LECTURE 1

Concepts of sex and gender

The human race is human. But who is Man? According to philosophy, man is a
thinking being. The anatomical body of man lives from millions of small particles-
cells. Each little thing is a living thing: it feeds, reproduces and interacts with other
entities. Many of the same type of tissue unite to form seeds, some of which have
various organs that are harmful to humans. Humans are born into two genders, male
and female.
But what is gender? Sex (also called sexuality), the biological difference between
male and female, is called biological sex.
What is biological sex?
In the biological sense, there are two sexes: Female and male. Humans are born
with help from these two sexes. Gender is one of the most important factors
characterizing a person. The genetic basis of the gender concept is already formed
as a result of fertilization. According to the scientist, the main matrix of the human
body and intelligence is a woman, so everyone starts with energy women. 22 pairs of
chromosomes (ausomes) depend on female codes; only the 23rd pair - the sex
chromosome - has the Y - chromosome, that is, the genetic code for men. From birth,
man does not live as a sexually neutral creature. The hormones produced in his
body, among other factors, are sufficient to determine gender differences in behavior,
interest and direction of inclinations. As hormones interfere with the brain of the fetus,
there are first structural and then functional changes characteristic of the male or
female brain. This process extends from the fetal stage to the adolescent period.
Male (testosterone) and female (estrone, estriol, estrariol) sex hormones begin to
form in the developing organism while in the mother's womb; this has a very serious
effect on the formation of a person's character and abilities. Sex hormones are
sufficient for children born to their sex, i.e. as boys or girls, to pass the path of normal
physical and mental development. The influence of genetic factors in the process of
sexual self-determination (self-similarity) continues throughout life.

What is psychological gender?

We can forget the color of the eyes and hair, the features of the face, the clothes a
person is wearing and what kind of jewelry is on it. But we never forget that he is a
man or a woman. In recent decades, people have begun to pay more attention to the
classification of male and female and to ask questions about its various aspects of
meaning. These questions arise not only in psychology and social psychology, but
also in other fields of humanities. The opinion of social psychologists on this problem
is very important, because they focus on the norms and roles that shape our
behavior as "masculine" or "feminine". The difference in the psychological nature of
women and men has always interested scientists who aim to prove the primacy and
superiority of the male beginning.
In recent decades, psychologists have been using the word "gender" instead of "sex"
for a broader meaning. As a result of numerous scientific debates, a clear boundary
was established between the concepts of sex and gender. Gender indicates who a
specific person is, that is, male or female, and indicates the biological affiliation of
that person. With the development of scientific research, it became clear that
biologically there are more similarities than differences between men and women.
Differentiating the concepts of sex and gender meant access to a new level of
theoretical understanding of social processes. The division of social roles, forms of
activity, differences in behavior and emotional characteristics according to gender are
unquestionable. Azerbaijani society is also more typical of eastern culture without
being excluded from the general list. Anthropologists, ethnographers, and historians
have long recognized the relativity of notions of a "typical man" or "typical woman":
what is considered a man's job in one society may be a woman's job in another.

Biological and social nature of the concept of gender

Sexual differences confirm the division of the human race into two large parts - male
and female. We begin to understand this simple truth on another level in terms of
scientific data. Although men and women are both human beings, they are
psychologically and physiologically different. Psychologists study the personality, its
mental area (cognitive
Although they have studied the gender differences in the development of the sphere)
quite well, they have not yet been able to understand their origin sufficiently.

But what are the differences in temperament, style, character of women and men?
Are there differences in the intellectual development of men and women determined
by their evolutionary genetic programs? Or does the mental development of a person
determine the process of his socialization? How are ideas about the rules of behavior
specific to women or men formed? Why is it that men always occupy the leading
positions that provide the opportunity to acquire money and power, while women are
only in a secondary position, which can bring less benefits in the social sense? All
these are only part of the questions we seek to answer.

Then let's first analyze the physiological and historical bases and conditions of the
formation of sexual stereotypes. Historically, the attempt to differentiate the concepts
of "sex" and "gender" was first shown in 1968 by psychologist Robert Stoller. At the
University of California, he studied transsexuals, and such came to the conclusion
that it is easier to perform a surgery on a transsexual and change his gender in
proportion to his gender conformity (identity).
Anthropologists studying different societies supported the idea of differentiating the
concepts of "sex" and "gender" and discovered the existence of significant
differences in male and female roles, positions, character traits and the roles of men
and women in these or other societies. In 1972, the book "Women, culture and
society" was published, edited by Rosaldo and Lamphere, which quickly became
famous. Here, created by Sherry Ortner, Is the ratio of femininity to masculinity
similar to the ratio of natural to cultivated? the headline article caused a great deal of
controversy. It was noted here that when determining the social status of a woman in
society, her reproductive (maternity) function is not taken into account. They do not
do this because femininity and women are equated with a natural origin, and
masculinity and men with a cultural origin. In the following discussions, some
anthropologists put forward ideas about the universal nature of gender
disproportionality, while others, repeating the well-known thesis of Engels, put
forward the idea that the relative equality of the sexes, which is dominant in societies
based on collective economy, underwent changes as a result of the development of
the colonial system and commodity-money relations. remained.
For the first time, the term "gender" was used by English researcher Anne Oakley
and her colleagues in the 70s of the 20th century. The term was used in the
description of male and female characteristics to show that their social designation is
the opposite of their biological guarantee. This was the stage of transition to a new
theory in the differentiation of gender (sex) and gender (social) categories, which
were already clear from research. The teaching of Anne Oakley and colleagues on
the theoretical distinction between sex and gender has been very helpful. It was a
universal view of the problem. American historical sociologist John Scott tried to
explain the theoretical and methodological aspects of gender history in his work
"Gender: A useful category of historical analysis" (Scott Joan W. "Gender: A useful
category of historical analysis") in 1986.
Although the debates about the origin of inequality in the field of gender have not
subsided, the process of interpreting anthropological data in a new way has already
been given impetus. We observe a clearer differentiation of the concepts of sex and
gender in Gail Ruby's work "Women's Exchange". Bringing together psychoanalysis
and structural anthropology (especially Levi-Strauss theory of kinship systems), the
author notes that women's material and spiritual duties are the subject of exchange
between men.

Thus, distinguishing the concepts of sex and gender led to the beginning of the
theoretical analysis of social processes at a new level. At the end of the 80s,
researchers gradually moved from the criticism of oppression, from the study of
unique female experience to the analysis of the gender system. Women's
researchers are gradually turning into gender studies: here the following approach
comes to the fore: the relations that arise in all spheres of activity of human society
are gendered. Gradually, in research programs, instead of focusing on "adding the
female factor" and justifying male dominance, the existence, emergence and
repetition of gender in all social processes are being analyzed.
Chromosomes are thread-like structures made of DNA and proteins, found in the
nucleus of most living cells. They carry genetic information that dictates the
development, functioning, and reproduction of organisms.
Key Points about Chromosomes:
1. Structure: Chromosomes are composed of DNA tightly coiled around proteins
called histones. This structure allows long DNA molecules to fit into the cell
nucleus.
2. Number of Chromosomes:
o In humans, most cells have 46 chromosomes, arranged in 23 pairs.
This includes 22 pairs of autosomes(non-sex chromosomes) and 1
pair of sex chromosomes.
o The sex chromosomes determine biological sex: females typically
have two X chromosomes (XX), while males have one X and one Y
chromosome (XY).
3. Chromosome Function:
o Chromosomes carry genes, which are sequences of DNA that code for
proteins. These proteins are vital for the body's structure, function, and
regulation of tissues and organs.
o Each chromosome contains hundreds to thousands of genes. For
example, humans have around 20,000-25,000 genes.
4. Mitosis and Meiosis:
o During mitosis, chromosomes replicate to ensure each daughter cell
gets a complete set of chromosomes.
o In meiosis, which produces eggs and sperm, the number of
chromosomes is halved (to 23) so that when fertilization occurs, the
resulting offspring has the correct number (46 chromosomes).
5. Abnormalities: Changes in chromosome number or structure can lead to
genetic disorders. For example:
o Down syndrome is caused by an extra copy of chromosome 21
(trisomy 21).
o Turner syndrome results from a missing or incomplete X chromosome
in females (45, X).
6. Karyotyping: This is the process of photographing chromosomes to study
their number and structure, which helps in diagnosing chromosomal disorders.
As hormones interfere with the brain of the fetus, there are first structural and then
functional changes characteristic of the male or female brain. This process extends
from the fetal stage to the adolescent period. Male (testosterone) and female
(estrone, estriol, estrariol) sex hormones begin to form in the developing organism
while in the mother's womb; This is the character and abilities of a person has a very
serious effect on its formation. "Some hormones, especially the male sex hormone
called testosterone, begin to affect brain areas, as a result, hormonal pressure
increases during adolescence: this manifests itself in a number of forms, for example,
in the increase of physical, aggressive tendencies, in the search for new areas of
activity, and also in the right and left side of the brain. or the relative dominance of the
left hemispheres expresses itself in its creation.

These and other biological signs manifest themselves during the "race" between the
sexes, already passing through the mother's womb. It develops more in girls, after
birth, the process of bone formation in them falls one to two weeks earlier than in
boys. Nevertheless, when boys are born, they are heavier and taller than girls. Male
babies are slightly weaker. Although 120-150 male embryos fall on the share of 100
female embryos in fertilization, cases of sudden miscarriage are mostly related to
boys;
there are 105 boys for every 100 girls born. A boy is more likely to be injured at birth,
one of the reasons being the larger body size. Sex hormones are sufficient for
children born to their sex, i.e. as boys or girls, to pass the path of normal physical
and mental development. That is, from birth, a person does not live as a sexually
neutral creature. The hormones produced in his body, among other factors, are
sufficient to determine gender differences in behavior, interest and direction of
inclinations. The influence of genetic factors on the process of sexual self-
identification (self-similarity) continues throughout life. In particular, the differences
between the sexes manifest themselves more in the period close to the stage of
sexual innovation: at this time, the body secretes more gonatoprone hormones,
which regulate the process of the formation of the evolutionary-biological
characteristics of the sex. During this period, the level of testosterone in boys
increases 18 times, and the level of estradiol in girls - only 8 times. The hormones
produced have an effect not only on the physical characteristics of sex, but also on its
brain.

Thus, we see that there are important differences between male and female brains,
because the brain is shaped in many cases by sex hormones. Some human abilities
are based on innate qualities that were important for survival and immortality in
ancient human societies. Scientists, analyzing the factor structure of abilities,
determine that this condition is richer and more independent in men than in women.
That is why men, unlike women, can handle only one job at a time (women can do
several jobs at the same time). This is because in women, the bundle of nerve fibers
connecting the right and left hemispheres (the corpus callosum) is thicker than in
men. Roger Horsky, a neurologist at the University of California, located in Los
Angeles, determined that the formation of connections between the hemispheres is
related to the presence of the female hormone - estrogen - in the body. Also, in men,
the cerebral hemispheres respond to precise specialization: the right side is
responsible for finding one's direction in space, solving mathematical problems, etc.,
and the left side is responsible for speech activity. This kind of division creates a
certain freedom, on the one hand, an opportunity to perform a certain task, on the
other hand, it can create a serious threat.
Therefore, imagination related to the scope, because the abilities related to spatial
description are related to stereoscopy (comprehensive, perspective view), are more
developed in men. Indeed, psychologists are well aware that men are superior to
women in solving geometric problems, analyzing geographic maps, orienting in the
environment.

Thus, spatial imagination is more developed in men, as the abilities related to spatial
description are related to stereoscopy (comprehensive, perspective view). Indeed,
psychologists are well aware that men are superior to women in solving geometric
problems, analyzing geographic maps, orienting in the environment.
The female brain, unlike the male brain, has no such specialization; the hemispheres
sort of duplicate each other's work. As a result, women approach the solution of any
issue in different ways, using the possibilities of both logical understanding and
intuition (heart stopping). It is this feature that makes women more discerning; they
feel the inner face of people, understand the true essence of any sign, expression.
Another advantage of women is that a woman can do several things at the same
time. The most important thing is that because women's brains are not specialized,
they are not affected as much by the occurrence of an accident. The fact is that as a
result of illness or an accident, men usually lose some functions of their thinking
ability (his head
the hemispheres in the brain are clearly specialized), while women do not; they begin
to use the intact hemisphere.

Such symmetry of the female brain provides her with a higher norm of response, that
is, it provides flexibility, softness (adaptability) in the process of ontogenesis,
compared to the male gender. This also applies to psychological symptoms.
In the zones (areas) of discomfort (lack of comfort) of the male and female genders,
they go in different directions: the female gender can move away from these zones
due to the wide possibilities of its adaptability. In the male gender, there is no such
possibility, since the scope (norm) of the reaction is low; he can find a way out in
unfavorable conditions only due to ingenuity, vigilance, ingenuity. In other words,
women adapt to the situation, while men can get out of this uncomfortable situation
by finding a new solution. It is for this reason that men undertake the solution of new,
unusual (and often general) problems that require searching; and women -
repeatedly bring the task to the peak of perfection.
Innovation in any business is a man's job. Men invented all professions, sports, even
weaving (although now weaving is done only by women). (Italy XIII century).

Global Conferences on Women

Gender equality is a basic human right. Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, adopted by the UN General Assembly on 10 December 1948, stated that “All
human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights” and Article 2 stated
that “everyone is entitled to all the rights and freedoms set forth in this Declaration,
without distinction of any kind, such as race, colour, sex, language, religion, birth or other
status.”

Thirty one years after the creation of the Universal Declaration of Human
Rights, the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against
Women was adopted by the UN General Assembly on 18 December 1979. This was
followed 16 years later by the Beijing Declaration and Platform for Action, adopted in
1995 at the Fourth World Conference on Women in Beijing. The Beijing conference was
preceded by three conferences on women and gender equality.

The first World Conference on Women took place in Mexico City in 1975, after the
Commission on the Status of Women called for the organization of the first world
conference on women to coincide with International Women’s Year. The conference
defined a World Plan of Action for the Implementation of the Objectives of the
International Women’s Year, which offered a comprehensive set of guidelines for the
advancement of women through 1985.

In 1980, 45 Member States gathered for the second women's conference, the mid-
decade World Conference of the United Nations Decade for Women in Copenhagen. It
aimed to review progress in implementing the goals of the first world conference, focusing
on employment, health and education. A Programme of Action called for stronger
national measures to ensure women’s ownership and control of property, as well as
improvements in protecting women’s rights to inheritance, child custody and nationality.

The third world conference for women, the World Conference to Review and Appraise
the Achievements of the UN Decade for Women took place in Nairobi, Kenya in 1985.
The conference’s mandate was to establish concrete measures to overcome obstacles to
achieving the Decade’s goals. Participants included 1,900 delegates from 157 Member
States; a parallel NGO Forum attracted around 12,000 participants. Governments
adopted the Nairobi Forward-Looking Strategies for the Advancement of Women, which
outlined measures for achieving gender equality at the national level and for promoting
women’s participation in peace and development efforts.

Ten years later, the Fourth World Conference on Women, held in Beijing, marked a
significant turning point for the global agenda for gender equality. The Beijing Declaration
and the Platform for Action, adopted unanimously by 189 countries, was an agenda for
women’s empowerment and is now considered the key global policy document on
gender equality. It set strategic objectives and actions for the advancement of women
and the achievement of gender equality in 12 critical areas of concern:

The Beijing conference built on political agreements reached at the three previous global
conferences on women, and consolidated five decades of legal advances aimed at
securing the equality of women with men in law and in practice. More than 17,000
participants attended, including 6,000 government delegates at the negotiations, along
with more than 4,000 accredited NGO representatives, a host of international civil
servants and around 4,000 media representatives. A parallel NGO Forum held in Huairou
near Beijing also drew some 30,000 participants.

12 strategic areas of the Beijing Platform for Action.

The fourth world conference on women was organized in 1995 in Beijing. The main
purpose of this conference was to achieve gender equality. Also, governments tried
to improve, to increase women opportunities in society. In Beijing conference, they
took 12 actions:

Women and poverty - When women get poorer, their rights are not protected and
they face double discrimination because of their gender and economic situations.

Education and training of women - Education is very important factor for women to
achieve gender equality.
Women and health - Women need to be healthy to realize their full potential. For
being healthy, they must eat healthy foods, play sports and protect themselves from
violence.

Violence against women - Violence damages women and girls and it prevents their
development. After the Beijing conference, governments got actions about this
domestic violence.

Women and armed conflict - Wars and armed conflict destroy families, societies
especially they damage to the women and girls.
Women and the economy - Women have a big influence on the economic
processes. But unfortunately, because of gender discrimination, women can not get
good jobs and can not earn much money from work in society.

Women in power and decision making - Because of gender discrimination, women

have a low role about decision making and leadership.
Human rights of women - Women and girls have a right to use all human rights.
Women and the media - Media has a big role to stop violence, unfair treatment
against women and to achieve gender equality.

Women and the environment - Climate change affects women so much.

The girl child - There are a lot of types on violence against girl childs and this affects
them. One of them is child marriage.
And the last one is institutional mechanisms.
A Women and poverty - Persistent and increasing burden of poverty on women A.1:
Review, adopt and maintain macroeconomic policies and development strategies
that address the needs and efforts of women in poverty A.2: Revise laws and
administrative practices to ensure women’s equal rights and access to economic
resources A.3: Provide women with access to savings and credit mechanisms and
institutions A.4. Develop gender-based methodologies and conduct research to
address the feminization of poverty
B Education and Training of Women - Inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal
access to education and training B.1. Ensure equal access to education B.2.
Eradicate illiteracy among women B.3. Improve women’s access to vocational
training, science and technology, and continuing education B.4. Develop non-
discriminatory education and training B.5. Allocate sufficient resources for and
monitor the implementation of educational reforms B.6. Promote life-long education
and training for girls and women
C Women and health - Inequalities and inadequacies in and unequal access to
health care and related services C.1. Increase women’s access throughout the life
cycle to appropriate, affordable and quality health care, information and related
services C.2. Strengthen preventive programmes that promote women’s health C.3.
Undertake gender-sensitive initiatives that address sexually transmitted diseases,
HIV/AIDS, and sexual and reproductive health issues C.4. Promote research and
disseminate information on women’s health C.5. Increase resources and monitor
follow-up for women’s health
D Violence against women D.1. Take integrated measures to prevent and eliminate
violence against women D.2. Study the causes and consequences of violence
against women and the effectiveness of preventive measures D.3. Eliminate
trafficking in women and assist victims of violence due to prostitution and trafficking
E Women and Armed Conflict - The effects of armed and other types of conflict on
women, including those living under foreign occupation E.1. Increase the
participation of women in conflict resolution at decision-making levels and protect
women living in situations of armed and other conflicts or under foreign occupation
E.2. Reduce excessive military expenditures and control the availability of
armaments E.3. Promote non-violent forms of conflict resolution and reduce the
incidence of human rights abuse in conflict situations E.4. Promote women’s
contribution to fostering a culture of peace E.5. Provide protection, assistance and
training to refugee women, other displaced women in need of international protection
and internally displaced women E.6. Provide assistance to the women of the colonies
and non-self-governing territories

F Women and the Economy - Inequality in economic structures and policies, in all
forms of productive activities and in access to resources F.1. Promote women’s
economic rights and independence, including access to employment, appropriate
working conditions and control over economic resources F.2. Facilitate women’s
equal access to resources, employment, markets and trade F.3. Provide business
services, training and access to markets, information and technology, particularly to
low-income women F.4. Strengthen women’s economic capacity and commercial
networks F.5. Eliminate occupational segregation and all forms of employment
discrimination F.6. Promote harmonization of work and family responsibilities for
women and men

G Women in power and decision-making - Inequality between men and women in the
sharing of power and decision-making at all levels G.1. Take measures to ensure
women’s equal access to and full participation in power structures and decision-
making G.2. Increase women’s capacity to participate in decision-making and
leadership
H Insufficient mechanisms for the advancement of women - at all levels H.1. Create
or strengthen national machineries and other governmental bodies H.2. Integrate
gender perspectives in legislation, public policies, programmes and projects H.3.
Generate and disseminate gender-disaggregated data and information for planning
and evaluation
I Human rights of women - Lack of respect for and inadequate promotion and
protection of the human rights of women I.1. Promote and protect the human rights of
women, through the full implementation of all human rights instruments, especially
the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women I.2.
Ensure equality and non-discrimination under the law and in practice I.3. Achieve
legal literacy
J Women and the media - Stereotyping of women and inequality in women’s access
to and participation in all communication systems, especially in the media J.1.
Increase the participation and access of women to expression and decision-making
in and through the media and new technologies of communication J.2. Promote a
balanced and non-stereotyped portrayal of women in the media
K Women and the environment - Gender inequalities in the management of natural
resources and in the safeguarding of the environment K.1. Involve women actively in
environmental decision-making at all levels K.2. Integrate gender concerns and
perspectives in policies and programmes for sustainable development K.3.
Strengthen or establish mechanisms at the national, regional and international levels
to assess the impact of development and environmental policies on women
L The girl-child - Persistent discrimination against and violation of the rights of the girl
child L.1. Eliminate all forms of discrimination against the girl child L.2. Eliminate
negative cultural attitudes and practices against girls L.3. Promote and protect the
rights of the girl child and increase awareness of her needs and potential L.4.
Eliminate discrimination against girls in education, skills development and training
L.5. Eliminate discrimination against girls in health and nutrition L.6. Eliminate the
economic exploitation of child labour and protect young girls at work L.7. Eradicate
violence against the girl child L.8. Promote the girl child’s awareness of and
participation in social, economic and political life L.9. Strengthen the role of the
family* in improving the status of the girl child .

ƏDƏBİYYAT:
[Link]
[Link]/ Conferences/ women and gender equality
Minnich E.K. Trancforming Knowledge. Philadelphia, 1990
Ortner Sh.B. Is Female to Male as Nature is to Culture, Ibid. 1992
Rubin G. The Traffic in Women: Notes on the «Political Economy» of Sex. – In:
Towards an Anthropology of Women. Reiter
R. (eds.) New York and London: Monthly Review Press, 1975. См. также перевод
этой статьи на русский язык в:Антропология гендерной теории/Под. ред. Е.
Гаповой и А. Усмановой. – Минск, 200
Rhoda U. Toward a re-definition of sex and gender. – «American Psychologist»,
1979, N 34Либин А.В. Дифференциальная психология. – М., 1999 8 Книги
Ветхого Завета. Первая книга Моисеева. Бытие. – М., 1982, Гл. 1,27; Гл. 2,6 9
Колесов Д.В. Биология и психология пола. – М., 2001
Либин А.В. Дифференциальная психология. – М., 1999