase park usage. The broad palette of amenities
typically found within these two classes of parks includes the following:
 Amenities common to a neighborhood park, albeit at a larger scale
 Group picnic facilities—smaller and large-scale
 Extensive looped internal trails, often serving multiple purposes
 Larger open spaces for passive and active use
 A modest level of athletic facilities (formal and informal) that blend into
the character of the park (An athletic complex character is not typically
desirable.)
 Open maintained green space
 Winter activities, such as ice skating, sledding, and cross-country skiing
 Special-use facilities that serve a specific recreational purpose (i.e.,
beaches, aquatic centers, ice arenas, campgrounds, dog parks,
skateboard parks, and marinas)
 Adequate parking
3. Youth and Community Athletic Complexes
Demand drives the facilities provided at athletic complexes. Due
diligence is required to ensure the right mix of facilities is provided at a given
site. Facility quality tends to be highest at athletic complexes to
accommodate competitive recreational leagues and tournament play. The
facilities and amenities often found at athletic complexes include fields and
courts for softball, baseball, soccer, football, lacrosse, basketball, tennis, and
volleyball. Regional facilities like hockey rinks are also provided where
demand warrants.
A variety of support amenities are also appropriate at athletic complexes,
including restrooms, concession stands, spectator sitting areas, play areas
for children, and picnic areas with shelters. Adequate parking and internal
trails are also ancillary requirements. Special-use facilities that serve a
specific recreational purpose (i.e., aquatic centers, ice arenas, and
skateboard parks) can also be located on athletic complex site
4. Greenways
Development within greenways is typically limited to trails, sitting areas,
observation areas, and interpretive/directional signage. In some cases,

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larger greenways integrate nature centers or arboretums. Most greenway
systems also incorporate combinations of multiuse hard-surfaced trails for
biking, walking, and in-line skating and nature trails for hiking. In select
instances, no development is allowed for sites set aside for wildlife, and
community viewing from the periphery is provided.
5. Parkways
Development within parkways is typically limited to roadways and
pedestrian trails. Sitting areas and overlooks often augment trails to view a
natural or human-made feature. Occasionally, picnic shelters and other
standalone park features are accommodated in parkways. Roadway and
trailside signage are also important.
6. Special-use Parks
The special-use classification covers a broad range of parks and
recreation facilities oriented toward a single purpose or specialized use:
 Nature and cultural/performing arts centers
 Historic sites: downtowns, plazas, cemeteries, historic landscapes,
churches, and monuments
 Recreation facilities: aquatic centers, campgrounds, ice arenas, fitness
centers, community centers, skateboard parks, and stadiums
 Public gathering areas: amphitheaters, community commons, town
centers, and urban squares in some systems, certain types of special
uses are defined under their classifications when those occurrences are
frequent enough to warrant doing so. For example, an urban square
classification is sometimes used in major urban communities to
accommodate public plazas, courtyards, and formal sitting areas
7. Park-School
The design for park-school sites is supported first by the needs of the
school district, with most of the facilities designed to accommodate physical
education and sports programs. The facilities provided at school sites are
most often consistent with the youth athletic complex and neighborhood park
classifications. Local cities often partner with local school districts to avoid
duplication of facilities and to leverage public capital investments. In many
cases, the school district provides the land and basic facilities, and the local

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community funds improvements to the quality of the facilities. Well-defined
joint use agreements between the community and school district are
essential to making these partnerships mutually successful.
8. Private Park/Recreation Facility
The private park/recreation facility classification covers a broad range of
non-public parks and recreation facilities. This includes facilities such as golf
courses, fitness clubs, museums, private courtyards, amphitheaters, horse-
riding stables, water parks, and miniature golf courses.
This classification is provided as a means to acknowledge the contribution
that a given private facility has to the public parks and open-space system
within a community.
9. Regional Parks
In some areas of the country, developers of regional parks focus on
setting aside larger tracts of land to preserve natural resources, remnant
landscapes, and open space. A key objective is protecting ecological
resources and providing wildlife habitat. Passive uses, such as hiking,
canoeing, and nature viewing, are the most common forms of activities.
Parks provide these active recreational areas, gardens, picnic facilities, and
other forms of special use. The primary distinction between this type of
regional parks and greenways is scale and service area. In other areas of
the country, regional parks are an extension of the large urban park
classification and include major national monuments and historic landscapes.

VII. School Campuses

The primary purpose of a school is to provide a place conducive to the learning
experiences of the youth who attend the school. Placing schools close to the heart of
the communities they serve decreases automobile usage and commuting time. Schools
built within a community can also leverage opportunities to enter into partnerships with
local libraries, theaters, art centers, and recreational facilities.
A. Site Selection
Siting a school facility is an important community decision and should be
consistent with the community’s adopted comprehensive plan. When selecting
a new school site, preference should be given to in-town sites to maximize the

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proportion of students who can use safe routes to school on foot or by bicycle.
Apart from demographic considerations of population and proximity to other
facilities, consideration must also be given to the following:
1. Size and available building
2. The shape of the site (rectangular sites are usually easier to plan)
3. District standards on school size
4. Noise and other potential externalities that could affect the site
5. Soil conditions or environmental damage that may require remediation
6. Land availability
7. Purchase and site modification costs
8. Public utility availability
9. Geographical area served
10. Access to roadways and public transportation
11. How students will travel to the site (on foot; by bicycle, school bus, or public
transportation, or automobile drop-off)
12. Community components(partnerships) to be included, such as medical or
police facilities
13. Community use of the facilities, such as the library or gymnasium
14. Curricular focus and after-school programs
B. School Grounds Programming
School grounds are an important part of a school’s educational experience.
They should be as carefully considered as the building plan.
1. Elementary Schools
For elementary schools, the exterior program is a critical part of the
school facility’s success. An understanding of the school’s curriculum helps
to determine the appropriate types of outdoor learning opportunities and plan
for them as an integral part of the site. Include the identified spaces during
programming and predesign, and integrate them with the pragmatic
requirements of security, access, environmental, and utility design needs.
Outdoor learning opportunities for elementary schools may include the
following elements:
 Pathways
 Playgrounds and play structures

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 Secure and observable bike park areas
 Free play hard surface space—rectangular or square areas free of
equipment and including a range of game markings
 Soft surface areas, such as sandboxes or aquatic features
 Quiet areas with fixed seating for conversation, teaching, reading, or
other forms of individual and group interaction
 Loud areas for dramatic, musical, or other similar types of play, such as
amphitheaters, covered pavilions, or open-air porches
2. Middle and High Schools
Middle and high school sites may include features that require some
authorities to determine the widest and best use of the available site area.
The following possible uses may need to be ranked by importance:
 Sport and playfields (e.g., football, soccer, and tennis)
 On-site pedestrian pathways that connect other community features
 Facilities constructed in partnership with other municipal or private
organizations
 Expanded on-site parking and bus access
 Wooded or naturally preserved areas for environmental protection or stud
C. Site Design
Playgrounds, covered porches, and hard surface exterior spaces are all
widely used at elementary schools. In locating the playground on the site, it is
important to understand the curriculum and how the exterior facilities can
support learning. Consider locations with the following characteristics:
 Good views
 A combination of sunny and shaded space
 Protection from noisy roads
 Easy access from the building interior
 Fences and protection from off-site intrusion
 Protection from winter wind, and exposure to summer breezes
 Access to other types of outdoor activities
When planning a “tight” school site, the building can define the site boundary
or edge. Some additional design considerations for such sites include the
following:

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 Place the bus drop-off area at the curb or in a public right-of-way.
Connecting the building entries to wide, well-lit open walkways.
 Make the building envelope sensitive to the proximity of pedestrian
walkways.
 Consider factors such as window size and location and access to the roof.
 Create rectilinear exterior play areas and open spaces, with a minimum of
blind spots.
 Include clear signage to indicate public entries with easily controllable entry
lobbies.
Larger sites may require additional parking and circulation guidelines relating
to playfields and vehicular use. These include providing separate areas for the
following:
 Bus drop-off (from other vehicular traffic)
 Student, staff, and community parking areas (from each other)
 Pedestrian site circulation flow (from roadways)

VIII. Historic Districts

Historic districts are groupings of buildings and structures, noteworthy for their age,
architectural integrity, or aesthetic unity. Downtowns, residential neighborhoods, and rural
areas that have retained their historic character often receive official historic district
designation. Historic district designation is an important tool for preservation-based
revitalization, including downtown and
neighborhood revival, with federal and state
historic preservation tax credits often used to
rehabilitate income-producing properties in
these districts.
A. Criteria for Historic Districts
1. Are associated with events that
have made a significant
contribution to the broad patterns
of our nation’s history;
2. Are associated with the lives of persons significant in our nation’s past;

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3. Embody the distinctive characteristics of a type, period, or method of
construction, or that represent the work of a master, or that possess high artistic
values, or that represent a significant and distinguishable entity whose
components may lack individual distinction; or
4. Have yielded or may likely yield information important in prehistory or history.

IX. Art Districts

An art district is a recognized mixed-use area of a community in which high
concentrations of cultural facilities serve as economic and cultural anchors. An area usually
less than 100 blocks geographically delineates an arts district, but the defining characteristic
is the prevalence of cultural facilities, arts organizations, individual artists, and arts-based
businesses. Arts districts attract and retain arts and culture, engage the community in
cultural life, and have a positive economic impact.
A. Types of Art Districts
1. Cultural Compounds - The oldest arts districts are cultural compounds, established
in many cities before the 1930s. Cultural compounds are different from
contemporary districts in that their non-cultural land uses tend to be limited to
parks, medical centers, and housing, with little commercial space.
2. Major Cultural Institutions - Major cultural institutions, such as large concert halls,
playhouses, libraries, and museums, anchor some art districts. These districts are
typically located close to central business districts and near convention centers or
other large tourism sites. Some districts focus on a specific cultural genre.
3. Arts and Entertainment Districts - Arts and entertainment districts focus on popular
attractions and often have a more bohemian feel than more established districts.
Small theaters, private galleries, restaurants, and other entertainment venues are
natural attractions.
4. Downtown Arts Districts - Similarly, some art districts encompass the entire
downtown area of a city. This designation is often closely tied to a tourism focus
and is common in small cities with walkable downtowns.
5. Cultural Production Districts - Cultural production is the focus of some districts.
Production spaces such as specialized studios, arts centers, classrooms, and
media facilities characterize these areas. Cultural production districts tend to put
a priority on the cultural life of the neighborhood, rather than on tourist attraction

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or business development. They often take advantage of areas with affordable
housing and commercial space.
B. Design Elements
1. Cultural Facility - A cultural facility is a building used primarily for the production,
presentation, or exhibition of cultural disciplines such as music, dance, theater,
literature, and visual arts. Most artists and cultural organizations are dependent
upon facilities to pursue their creative work. The design of such facilities must also
accommodate the highly specialized technical needs of the performing and visual
arts
2. Public Spaces - The design of public spaces in an arts district should provide a
thematic thread that highlights the local character. Walking paths and seating
areas should invite residents to inhabit and enjoy the neighborhood. Distinctive
signage, murals, and sculptures help attract visitors. A designed environment that
supports cultural activities—exhibitions, festivals, craft fairs, parades, and outdoor
events—may include designated performance spaces, accommodations for large
groups, and opportunities to promote cultural events in innovative ways.
3. Public Art - Most arts districts feature public art, including murals on public and
private buildings, freestanding works in plazas and corporate lobbies, and
temporary installations. Public art may be funded through private developers or
public agencies. It is increasingly common for arts districts to employ a “percent-
for-art” program in which a portion of construction costs is set aside for the
acquisition, installation, and maintenance of public art.

X. Office Parks
Office space needs of a wide variety of business. Office parks often include both
multitenant office buildings owned by an investor, such as the developer, and properties
built to suit the particular needs of a company. Office parks have evolved as master-
planned, mixed-use developments incorporating a variety of ancillary uses such as
residential, retail, entertainment, and recreational components. Developers of office parks
often consider including neighborhood-type elements, such as retail establishments,
entertainment and recreational options, green spaces, and, in some instances, residential
development, along with other commercial uses such as light industrial buildings and
medical office buildings. The overall goal is to create a vibrant, self-contained business
community that is more than just a place in which to work.

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A. Types of Office Parks
1. Campus Style
The campus-style park, typically a
large, relatively self-contained
development that could cover several
hundred acres, is the more traditional
type. To make the parks attractive to
office space users, developers often
add retail uses such as convenience
stores, restaurants, and dry cleaners.
Residential development, including
for-sale and rental housing, is increasingly integrated into campus-style office
parks. These types of office parks are more likely to be constructed in communities
where there is an abundant supply of undeveloped land.
2. Urban Style
An urban-
style office park is
typically located
within a more
developed area
of a community,
where
developable land
is at a premium.
Because of high
land costs, these
types of office
parks are more likely to require higher-density development, including high-rise
office buildings, to make them economically feasible. Increasingly, urban-style
office parks are being built based on traditional neighborhood development (TND)
or new urbanist principles, creating places where people can “live, work, and play”
in the same setting. For-sale and rental residential housing, along with
entertainment, retail, restaurants, coffee shops, hotels, and outdoor recreational

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amenities, is among the variety of mixed-use components developers use to make
urban-style office parks attractive places in which to do business.
B. Site Location Parameters
Location is the primary component of a successful office park development. Highly
competitive market conditions and high land costs make it imperative to choose a site
that contains all the necessary features and needs such development.
1. Site Size
Office parks are built over many acres—project sizes can range from 20 acres
or more for an urban-style office park to several hundred acres for a campus-style
office park. An adequate amount of space is needed to accommodate all the uses
of an office park to create a unique environment that appeals to the end-users.
Office parks often serve as anchors for a new town center development that
encompasses a substantial quantity of land.
2. Access and Transportation
Convenient highway access is typically a critical factor in locating a campus-
style office park. The local street system must be able to handle the increased flow
of vehicle traffic that an office park will generate so that the customer can quickly
get to a destination. Access to local and regional transit systems is also an
increasingly important aspect of office park development. Because of the
concentrated number of people in a park, office parks can provide a community with
an opportunity to enhance its overall transit system, through the development or
expansion of a regional transit hub adjacent to the development.
3. Visibility
Visibility is one of the key factors that business space users rely on when
choosing a site location for their company. An office park needs to stand out both
physically and visually as a readily identifiable feature of the local business
landscape and a recognizable component of a community. Some of the ways to
accomplish this could be a recognizable building or tenant name, monument
signage, or a unique landscape or art form.
4. Demographics and Trends
Part of the location selection process is researching the community to determine
the likelihood of attracting enough business users to make the park successful. This
process includes understanding the demographic makeup and trends that exist in

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the local and regional business community. Office park developers often seek to
create value, which generates substantial revenues from the project in as short a
period as possible to recoup initial investments and cover ongoing land, investment,
and development costs. For this reason, developers favor providing a mixed-use
development, which allows the developer more quickly to absorb the land and put it
into productive use.
C. Site Design
Specific site design issues will depend upon the number and type of tenants that
will occupy the park. Local regulations also provide the minimum standards required
for each design issue. A planned unit development can allow a developer to create a
unique environment with more design flexibility relative to standard regulations. Below
are some of the commonly addressed site design issues.
1. Circulation
Employees, vendors, and customers must be able to travel to and from their
destinations within the office park in a convenient and timely manner. The
sidewalk, path, and street network should be designed to facilitate efficient
movement patterns.
2. Parking
Parking requirements will vary depending upon the number and size of
buildings and the types of uses included in the office park. Facilities with access
to transit, organized carpooling, and other options that may reduce vehicle trips
require fewer parking spaces than those where such options are not available.
When creating a mixed-use office park, shared parking opportunities may be
available. An example is a movie theater located next to an office building.
These two facilities could share a parking area because the hours of operation of
each are different and rarely conflict. Local regulations should be consulted to
determine actual parking requirements.
3. Building Height and Massing
Office space is changing from its past configuration. The average ratio of office
space per employee is shrinking from 250 feet to 150 feet per employee, and
companies are increasingly locating as many employees on the same floor or on
contiguous floors as possible, to minimize disruption in business operations. Wider
floor areas mean more employees requiring more parking needs.

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4. Utility Systems
Office parks require utility systems that support all of the necessary operations
within the buildings and adhere to building and fire codes. Utility factors deemed
critical by business space users today include underground utility connections,
redundant electrical power sources, state-of-the-art fiber optic connections, and
access to satellite-based communications. Urban office parks often have double
and triple power redundancy and access to multiple data “pipe” supplies. Campus
style office parks are more likely to rely on a generator for power backup.
5. Aesthetics
Among the elements used to address the aesthetic elements of office parks are
standards for building materials and uses, overall architectural design, vegetation,
signage, and lighting. These elements help provide a specific identity for the office
park, which is important to the developer’s marketing efforts and to park tenants.
Most business parks have protective covenants for this purpose.
6. Open Space
Office parks often include significant amounts of open space. In addition to
publicly accessible vegetated areas, common open-space amenities include
walking trails, ponds, lakes, flower gardens, putting greens—sometimes even a
golf course— and other features. If such amenities are not pre-existing on the site,
the developer may be required to build them.
D. Local Regulatory Issues
The supply of prime undeveloped, commercially zoned land, has shrunk in many
suburban communities. As a result, developers often have to combine different parcels
of land to obtain the acreage needed for their developments. This process typically
involves purchasing land from a variety of owners, making it quite time-consuming and
costly for the developer. Occasionally, developers request the local governing body to
intervene to assist the land acquisition process, often through a partnership with the
local regulatory authority.
In addition to zoning regulations, office park development may be guided by
protective covenants and deed restrictions. Such covenants can describe the type and
character of uses allowed within the park, general guidelines for building construction,
environmental considerations, buffer zones, and overall general aesthetics.
Regulation assures potential users that their investment will be protected by similar
development within the park.

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E. Emerging Trends
Office parks of the past are being replaced by master-planned, mixed-use
developments that create a sense of community. Communities, regulatory agencies,
and future tenants are all increasingly seeking these new types of office parks.
Companies want to attract and retain younger, creative employees who drive economic
growth. Those employees, in return, want to work in an urban-like, amenity-rich
environment. They often want pedestrian- and transit-friendly developments that offer
affordably priced housing, restaurants and nightlife, shopping and dining, and
entertainment and recreational opportunities, all within easy reach of their workplace.

XI. Main Streets

The main street is often thought of as the heart of the community, occupying an iconic
position within a small town. The form of the main street is typically a local commercial
corridor along the main thoroughfare through town, with buildings organized in storefront
blocks and parking on the street.
During the 1960s, as cities expanded outward and automobile use increased, the retail
stores were reconfigured to depend almost exclusively on automobile access, main streets
declined. In the late-1970s, many older main streets began to re-emerge as vital centers,
and, today, many communities have seen a significant revitalization of their main streets.
Also, many suburban communities that never had a traditional main street are seeking to
create one by developing a new greenfield town center or redesigning a commercial strip.
1. Importance of Main Streets
A successful main street helps define a unique identity for a community within the
larger regional context while providing opportunities for small businesses to become
established. A walkable main street can also help decrease the number of single-
purpose automobile trips.
2. Main Street Features
Main streets flourish when they provide a variety of goods and services, a pleasant
community environment, and convenient access for their users. Design and physical
appearance contribute directly to livability and economic success. The main street
should be a visually stimulating area that encourages people to linger and explore.

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a. Building Form
Along main streets, the impact of the built environment is influenced by several
elements, such as storefronts, height and bulk, setbacks, door and window
openings, and roof shape and profile.
 Storefront Buildings
Traditional storefront buildings,
with large display windows on the
ground floor and one or more stories
above, define the main streets.
Storefront buildings are designed to
facilitate pedestrian-induced retail
activity. The long, narrow shapes of
storefront buildings make it possible
to group a large number of shops on
one block. In turn, these stores can
display a wide variety of goods and
services to shoppers as they walk
down the street.
Storefront buildings were
designed for commercial activity,
and their physical shape and
characteristics reinforce this purpose. The rhythm of storefront openings along
the street creates a powerful visual image that consumers recognize and
associate with commercial activity. New buildings should be compatible with
surrounding buildings and the entire block. The patterns of storefronts, upper
façades, and cornices and their repetition from one building to the next along
a street give the whole streetscape visual cohesiveness and generate a
physical rhythm that provides an orientation to pedestrians and motorists.
Building improvements on the main street should be compatible with the design
characteristics of the overall streetscape and those of the specific building.
 Height and Bulk
The height of most buildings within the main street should be relatively
constant. However, maintaining the typical minimum height of two or three

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stories is more critical than establishing a maximum height. Building scale and
proportions should also be consistent. Wide buildings are usually be divided
into separate bays consistent with the prevailing storefront rhythm.
 Setback
Buildings should be flush with the sidewalk, except for small setbacks for
entries, courtyards, or outdoor seating areas, to engage pedestrian activity and
encourage drivers to slow down and watch for pedestrians and parking cars.
 Door and Window Openings
The typical storefront has a high proportion of transparency from ground
level display windows and doors, and this should be maintained in newer
buildings. The proportions of door and window openings in traditional main
street buildings tend to be relatively constant. Keep proportions and height of
upper-floor window placement consistent with the existing pattern, to reinforce
a strong horizontal relationship between upper-story windows along the block.
 Roof Shape or Profile
Roof profiles are usually consistent throughout the main street. Whether
most buildings have the typical flat roofs, mansard roofs, or another shape,
maintain consistent profiles.
b. Streetscape Design
There are numerous streetscape elements and design details that are
desirable for the main streets. These elements create a visually rich and inviting
environment and provide visual cues and signals for motorists that they are
entering a pedestrian-dominated district.
 Street Trees. Street trees are effective visual signals. Along with the overall
building density and scale, they can help define the main street district. As
they mature, they create a canopy over the street, providing shade and
aesthetic appeal.
 Lighting. Lighting along the corridor should be geared toward pedestrians, to
encourage main street activity into the evening hours.
 Wayfinding Systems. Wayfinding signs can be used to direct visitors to the
main street from regional highways and assist them in navigating within the
district and other parts of the community. Such signs also promote the area’s

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identity and sense of place. Businesses can use this identification system for
cooperative district advertising and event sponsorship.
 Open Spaces. Public or semi-public spaces such as plazas and pocket parks
are important main street elements. Relatively small areas adjacent to a
sidewalk can bring life to the street and nearby businesses. Open spaces
should be highly visible, adjacent to or bisected by the mainstream of
pedestrian flow; provide ample seating, shade, and weather protection; and
offer a focal point, such as a fountain or gazebo.
 Other Elements. Other visual signals that may be used in a main street area
include hanging planters and window boxes. Space should be provided on
sidewalks for display boards, benches, trash receptacles, drinking fountains,
and bike racks.
c. Parking
Main street parking must meet the
needs of customers, merchants,
employees, visitors, and residents, and
it should be regulated to encourage the
turnover of customer spaces and
discourage abuse by long-term
parkers. It should also be accessible to
physically challenged-visitors. There
are many ways to create parking areas
that meet these objectives without
adversely affecting the character of the
main street.
 On-Street Parking. On-street parking spaces usually turn over most rapidly.
Parking in these spaces is generally limited to two hours or less, as they are
intended for use by customers making short trips. These spaces can be angled
or parallel. The traffic movements on on-street parking help to calm traffic,
while the parking itself creates the perception of a narrower street.
 Parking Lots. Parking lots tend to accommodate long-term parkers, such as
employees, more effectively than on-street spaces. Shared parking in a
convenient location can also create a “park once” environment for the visitor.
Parking lots can be located behind the main street storefronts with alley

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access, on an adjacent block near the main street core, or, in the busiest
locations, in satellite locations served by shuttles. In general, parking lots
should not be located in the typical commercial strip configuration, between the
street and a building’s front door. Small parking lots between buildings may
be acceptable if no alternatives exist, but should continue the street wall using
an attractive fence, masonry wall, or hedge.
 Structured Parking. Structured parking may be publicly or privately owned and
operated. Constructing a parking structure is significantly more expensive than
surface parking spaces in main street areas that have a parking shortage.
However, constructing a parking structure in an unobtrusive location is often
preferable to demolishing buildings to create new surface lots. Parking
structures can be combined with “liner” storefronts around their perimeter, and
even with residential uses on upper floors.
d. Traffic
Traffic is a critical element of a busy, vital main street, and should be managed
so that it is an asset. Managing can be done through controlling the speed through
the corridor and the nature of the trip. Many urban main streets are designed to
accommodate traffic at 25 mph, but many suburban main streets are on arterials
designed for 45 mph traffic. Sometimes, the main street is also a state highway,
carrying a heavy volume of regional traffic. The on-street parking and streetscape
improvements mentioned above, as well as physical traffic-calming devices such
as curb extension, can be used to slow traffic and improve pedestrian safety.
e. Pedestrian Connection
Sidewalks are a common element in older or urban main streets but are lacking
or appear only sporadically in many newer suburban districts. Always provide
sidewalks to define a pedestrian space where there is no threat from moving cars;
they should ideally be at least 10 feet wide to provide room for intense pedestrian
activity as well as streetscape elements. Pedestrian connections among uses can
be as important as the traditional sidewalk route along the street. Walkways from
rear parking areas are important for pedestrian wayfinding and safety. In suburban
settings where some buildings may be set back from the street, a secondary
pedestrian system between parking lots and in front of buildings can improve
pedestrian circulation.

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f. Bicycles
Cyclists are often overlooked as potential customers. Provide bicycle parking
and dedicated bike routes to make the main street safe and convenient for cyclists,
thus encouraging people to mix errands and exercise and expanding the customer
base.
g. Transit
Transit systems serve many main street areas. Comfortable accommodations
for transit riders, including seating, transit shelters, and signage for transit stops,
will encourage them to linger and shop.
h. Public – Private Partnership
When considering main street enhancements or improvements, public and private
investments need to be linked. A key public investment often will attract additional
private investment. Joint facilities, such as public parking lots, may allow private lots
to be turned into buildings or open space. Street improvements, when combined with
pedestrian improvements, can improve both traffic and pedestrian activity within the
main street area. It is essential to involve all public and private partners when
developing and maintaining a successful main street.

XII. Transit-Oriented Development (TOD)

Transit-oriented development (TOD) is generally defined as development that is
located within a 10-minute walk, or approximately 0.5 miles (0.80 km), from a light rail,
heavy rail, or commuter rail station. It also includes development along heavily used bus
and bus rapid transit corridors. In some communities, waterborne transit supports TOD.
A mix of uses, including housing, retail, office, research, civic, and others,
characterizes TOD projects. TOD also involves higher density development to take
advantage of transit proximity and planning design elements that encourage walkability
and create pedestrian-friendly connections to the surrounding community. TOD projects
range widely in size, from infill loft developments to mixed-use centers to entirely new
communities.
Smaller-scale TODs can be developed, but such projects often have more difficulty
absorbing the costs of creating a pedestrian-friendly public realm. However, economic
benefits often accrue from reduced parking requirements and increased densities. When

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potential TOD sites become available, communities should be ready to take advantage of
the unique potential they offer.
A. Benefits of Transit-Oriented Development
1. Quality of Life. Transit-oriented development can result in many quality-of-life
benefits, including reducing automobile
dependency, increasing the range of
housing options, both the types of housing
and the range of affordability available to
a community and enhancing the vitality of
neighborhood main streets and centers.
2. Public Health. Because transit-oriented
development reduces automobile
dependency, residents can take
advantage of a more walkable
environment. Reduced vehicle trips also
result in improved air quality.
3. Economic Development. Transit-oriented
development provides affordable access
to jobs for people without automobiles or
with fewer automobiles per household,
attracts employers to locate around
station areas, and broadens the overall
tax base.
4. Community Character. The increased
density in TOD projects provides
opportunities to create public spaces and
well-designed buildings that give identity
and vitality to those spaces.
5. Environmental Quality. In addition to the
public health benefits, transit-oriented
development provides a design
alternative to sprawl and is an opportunity
to pursue environmentally sensitive site
planning and “green” architecture.

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6. Transit Use. Increased ridership and the potential for additional funding
sources for new transit facilities are among the transit benefits of TOD.

B. Site Programming
When developing an overall site program for transit-oriented development, four
principles for achieving optimal use and function of the site, include:
1. Build Densely
One of the primary characteristics of transit-oriented development is an
increased level of density as compared to conventional development. Building to
a higher density lets one take advantage of reduced auto dependency, make
efficient use of TOD sites, support pedestrian-friendly shops, and create lively,
people-filled environments. Locating between 1,500 and 2,500 housing units
within walking distance can support a new block of “main street” retail space,
2. Mix Uses
Along with higher densities, transit-oriented development can also be
characterized by the emphasis on a mixed-use environment. To create such a
dynamic, enliven sidewalks, and public spaces with as much detail as the market
will support, provide tax revenue-generating and job-producing commercial
development, and provide opportunities for the residential area to be located
adjacent to or above such uses. This intentional programming can reinforce the
vitality of town centers and main streets, where transit stations are often located.
The decision to include residential above or adjacent to commercial and office uses
will depend upon economic feasibility, market forces, local preferences, or other
factors.
3. Mix Housing Types and Prices
Take advantage of creating housing at higher densities to increase the diversity
of housing in the community, including affordable housing.
4. Reduce Parking Requirements
One of the most important outcomes of transit-oriented development is an
increase in transit use. Lower parking requirements and dedicated bicycle paths
and bicycle parking are among the actions that can be taken to achieve this. The
higher density and land values of TOD often make it feasible to construct
structured parking or below-grade parking in place of surface lots. Lower parking

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ratios reduce overall project costs. Mixed-use projects can further reduce parking
requirements by enabling shared parking, such as office workers during weekdays
and residents during evenings and weekends.
C. Site Design
Within a transit-oriented development site, the following design features should
be emphasized in the site planning process.
1. Pedestrian Access
Provide convenient, direct, and public pedestrian access to transit through
TOD projects. Create continuity with local streets, and locate retail and other
pedestrian-friendly uses to encourage pedestrian flow to nearby commercial
districts and main streets.
2. Public Spaces
Create new public spaces, including lively streets, squares, and parks, that
enhance nearby commercial districts. Take advantage of the increased
pedestrian activity generated by both transit and TOD. Relate the new spaces
to public and semi-public uses that may also cluster at TOD locations.
3. Sense of Place
Create a sense of place by orienting buildings and public spaces to create a
strong sense of identity for the development, and by using buildings to frame
public spaces. Consider design guidelines or standards that celebrate these
places.
4. Pedestrian Experience
Foster an enriched and invigorated pedestrian experience. Include retail and
other pedestrian-friendly uses. Maximize windows and entries to build a sense
of connection between pedestrians and activities within buildings. When surface
parking is needed, locate it on the side or rear of buildings. Visually screen
parking areas with vegetation or create urban blocks that allow for screening of
parking structures with residential units or retail on the street level.
5. Character and Quality
Enhance the quality and character of surrounding communities. Allow for
well-designed buildings that emphasize placemaking—orient buildings to new
and existing streets and squares. Use transitions in height and massing to
respect, but not mimic, the fabric of nearby districts.

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6. Architecture
Encourage architecture that reflects transit’s civic importance, creating
buildings that, regardless of architectural style, employ materials and design that
convey a sense of quality, permanence, and community-enriching character.
7. Sustainability
The combination of transit use and intense development around transit
stations is one of planning’s most powerful policies for long-term sustainability.
Plans, guidelines, and development approaches should work to reinforce this use
and intensity. On a building or project scale, build for sustainability, including site
and building design, which reflects a commitment to environmental responsibility.
This should include the following:
 Green site design that reflects environmental issues such as minimizing
impervious surfaces and maximizing sunlight on public spaces.
 Green building design that uses materials and design principles that
minimize the use of non-renewable resources and maximize energy
conservation.
D. Public-Private Partnerships
The involvement of the public sector implies greater responsibility to create
projects that promote community goals. In many cases, the public sector must make
initial investments to create a site adjacent to a transit station, contribute publicly
owned parking lots, or invest in new local access to the TOD site. Where the private
sector controls a TOD site, it is often necessary to collaborate on planning and design
to create appropriate connections between development and transit. Transit
proximity often increases real estate values, and TOD projects often can afford the
cost of public benefits.

XIII. Conservation Development

When a property is developed as a residential subdivision, an opportunity exists to add
land to a communitywide network of open space. Conservation development focuses
development on each parcel as it is being planned, so at least 50 percent of the buildable
land is set aside as open space. The same number of homes can be built in a less land-
consumptive manner, allowing the balance of the property to be permanently protected
and added to an interconnected network of community green spaces. This “density-

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neutral” approach provides a fair and equitable way to balance conservation and
development objectives
Conservation Development Approach
Communities protect open space for numerous reasons, such as to protect streams
and water quality, provide habitat for plants and animals, preserve rural
“atmosphere,” provide access to nature and recreational areas, protect home values, and
reduce the costs of municipal services. The conservation development process involves
three steps to achieve these and other goals of open-space protection:
1. Community Assessment: Assess current community development trends.
The community assessment process helps local officials and residents see the
ultimate result of continuing to implement current land-use policies.
The process helps start discussions about how current trends can be modified to
ensure a “greener” future. Most local ordinances allow or encourage standardized
layouts of “wall-to-wall” house lots. For decades, this process produces a broader
pattern of wall-to-wall subdivisions. In many cases, this leads to the conversion of
every unprotected acre of buildable land into developed uses. Municipalities can
perform community assessments to “see the future,” enabling them to judge whether
a midcourse correction is needed. An assessment entails the following:
a. Analyze growth projections, in terms of the number of dwelling units and acres that
are likely to be converted to development under present regulations.
b. Evaluate adopted land-use regulations, identifying their strengths and
weaknesses, and offering constructive recommendations about how they can
incorporate conservation techniques. A realistic appraisal of the extent to which
private conservation efforts are likely to succeed in protecting lands from
development through various non-regulatory approaches should be included.
c. Map future development patterns for the entire municipality, based upon the data
collected in the previous two steps
2. Open-Space Conservative Area: Identify primary and secondary conservation areas
Many communities have adopted comprehensive plans or open-space plans that
contain detailed inventories of natural and historic resources. To create an
interconnected network of open space, communities should draw a map of potential
conservation lands. This map serves as the tool that guides decisions regarding which
land to protect for the network to take form and have substance eventually. A map of

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potential conservation lands starts with the information contained in the community’s
existing planning documents. The next task is to identify two kinds of resource areas,
primary and secondary conservation areas.
a. Primary Conservation Areas
Primary conservation areas comprise only the most severely constrained lands,
where development is typically restricted under current codes and laws, such as
wetlands, floodplains, and slopes exceeding 25 percent.
b. Secondary Conservation Areas
Secondary conservation areas include all other locally noteworthy or significant
features of the natural or cultural landscape:
 Mature woodlands
 Hedgerows and freestanding trees or tree groups
 Wildlife habitats and travel corridors
 Prime farmland
 Groundwater recharge areas
 Greenways and trails
 River and stream corridors
 Historic sites and buildings
 Scenic viewsheds
Locals should be directly involved in the identification of secondary
conservation areas. These resource areas are typically unprotected and are often
zoned for some type of development.
3. Conservation Area Mapping: Employ conservation subdivision design steps.
The primary conservation areas first are identified on a base map that includes
lands that are already protected, such as parks, land trust preserves, and properties
under conservation easement. Each secondary conservation area is then laid on top
of the base map, using clear acetate sheets or a geographic information system (GIS),
in an order that reflects the community’s preservation priorities, as determined through
public discussion. This overlay process will reveal certain situations where two or
more conservation features appear together, such as woodlands and wildlife habitats,
or farmland and scenic viewsheds. It will also reveal gaps where no features appear.
This exercise is not an exact science; nevertheless, it frequently helps local officials
and residents visualize how various kinds of resource areas are connected to one

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another. It also enables them to tentatively
identify both broad swaths and narrow corridors
of resource land that could be protected in a
variety of ways.

XIV. Infill Development

Infill development occurs on vacant or
underused lots in otherwise built-up sites or
areas. Infill projects can take several forms, such
as a small addition in a residential backyard, a
single-lot development, a brownfield
development, or multi-parcel projects in urban
downtowns.
A. Goals and Benefits of Infill
Infill strategies have many benefits. They
can:
a. preserve open space, agricultural
land, and forests by reducing
development pressures on
greenfield sites;
b. provide opportunities to revitalize a
neighborhood or downtown;
c. increase the tax base for jurisdiction
by creating or renewing a property’s
value;
d. make efficient use of abandoned,
vacant, or underused sites;
e. enhance sustainability by use of
existing community amenities infrastructure;
f. promote compact development and increase density; and
g. create a mixture of uses

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B. Issues to Address for Infill Development
Among the issues to address when considering infill are the existing zoning
regulations for the area, the condition of the infrastructure, site acquisition and
development financing, parking requirements, and community concerns.
a. Existing Zoning
An existing neighborhood is typically regulated by an existing zoning
ordinance and other codes. These regulations may be restrictive or permissive
toward creating infill development. Check with local planning departments to
identify regulations that may conflict with infill projects or, conversely, those
that might facilitate such development. Successful infill projects work within
the existing regulatory framework and demonstrate how to provide alternatives
that fully use the zoning allowances.
b. Infrastructure Condition
Developers of infill projects often face deteriorating infrastructure or
capacity limitations in older areas of a community, and infrastructure upgrades
or replacement can be expensive. Thoroughly inspect the existing
infrastructure to ensure the project’s budget can support the required
upgrades.
c. Acquisition and Development Financing
Concerns over the financial feasibility of infill development can sometimes
halt a project. Funding redevelopment in urban areas can be complex when it
involves elements of mixed-use development and different building scales
within an area. Banks may be reluctant to lend money, and developers may
experience high land costs and potential environmental cleanup costs,
especially on sites in older communities that have had several uses over the
years.
An infill project’s strength lies in the potential to increase the market value
of an existing area. Infill projects that receive adequate funding are typically
the ones that:
 demonstrate the value of an existing neighborhood in terms of its context,
safety, and growth potential; prelease a percentage of the project;
 include experienced team members, such as developers who have
completed similar projects successfully;

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 identify any special benefits that may be required during entitlement, such
as affordable housing or jobs; and
 demonstrate the city’s support for the type of infill development through
adopted policies and other incentives for the developer.
d. Parking
Understand the parking requirements for the area. Often, new parking
requirements within an already developed area are difficult to satisfy with infill
projects, due to limited land availability. Ensuring a project meets the parking
requirements without burdening the streets with additional demand for on-
street parking can also be an issue. There are several strategies to overcome
parking issues:
 Encourage shared parking between uses and institutions.
 Reduce parking requirements in mixed-use or transit-oriented areas.
 Incorporate transit programs into the development.
 Implement a day/night use of parking, such as allowing parking for
businesses in the daytime, then in the evenings for local entertainment
venues or residents.
e. Community Concerns
Local opposition may pose challenges for infill development. The level and
type of opposition depend on the neighborhood’s character and history, among
other factors. A common concern raised by surrounding residents is that an
infill project may adversely affect their property values and may increase
burdens on local resources such as streets, parking, schools, and other public
amenities. One of the ways to address this situation is to involve the
community in the design process through workshops and other public outreach
programs.
C. Analysis of Site Context
The following are various elements of the existing conditions to address when
planning for infill development.
a. Neighborhood Character
Successful infill projects create harmonious relationships between the
proposed and existing surroundings, enhancing the unique qualities of the
neighborhood through functional and visual relationships. Carefully plan uses

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within a neighborhood to avoid clashes of incompatible activities, and study
existing façades and streets to create guidelines that enhance those elements.
Infill projects may also include rehabilitation of historic buildings and
preservation of landmarks or significant public squares, which also preserve and
enhance the special character of an area
b. Patterns
Take into account the block patterns of an existing neighborhood when
creating infill projects. Patterns of a neighborhood include the streets and alleys
and other connections used by residents. Consider the fabric of the
neighborhood by studying the size of each block. By respecting the existing
neighborhood’s scale and urban fabric, an infill project will integrate more
successfully and create continuity, which in turns promotes community harmony.

c. Connections
Integrate an infill project with the existing land-use patterns through street
networks, open-space systems, and other connections. Work to connect
neighborhoods at multiple scales, from local pedestrian paths to regional
patterns of transportation and open space. Because an infill project occurs
within an existing area, it can either enhance or disrupt existing connections.
Allow streets and alleys to continue, and avoid disrupting existing vital
connections.
d. Amenities
To further integrate infill development into a neighborhood, identify and make
use of important existing amenities, such as transit nodes, retail zones, and

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other public resources. Increase neighborhood value by building on existing
amenities, such as open space, transit centers, and other amenities.
D. Strategies for Infill Development
a. Diversity
Promote a mix of uses, including housing, retail, and commercial uses,
both horizontally and vertically. Blend housing with other uses to create
neighborhoods and districts where people are present at all hours, a key
element of public safety and community liveliness.
b. Density
Successful infill development is often dense enough to make transit viable
and support walkable retail districts. Higher densities create a sense of a
strong, residential enclave. They can help to deliver the critical mass of
residents essential to support commercial and retail uses, whether existing or
part of the infill development.
c. Transit
Transit, when available, is key to infill development. Transit systems need
significant densities to achieve strong ridership. Infill projects can increase
ridership on existing systems and make transit an even more viable option.
Create infill development that responds to existing transit lines, supports a
walkable environment, and makes local services accessible to and from transit
stops.
d. Scale
Take into account the grain and scale of existing frontages, sidewalks,
streets, and building façades, and the massing of the surrounding area. Infill
projects that take this approach often create a coherent neighborhood that
responds to various scales of living, from the pedestrian to the larger, more
public scales, such as major retail or commercial corridors. Replicating
surrounding structures is not required, but, often, compatibility must be
demonstrated.
e. Massing and Articulation
Consider the relationship of the infill project’s massing to that of the existing
area to ensure minimal impacts on solar access, wind conditions, and other
factors. Strategies to address this include articulation in massing and materials

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to create interest and break the monotony of a larger façade. Successful
massing strategies promote interaction between the sidewalk pedestrian and
the building by creating a street frontage that is appropriate at the ground level.
Maintaining a consistent urban edge is also an important massing
consideration

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity
Project SimCity Development
 Describe the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based on
this lessons’ discussion. Support with the required screenshots.
2. Study Questions
a. What are the advantages/benefits and disadvantages/drawbacks of planned urban
design and development? Why do you say so?
b. What are the common goals of planned urban developments?
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment
 Does your community exhibit any type of development discussed in this lesson? Why
do you say so? Use your photographs from the previous lesson to support your
discussions. Use the main section titles as a guide. You can add new photographs if
needed.
4. Discussion Forum 2: Read to (2) of your classmate’s works. What can you learn from
their answers?
5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz.

References
Appendix C. Architectural and environmental design standards. Retrieved from
http://www.summitcountyco.gov/DocumentCenter/View/133/AppendixCDesignStandards_001?
bidId=
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey
Vermont Land Use Education & Training Collaboration. (2007). Planned Unit Development. Retrieved
from http://vpic.info/Publications/Reports/Implementation/PlannedUnitDevelopment.pdf

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 173 of 190

Topic 11. URBAN DESIGN AS PUBLIC POLICY

Learning Outcome: At the end of the lesson, you should:

1. Describe The nature of urban design as a public policy
2. Understand the premise of urban design as a public policy

Test what you know

1. Reading Assignment
Yaseen, A. (2017). Inclusive aspects of urban design: Sociability, walkability and
overall ambiance. Chinese Journal of Urban and Environmental Studies, 5(1). World
Scientific Publishing Company. DOI: 10.1142/S2345748117500015. Retrieved from
http://educationwithbyte.net/moodle/pluginfile.php/529/mod_resource/content/0/Inclusi
ve%20Aspects%20of%20Urban%20Design%20Sociability%20Walkability%20and%20
Overall%20Ambiance.pdf
2. Discussion Question: What makes urban design inclusive?
3. Discussion Forum 1: Read two (2) of your classmates’ works. What can you learn from
their answers?

Discussion
I. Evolution of Urban Design as a Public Policy
 1974 – John Barnett coined the idea of urban design as a public policy based on the
instruments he used in the redevelopment of New York in the 1960s.
 1980s – Design reviews were discretionary processes overlaid upon traditional zoning
and vague comprehensive plans. The integration of such plans or a coherent future-
oriented planning framework was rare.
 The 1980s – Europe significantly responded to design concerns through post-war
development, renewal practices and increased support for the conservation of the
historic urban fabric. These concerns were expressed in a range of new approaches,
including a more sophisticated hierarchy of development plans, the invention of design
guidelines, stronger conservation controls and additional design review processes.
 1990s - Design became a major concern in planning, and several new agendas were
driving its development in both policy and control. These included (a) greater public

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concern with the protection of a sense of place and local distinctiveness in a globalizing
world, (b) greater environmental concern with the sustainability of development at the
macro and micro scale, (c) a more strategic view of urban design as a shaper of urban
form citywide, and (d) greater concern with urban regeneration (particularly reversing
the loss of population from major cities). There was a desire to improve the
attractiveness of urban settlements as places to live and work, and this was reinforced
by the recognition of the role of cities in initiating and driving forward economic
development. City image enhancement and place marketing went hand-in-hand, and
urban design initiatives were seen as an important means of attracting economic
investment both in employment and property, especially in the international tourist and
convention markets
 At present, ‘urban design as public policy’ tends to be driven by the imperatives of ‘the
entrepreneurial city’ and by urban competitiveness strategies, as a response to
globalization and neo-liberalism (a modified form of liberalism tending to favor free-
market capitalism). Urban competitiveness is most visibly expressed by flagship
property regeneration projects, iconic buildings and spectacular spaces, events and
festivals.

II. Policy Principles for Progressive Urban Design (Punter, 2007)

A. Community Vision
1. Commit to a comprehensive and coordinated vision of environmental beauty and
design.
2. Develop and monitor an urban design plan with community and development
industry support and periodic review.
B. Design, Planning and Zoning
3. Harness the broadest range of actors and instruments (tax, subsidy, land
acquisition) to promote better design.
4. Mitigate the exclusionary effects of control strategies and urban design regulation
5. Integrating zoning into planning and addressing the limitations of zoning.
C. Broad, Substantive Design Principles
6. Maintain a commitment to urban design that goes well beyond elevations and
aesthetics to embrace amenity, accessibility, community, vitality and sustainability.
7. Base guidelines on generic design principles and contextual analysis and
articulating desired and mandatory outcomes.

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8. Accommodate organic spontaneity, vitality, innovation, pluralism: not over-
prescriptive rather than attempting to control all aspects of community design but
D. Due Process
9. Identify clear a priori roles for urban design intervention
10. Establish proper administrative procedures with written opinions to manage
administrative discretion and with appropriate appeal mechanisms.
11. Implement an efficient, constructive and effective permitting process.
12. Provide appropriate design skills and expertise to support the review process.

III. Inclusive Planning and Community Participation

A. What does “Inclusive mean?
An inclusive city, according to the UN-Habitat, is one that promotes growth with
equity. It is a place where everyone, regardless of their economic means, gender, race,
ethnicity, or religion, is enabled and empowered to participate in the social, economic,
and political opportunities that cities have to offer fully. Participatory planning and
decision making are at the heart of the inclusive city.
An “inclusive” urban infrastructure development is an integrated approach
encompassing sustainable, resilient, accessible, and affordable solutions to the
challenges faced by the urban poor and vulnerable groups by enhancing their access
to urban services and infrastructure through targeted investments. This integrated
approach encourages an institutional delivery mechanism that brings together all
institutions and stakeholders.
An inclusive city creates a safe, livable environment with affordable and equitable
access to urban services, social services, and livelihood opportunities for all the city
residents and other city users to promote optimal development of its human capital and
ensure the respect of human dignity and equality.
B. Principles of Inclusive Planning
1. Authentic and Equitable Participation;
2. Interwoven Equity; and
3. Integrated Framework for Growth, Development, and Community Design.
C. The Role of Participation
Community participation is the involvement of people in the creation and
management of their built and natural environments. Its strength is that it cuts across

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traditional professional boundaries and
cultures. The activity of community
participation is based on the principle that
the built and natural environments work
better if citizens are active and involved in
its creation and management instead of
being treated as passive consumers
(Sanoff in Steiner & Butle, 2007).
Participation should be active and
directed; those who become involved
should experience a sense of achievement.
Traditional planning procedures should be
re-examined to ensure that participation
achieves more than simply affirmation of
the designer’s or planner’s intentions.
D. The Main Purposes of Participation
1. To involve citizens in planning and
design decision-making processes
and, as a result, make it more likely
they will work within established
systems when seeking solutions to
problems
2. To provide citizens with a voice in
planning and decision making to
improve plans, decisions, service delivery, and overall quality of the environment;
and
3. To promote a sense of community by bringing together people who share common
goals.
E. Characteristics of Participation
Although any given participation process does not automatically ensure success, it
can be claimed that the process will minimize failure. Four essential characteristics of
participation can be identified:
1. Participation is inherently good.

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2. It is a source of wisdom and information about local conditions, needs, and
attitudes, and thus improves the effectiveness of decision making.
3. It is an inclusive and pluralistic approach by which fundamental human needs are
fulfilled, and user values reflected.
4. It is a means of defending the interests of groups of people and of individuals, and
a tool for satisfying their needs, which are often ignored and dominated by large
organizations, institutions, and their bureaucracies.
Experiences in the participation process show that the main source of user
satisfaction is not the degree to which a person’s needs have been met, but the feeling
of having influenced the decisions.
F. Principles for Guiding Community Organizations
1. Include all: Make sure to represent the range of viewpoints in the community
organization, typically owners and renters, residents and businesses, customers
and employees, and support leadership that encourages and respects the cross-
section of views
2. Shape a vision: Move from reacting—stopping bad things from happening—to
shaping and agreeing on shorter- and longer-range priorities for neighborhood or
district improvement.
3. Get formal recognition: Neighborhoods and districts should encourage local
governments to formally recognize their organizations’ standing to provide a voice
and to render advisory opinions for both public and private initiatives that impact
the quality and functionality of neighborhoods
4. Form a legal entity: Neighborhoods and districts should form themselves as, or
associate themselves with, legally recognized entities so that they can enter into
mutual benefit agreements and covenants with private sector entities and local
government
5. Form alliances and partnerships: respecting differences outside of agreed-on
tenets—and similarly look for mutual benefit alliances with issue-based community
organizations, like housing, environmental, or transportation-focused
organizations, or with the private sector or government organizations
6. Track performance: Measure progress and leadership based on effectiveness in
advancing the agreed-on agenda

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G. Principles for Guiding Private Sector Organizations
a. Private sector organizations build most of what gets built: Remember that private
developers, private contractors, private consultants, and private finance are the
agents that build stuff, even in the case of government-initiated infrastructure and
building projects; therefore if communities want to see any building occur, they must
be sensitive and somewhat knowledgeable about the initiative, investment, risk,
and return factors that make development happen.
b. Improving the civic environment might be a nice-to-do, but the project is what the
developer cares about. If improving the civic environment shortens the approval
process or if public support induces projects that connect better to the larger whole,
the developer may become a willing and resourceful partner.
c. The project’s the thing: The private sector approaches city building on a project-by-
project basis. Any sense of the values or possibilities of the larger context is
incidental at best and immaterial at worst. Only if these values or possibilities can
demonstrate promise in increasing the bottom line do they have much of a chance
of happening.
d. Be sensitive to time and timing: “Time is money” goes the old saw, and urban
designers by stressing holistic, interdisciplinary processes and communities with
the ability to shorten or lengthen approval times can influence the making of better
civic environments.
e. Partner on infrastructure: Know what infrastructure improvements will improve the
civic environment and look for opportunities to incorporate these into responding to
development proposals.
f. Assure accountability: Make sure that what is promised happens; in the approval
process, establish some kind of reporting and updating process, keeping in mind
that many projects encounter obstacles that may legitimately require changes in
scope, siting, or budget. Formal agreements between legally constituted entities
are the best way to track progress.
H. Principles for Guiding Government Organizations
a. The government—the people—own most of the civic space: The opportunity, some
might say the responsibility, lies with citizens through the government to improve
the functional and visual quality of their property.
b. The measure of government is service—to all citizens: Each administration should
leave things better than it found them, not just for some people but for everyone.

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c. Include all disciplines: Press for synthesis among the various placemaking
disciplines, from both outside and inside the government, to make places better.
d. Include all agencies and jurisdictions: Press the establishment of interagency, inter-
jurisdictional teams or task forces to coordinate planning, urban design, and
development processes—at a minimum, the left hand should know what the right
hand is doing.
e. Break down “turf”: Press for the breakdown of “turf” within government—it interferes
with access to information, coordination between disciplines and agencies, and
ultimately accountability and effectiveness.
f. Beware of “privatization”: While privatizing government services may, or may not,
yield short-term improvements, remember that the first and unavoidable measure
for the success of the private enterprise is to make a profit, more important than
providing service and that public funds are the source of that profit.
g. Praise good service: Whenever civil servants provide responsive service, praise
them, especially in this era when pundits and politicians routinely, often vehemently,
malign government and its workers as the cause for all that’s wrong. The stunned
look on the praised person’s face may give way to motivation to keep going—and
to remember someone who appreciated their effort next time.

IV. Community and Policy Appraisal Inventory

Design is an essential tool for negotiating trade-offs between different interest groups
and securing mutually compatible solutions. The best way to gain the necessary
understanding of identified factors, and the potential role of design in strengthening existing
communities, is adopting a public participation strategy involving a wide spectrum of local
interest groups and individuals. A community-led review process addresses several key
questions.

Subject Area Considerations

1. Community profile  Stakeholders and the organizational structure
 Local Views, preferences and aspirations.
 Census and statistical data
 Cultural characteristics
 Safety and security
2. Local plan policies  Design
 Strategic views
 Land uses
 Transportation Plans
 Interim uses
 Specific constraints (e.g., Airport, protection zones, etc.)
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Subject Area Considerations
3. Heritage and  Conservation areas
conservation  Listed buildings
 Ancient monuments
 Archaeology
 Sites of special and scientific interests
 Local natural reserves and other designated ecological sites
 Protected flora and fauna
 Nature conservation, countryside and green strategies
4. Other relevant  Supplementary planning guidance
policies and o Development frameworks
initiatives o Design guides
o Site development briefs
 Other relevant local authority policies
 Relevant policies and requirements of other bodies (e.g., RDA,
environmental agency, etc.)
 Other local initiatives

Synthesis Activity
1. Student Activity
Project SimCity Development
 Describe the improvement that you have done in your SimCity development based on
how you considered urban design as a public policy. Support with the required
screenshots
2. Study Questions
a. What is inclusive planning?
b. What are the advantages of public participation in planning?
c. What are the disadvantages of public participation in planning?
d. What is mean by urban design as a public policy?
3. Reflection Activity
Project Community Assessment
 Does your community exhibit public policy in its development? Why do you say so?
Use your photographs from the previous lesson to support your discussions. Use the
main section titles as a guide. You can add new photographs if needed.
 Compile all accomplishments you have submitted on your community assessment
according to the topic heading. Provide a cover page and an overview of your
community assessment.
4. Discussion Forum 2: Read to (2) of your classmate’s works. What can you learn from
their answers?

1st Sem, SY 2020 – 2021 Page 181 of 190

5. Test what you have learned: Take the online quiz

References
Asian Development Bank (ADB) (2017). Enabling inclusive cities. Tool kit for inclusive urban
development. Asian Development Bank: Mandaluyong City, Philippines. Retrieved from
https://think-asia.org/bitstream/handle/11540/7403/enabling-inclusive-cities.pdf?sequence=1
Dobbins, M. (2009). Urban design and people. John Wiley & Sons.: Canada
Steiner, F. & Butle, K. (2007). Planning and urban design standards student edition. John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.: Hoboken, New Jersey
Urban Design Compendium Vol. 1 The Housing Corporation. Retrieved from
https://www.diba.cat/c/document_library/get_file?uuid=263508c9-9337-4076-bf53-
2f0f2318364c&groupId=7294824#:~:text=The%20purpose%20of%20the%20Urban,developing
%20and%20restoring%20urban%20areas.&text=It%20is%20principally%20about%20the,desig
n%20in%20creating%20the%20product.

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