EEE 8072

Chapter #2

EEE 8072

Subsea Control and Communication Systems

ƒ Transfer functions
ƒ Pole location and s-plane
ƒ Time domain characteristics
ƒ Extra poles and zeros

Chapter 2 1/28
EEE 8072

Transfer functions

Laplace Transform

Used only on LTI systems

Differential expression => Polynomial expression

dy (t )
− y (t ) = 10 ⇒ sY (s ) − Y (s ) = 10
dt

The LT is transforming a DE from the time domain (domain is a set of

values that describe a function, in that case the variable is the time) to
another complex domain (i.e. the variable has a real and imaginary part).

∞
F ( s ) =L{ f (t )} = ∫ e − st f (t )dt , s = σ ± jω
°

Use formula tables => Easier

Properties:

1. Differentiation

⎧ df (dt )⎫
a. L⎨ ⎬ = sF (s ) − f (0)
⎩ dt ⎭
⎧ d 2 f (dt )⎫ df (0 )
b. L ⎨
2 ⎬ = s 2
F ( s ) − sf (0 ) −
⎩ dt ⎭ dt

Chapter 2 2/28
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2. Final value theorem f ss = lim sF (s ) , where fss is the value of f(t) after
s →0
infinite time.

Transfer functions

The ratio of the Laplace transform of the output over the Laplace transform
of the input.

Example:

d 2 xout
∑f = ma ⇔ f Spring = m
dt 2

d 2 xout
K ( xin − xout ) = m
dt 2

d 2 xout LT
K ( xin − xout ) = m ⇒
2 IC = 0
dt
KX in (s ) − KX out (s ) = ms 2 X out (s ) ⇔
(
KX in (s ) = X out (s ) ms 2 + K ⇔ )
X out (s ) K
= 2
X in (s ) ms + K

Chapter 2 3/28
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To find the characteristic equation of ODE:

d 2 xout d 2 xout
Kxin − Kxout =m ⇒ Kxin = m + Kxout
dt 2 dt 2

d 2 xout
The homogeneous system is: 0 = m + Kxout and therefore the CE
dt 2
is mr 2 + K = 0 i.e. exactly as the denominator of TF.

Example:

i2
f = k A 2 => f = k Ai
x

di 1 ⎫
= (v − iR ) ⎪ sI ( s ) =
1
(V ( s) − I ( s) R ) ⎫
⎪
dt L ⎬⇒ L ⎬
• ••
⎪ 2 ⎪
k A i − kx − B x = m x ⎭ k A I ( s ) − kX ( s ) − BsX ( s ) = ms X ( s )⎭

sLI ( s ) + I ( s ) R = V ( s ) ⎫
⎬⇒
k A I ( s ) − kX ( s ) − BsX ( s ) = ms 2 X ( s )⎭

Chapter 2 4/28
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V ( s) ⎫
I ( s) = ⎪⎪
sL + R
⎬⇒
V (s)
kA − kX ( s ) − BsX ( s ) = ms 2 X ( s )⎪⎪
sL + R ⎭

kA
V ( s)
sL + R
( )
= ms 2 + Bs + k X ( s ) ⇒

X (s) kA
=
(
V ( s ) (sL + R ) ms 2 + Bs + k )
Example:

•• • ⎫ ⎫
J θ 0 = T0 − B θ 0 ⎪ ⎪
n ⎪⎪ •• n2 • ⎪
T0 = 2 Tm ⎬ ⇒ J θ 0 = K ϕi
T a − B θ 0 ⎪
n1 ⎪ n1 ⎪
⎪ ⎬⇒
Tm = K T ϕia ⎪
⎪⎭
⎪
di • di n • ⎪
va = ia Ra + La a + K T ϕ θ m ⇔ va = ia Ra + La a + K T ϕ 2 θ 0 ⎪
dt dt n1 ⎭

Chapter 2 5/28
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•• n1 • ⎫
J θ 0 = KT ϕia − B θ 0 ⎪
n2 ⎪
⎬
dia n2 • ⎪
va = ia Ra + La + KT ϕ θ 0
dt n1 ⎪⎭
LT Js 2Θ0 (s ) = K 2 I a (s ) − BΘ0 (s )⎫
⇒ ⎬
n1 V (s ) = I (s )R + L sI (s ) + K Θ (s )
n2
K1 = KT ϕ , K 2 = K T ϕ a a a a a 1 0 ⎭
n1 n2

I (s ) =
(Js 2 + B )
Θ (s )
⎫
⎪
a 0
K2 ⎬
Va (s ) = (Ra + La s )I a (s ) + K1Θ0 (s )⎪⎭

⇒ Va (s ) = (Ra + L s)
(Js 2 + B )
Θ ( s ) + K Θ (s )
a 0 1 0
K2
Θ 0 (s ) 1
= =
Va (s ) ⎛
⎜ (Ra + La s )
(
Js 2 + B )⎞
+ K1 ⎟⎟
⎜
⎝ K 2 ⎠
K2
( )
(Ra + La s ) Js 2 + B + K1K 2

Chapter 2 6/28
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Block diagrams

Block Diagram Algebra

1. To sum (subtract) two signals, we use a summing point:

2. To “distribute” a signal, we use a branch point:

3. Series connection:

Chapter 2 7/28
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4. Parallel connection

Pole location / s-plane

In previous example

d 2 xout LT X out (s ) K
K ( xin − xout ) = m ⇒ =
dt 2 IC = 0 X in (s ) ms 2 + K

The order of the ODE is 2 = order of the denominator = order of the system.

Chapter 2 8/28
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Z (s ) K1 K 2
=
( )( )
Example => order = 4.
Y (s ) m1 s + K 1 + K 2 K 2 + m 2 s − K 2
2 2 2

N (s )
G ( s) = : roots of the numerator are called zeros, while the roots of
D (s )
the denominator are called poles.

s +1
one zero at s=-1 and two poles at s=-2 and s=+3:
(s + 2)(s − 3)

jω

1
G ( s) =
s2 + s + 1

Chapter 2 9/28
EEE 8072

jω

Time domain characteristics

Typical input signals

1. The Dirac function

2. The step or the pulse function (!!!)
3. The Ramp function
4. Parabolic function

Chapter 2 10/28
EEE 8072

r (t ) = δ (t ) R(s ) =
A

R (s ) = 1
s

r (t ) = A

r (t ) = At
r (t ) = At 2
R (s ) =
A
R(s ) =
A
s2 s3

First order systems

Remember: x'+ ax = b ; HE: x'+ax = 0 , CE: m + a = 0 a solution of

HE: x = C1e at hence stable solution if a<0 or the pole is at the LHS.

The same at s-plane:

I (s ) 1
=
V (s ) R + Ls

Chapter 2 11/28
EEE 8072

jω

−R σ
L
1
R + Ls

I (s ) K K
= , K=1/R and τ=L/R. => I (s ) = V (s )
V (s ) 1 + τs τ s +1

V 1 V⎛ −t ⎞
ƒ Step response: I (s ) = K => i (t ) = ⎜1 − e τ ⎟
s τ s +1 R⎝ ⎠
V⎛ −t
τ ⎞ V V
ƒ i F = lim ⎜ 1 − e ⎟ = − 0 = or
t →∞ R ⎝ ⎠ R R
V K V
I ss = lim s = VK =
s →0 s τ s +1 R

Step Response
1 (V/R)

0.9(V/R)

0.8(V/R)

0.7(V/R)

0.6(V/R)
Amplitude

0.5(V/R)

0.4(V/R)

0.3(V/R)

0.2(V/R)

0.1(V/R)

0
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
Time (sec)

Chapter 2 12/28
EEE 8072

Step Response
1 (V /R)

0.9(V /R)
0.632 (V/R)

0.8(V /R)

0.7(V /R)

0.6(V /R)

Amplitude
0.5(V /R)

0.4(V /R)

0.3(V /R)

0.2(V /R)

0.1(V /R)

0
0 T 2T 3T 4T 5T 6T
Time (sec)

Second order systems

x in(t) x out(t)

Friction

dxout d 2 xout LT
K ( xin − xout ) − B =m 2
⇒
dt dt IC =0

KX in (s ) − KX out (s ) − BsX out (s ) = ms 2 X out (s )

(
KX in (s ) = K + Bs + ms 2 X out (s ) )
X out (s ) X out (s )
K
K m
= 2 ⇒ = 2
X in (s ) ms + Bs + K X in (s ) s + B s + K
m m

Chapter 2 13/28
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C (s ) ω n2 2
= 2 , 2ζω = B , ωn = K
R(s ) s + 2 sζω n + ω n2 m m

Roots of CE: ⇒ s = −ζω n ± ω n ζ 2 − 1

Case 1: ζ >1

Then the system has two negative real roots and is called overdamped:

jω

ωn⎛ e + s1t e + s 2 t ⎞
c(t ) = 1 + ⎜
⎜ s − s ⎟
⎟
2
2 ζ −1 ⎝ 1 2 ⎠

− ⎛⎜ ζ − ζ 2 −1 ⎞⎟ω n t
ζ >> 1=> c(t ) = 1− e ⎝ ⎠ => Overdamped system will be like
a very slow response of a first order system

Chapter 2 14/28
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Step Response
1
0.9
0.8

0.7
0.6

Amplitude
0.5 Overdamped system
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec)

Case 2: ζ =1

The system has two equal real roots at s = ωn :

jω

ωn σ

c(t ) = 1 − e ωnt (1 + ω n t ) :

Chapter 2 15/28
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Step Response
1.5
Critically damped system

Amplitude
1

0.5 Overdamped system

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec)

Case 3: 0 <ζ <1

2
⇒ s = ζω n ± jω n 1 − ζ or ⇒ s = ζω n ± jω d

jω

jω d

− ζωn θ
σ

− jω d

Chapter 2 16/28
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The line between the origin and the pole is: d = ω d2 + ζ 2ω n2 =

( )
ω n2 1 − ζ 2 + ζ 2ω n2 = ω n

ω nζ
The angle is cosθ = ⇔ θ = cos −1 (ζ ) .
ωn

e −ζω nt ⎛ 1−ζ 2 ⎞
c(t ) = 1 − sin ⎜ ω d t + tan −1 ⎟
1−ζ 2 ⎜ ζ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

1
Exponential term

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

Sinusoidal term
-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

The envelope that will be created from the exponential terms is:

Chapter 2 17/28
EEE 8072

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

And their product:

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4

-0.6

-0.8

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

And by adding the constant factor:

Chapter 2 18/28
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1.5

0.5

-0.5

-1
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

Chapter 2 19/28
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Step Response
1.5

Underdamped system
Critically damped system

1
Amplitude

0.5 Overdamped system

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (sec)

Step Response
1.8

1.6

1.4

1.2

1
Amplitude

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (sec)

Chapter 2 20/28
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Case 4: ζ =0

jω

jω n

− jω n

Note: The system is called marginally stable because the solutions do not
diverge to infinity. Hence if the previous four cases are combined to one
graph:

Step Response
2
Marginally stable

1.8

1.6
Underdamped

1.4

1.2
Amplitude

0.8

0.6 Overdamped

Critically damped
0.4

0.2

0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (sec)

Case 5: ζ <0

Chapter 2 21/28
EEE 8072

e −ζω nt ⎛ 1−ζ 2 ⎞
c(t ) = 1 − sin ⎜ ω d t + tan −1 ⎟
1−ζ 2 ⎜ ζ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

10

-5

-10
0 1 2 3 4 5

Since ζ <0 then angle θ defined in the s-plane

( cosθ = ω nζ ⇔ θ = cos −1 (ζ ) ) has to be greater than 90o:

ωn

jω

jωd

θ − ζωn
σ

− jω d

By combining the previous s-planes we have:

Chapter 2 22/28
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jω

ζ =0
jω n
ζ = cos(θ ) ∈ (0,1) ζ = cos(θ ) ∈ (− 1,0)

jωd ζ = −1

θ
σ
ζ >1 ζ =1 − jω d
ζ < −1
− ζωn

− jω n

Chapter 2 23/28
EEE 8072

jω

1.5
8
1.4 x 10
2
1
1.2
1
1 0.5
0
0.8
-1
0.6 0
0 2 4 6 8 10
-2
0.4
-3
0.2

0 -4
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.25 0.5 0.75 1

10
1 140
1
8 120
0.8
0.8 100
6
0.6 80
0.6

0.4 4 60

σ
0.4
40
0.2 2
0.2 20

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Chapter 2 24/28
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A general response is:

1.4

1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

ƒ Time that the system needs to reach half of its final value:
π −θ
ƒ Rise time (10%-90% or 5%-95% or 0%-100%) t r =
ωd

π
ƒ Peak time: t p =
ωd
− ⎛⎜ ζ 1−ζ " ⎞⎟π
ƒ Maximum overshoot: Mp = e ⎝ ⎠

3 4
ƒ Settling time: t s 5% = and t s 2% =
ζω n ζω n

Chapter 2 25/28
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Step Response
1.4

1.2

0.8
Amplitude

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Time (sec)

Chapter 2 26/28
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Extra poles and zeros

C ( s) b0 s m + ... + bm −1 s + bm
General form of a TF: =
R ( s ) a 0 s n + a1 s n −1 + ... + a n −1 s + a n

For a step input:

r b (s + ζ ω ) + c ω
1 q aj k k 1−ζ k
C (s ) = + ∑ +∑ k k k
s j =1 s + p j k =1 s 2 + 2ζ k ωk s + ωk2
(q + 2r = n ) , i.e. combination of first and second order systems.

1 1
=
(s + f )(s )
Example: =>
3 2 2
s + as + bs + c + ds + e

(
s 3 + as 2 + bs + c = (s + f ) s 2 + ds + e ⇔ )
⇔ s 3 + as 2 + bs + c = s 3 + (d + f )s 2 + (e + fd )s + fe

⎧1 = 1 ⎫
⎪a = d + f ⎪
⎪ ⎪
⇔⎨ ⎬
⎪ b = e + fd ⎪
⎪⎩c = fe ⎪⎭

ƒ The response of a higher order system is the sum of exponential and

damped sinusoidal curves.
ƒ Assuming that all poles are at the left hand side then the final value of the
output is “1” since all exponential terms will converge to 0.

Chapter 2 27/28
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ƒ Let’s assume that some poles have real parts that are far away from the
imaginary axis=>

e −ζω nt ⎛ 1−ζ 2 ⎞
c(t ) = 1 − sin ⎜ ω d t + tan −1 ⎟ => e −ζω n t → 0
1−ζ 2 ⎜ ζ ⎟
⎝ ⎠

ƒ Overall performance is characterised by the isolated (far away from

zeros) poles that are close to the imaginary axis.
ƒ If we have only one pole (or a pair for complex roots) that is closed to
the real axis then we say that this pole (or pair of poles) is (are) the
DOMINANT pole(s) for the system.
ƒ A simple rule is that the dominant poles must be at least five to ten
times closer to the imaginary axis than the other ones.

r b (s + ζ ω ) + c ω
1 q aj k k 1−ζ k
C (s ) = + ∑ +∑ k k k
s j =1 s + p j k =1 s 2 + 2ζ k ωk s + ωk2

q
c(t ) = 1 + ∑ a j e
j =1
− p jt
r
(
+ ∑ bk e −ζ k ω k t cos ωk 1 − ζ k 2 t +
k =1
)
r
(
+ ∑ ck e −ζ k ω k t sin ωk 1 − ζ k 2 t
k =1
)
The values of b (numerator coefficients) determine the amplitude of the
oscillations of the system.

Chapter 2 28/28