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Handbook on
African
Communication
Systems

Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD

Josiah S. Kente, PhD
Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma, PhD

i
Preliminary

© Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD; Josiah Sabo Kente, PhD &

Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma, PhD

First Published 2021 by

Jos University Press
Jos, Plateau State

ISBN: 987 – 987 – 38748 -1 - 5

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be

reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted
in any form or by any means, electronic, computer,
mechanical, photocopying, recording and / or
otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
authors and publisher.

ii
Handbook on African
Communication Systems

Dedication
This book is dedicated to God Almighty, the author
and finisher of our faith.

iii
Preliminary

Acknowledgements

We are most grateful to GOD ALMIGHTY for the

grace, knowledge, wisdom, understanding and
strength to carry out this work; may his name be
praised forever and ever (Amen).
Our appreciation goes to Prof. Eno Akpabio of
Namibia University, who helped to write the foreword
and Godwin Ojonimi Alfred who helped to proofread
this work. God bless you.

iv
Handbook on African
Communication Systems

Preface
This publication adds to a growing body of scholarlywork
currently being undertaken in the field of African
communication systems. The book provides a roadmap to
understanding the indigenous channels of communication,
especially in Nigeria. It captures the practice, principles
and theories of indigenous communication media.
The book is in sixteen chapters. Chapter one is an
overview of communication; it explains the general
concept of communication, significance, types, process,
basis for effective communication and the barriers to
effective communication. Chapter two covers the meaning
of African communication system, advantages of African
communication system, problems of African
communication, reasons for studying African
communication system, difference between indigenous
communication media and mass communication,
similarities between indigenous communication media
and mass communication.
Chapter three is an overview of the visual channels
of indigenous communication. It gives an insight into
those indigenous channels that appeal to the visuals, while
chapter four covers the instrumental channels of
communication. In chapter five, the authors handled the
demonstrative channels of communication, while chapter
six covers the iconographic channels of communication,
with particular attention to the floral media and objectifics.
In chapter seven, the authors treated the
institutional channels of African communication, with
particular attention to the traditional authorities, socio-
political organisations/associations, age groups, mothers'
clubs, village square meetings and religious/grass root
organisations and associations; while in chapters eight,
nine and ten, the authors covered extramundane

v
Preliminary

communication, symbolographic communication

channels and venue-oriented channels of African
communication. The authors devoted chapter eleven to
folklore, proverbs and parables, chapter twelve to myths
and legends and chapter thirteen to names as channels of
communication.
In chapter fourteen, the authors treated indigenous
communication media and rural development, while in
chapter fifteen, the authors handled the African
communication system in the contemporary world. In
chapter sixteen, the authors handled some theories related
to African communication system.
The book is relevant to all communication scholars
as it covers all the areas or channels of communication that
can be adopted in all forms of communication studies-
media and society, film and media studies, broadcasting,
print, journalism and media studies, corporate
communication, advertising, public relations, etc.
Ezekiel S. Asemah, PhD
Professor of Advertising and Public Relations
Dean, College of Management and Social Sciences
Samuel Adegboyega University, Ogwa, Edo State
Chairman, SAU Radio Board
National Secretary, African Council for Communication
Education (ACCE)
08035053713

Josiah S. Kente, PhD

Acting Head, Department of Mass Communication
Nasarawa State University, Keffi, Nasarawa State, Nigeria
08036522581

Adeline O. Nkwam-Uwaoma, PhD

Department of Mass Communication
Imo State University, Owerri, Imo State, Nigeria
08035414973

vi
Handbook on African
Communication Systems

Foreword
The Handbook on African Communication Systems
by Ezekiel S. Asemah, Josiah S. Kente and Adeline O.
Nkwam-Uwaoma is not just a timely addition to the
extant literature on African Communication Systems
(ACS), but it also goes on to underline the fact that the
study of, interest in and effectiveness of this form of
communication remains in reckoning in the face of
attempts to downplay it as savage, superstitious and
primitive. he breadth of coverage of the text and
examples from various nooks and crannies of Nigeria
as well as making it central to rural development and
relating it to contemporary communication practice
makes for currency and adds a lot value given the
African Union Agenda 2063 and the UN 2030 Agenda
for Sustainable Development. The authors' interests
in exploring the intersection of ACS and
communication in general as well as communication
theory in particular is commendable in that it places
ACS firmly within any discussion of communication
which, in many instances, privileges Western concepts
and experiences. The book and many others in the
area should be used to fill the missing pieces in the
communication literature which hitherto has left
African and global South's concepts and experiences
out in the documentation of the history and evolution
of communication.
Professor Eno Akpabio
University of Namibia

vii
Preliminary

Contents
Title Page i
Copyright Page ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgements iv
Preface v
Foreword vi
Contents vii

Chapter One
An Overview of Communication 1
Seven Cs of Communication 9
Communication Process 11
Types of Communication 14
Verbal Communication 14
Nonverbal Communication 16
Written Communication 23
Visual Communication 24
Significance of Communication in Society 26
Barriers to Effective Communication 30
Basis for Effective Communication 32

Chapter Two
An Overview of African Communication System 36
What is African Communication System? 38
Advantages of African Communication System 45
Problems of African Communication 50
Reasons for Studying African Communication
System 52
Difference between Indigenous Communication Media
and Mass Communication 55

Similarities between Indigenous Communication

viii
Handbook on African
Communication Systems
and Media and Mass Communication 56

Chapter Three
Visual Channels of African Communication System 58
What is Visual Communication? 60
Advantages of Visual Communication 63
Disadvantages of Visual Communication 64
What then are the Visual Elements of
African Communication? 65
Colours 65
Appearance 69
Physical Appearance 70
Clothing 70
Accessories 72
Facial Marks 82
Tattoos 84
Records 84

Chapter Four
Instrumental Channels of Indigenous Communication 86
The Instrumental Elements 86
Idiophones 87
Drums 87
Bell 89
Gongs 91
The Woodblock (Entertainment Instrumentals) 92
Xylophones 94
Pot Drum 95
Aerophones 96
Membranophones 101

Chapter Five
Demonstrative Channels of African Communication
System 104
Music 104

Functions of Music 106

Communicative Aspects of Music 110
Poetry 111
Communication Functions of Poetry xi 112
Preliminary
Features of a Poetry 113
Chants and Incantations 114
Gunshots 115

Chapter Six
Iconographic Communication 116
Modes of Iconographic Media 117
Floral Media 117
Objectifics 118

Chapter Seven
Institutional Channels of Communication 121
The Traditional Authorities 122
Roles of Traditional Rulers 123
Socio-Political Organisations/Associations 126
Age Groups 126
Mothers' Clubs 126
History of the Mothers' Club Institution 127
Village Square Meetings 128
Religious/Grass Root Organisations
and Associations 128
Forms of Institutional Channels
of Communication 130
Masquerade 130
The Town Crier 132
The History of the Town Crier 135
Courier Chiefs 134

Chapter Eight
Extramundane Communication 137
The Bottom up Extramundane Communication 139
Festivals 139

Some Festivals in Nigeria 140

Aba (Irepa) Festival in Igarra, Edo State 140
Ikperima Festival in Enwan, Edo State 143
Calabar Carnival 143
The Ofuruma Masquerade Festival 143
Iguee Festival of the Benin Kingdom, Edo State 146
The Yoruba Eyo Festival viii 148
Handbook on African
Communication Systems
The Igbo New Yam Festival 149
Durbar Hausa Festival 150
Argungu Fishing Festival 151
Ekuechi Festival 152
Ceremonies 155
Divination 157
Ancestral Worship 164
Top-Down Extramundane Communication 167
Potent Speech 167
Dreams 167
Natural Phenomena 168

Chapter Nine
Symbolographic Communication 170

Chapter Ten
Venue-Oriented Channels of Communication 173
Market 173
Features of Market 176
Social Gatherings 177
Roads 179
Rivers 179

Chapter Eleven
Folklore, Proverbs and Parables 181
Folklore 181
Types of Folklore 183
Purpose of Folklore 185
Proverbs 186

Parables 190
Some Yoruba Proverbs, Idioms and Parables 192
Igbo Proverbs, Idioms and Parables 196
Hausa Proverbs, Idioms and Parables 197
Chapter Twelve
Myths and Legends 199
Introduction 199
Myths 199
Legends 202
xi
Preliminary
Chapter Thirteen
Names as Communication Channels 204
Africa's Naming Traditions 207
Events surrounding Birth 207
Emotional Warnings 208
Celebrity Culture 209
Order of Birth 209
Day-born Names 210
Faith-based Names 211
Day and Night 212
Meet the Ancestors 212
Rude Nicknames 213
Yoruba Names and Their Meanings 213
Hausa/Fulani Names and their Meanings 215
Igbo Names and their Meanings 217
Jukun Names and their Meanings 220
Esan (Ishan) Names and their Meanings 221
Etuno (Igarra) Names and their Meanings 222

Chapter Fourteen
Indigenous Communication Media 225
and Rural Development
Rural Development as a Concept 225
The Role of Indigenous Communication
Media in Rural Development 228
Networking 239

GSM 240
Satellite 241
Radio 241
Television 242
Books 243
Newspapers 244
Magazines 245
Are the Indigenous Communication Channels
still Relevant in Today's World? 245

Chapter Sixteen
Communication Theories and African viii
Handbook on African
Communication Systems
Communication System 249
Understanding Theories and Communication
Theories 249
Functions of Communication Theories 251
Theories Applicable to Indigenous
Communication 255
Semiotics Theory 255
Diffusion of Innovation Theory 256
Symbolic Interaction Theory 259
Gate keeping Theory 266
Interactional View Theory 271
Glossary 277
References 286
Index 298

xi
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
AN OVERVIEW OF COMMUNICATION

Communication may be described as the process

through which individuals or groups of individuals
exchange ideas, information, messages, feelings and
notions, through previously agreed symbols, in order
to influence one another. It is the process of passing
understandable messages between people using
previously agreed codes, signs, symbols, etc. This
implies that communication is only effective when
understandable codes and symbols are used to
transmit information. This does not mean that
communication cannot take place without the use of
previously agreed symbols; it can take place, but, may
not be effective (Asemah, Nwammuo & Ukwam-
Uwaoma, 2017). Effective communication according
to Unogu, cited in Ella & Onwochei (2005) is the
transfer of understandable information. We will
succeed in our relationships and information with
others when we fully grasp the fact that the essence of
communication, the goal and ultimate aim of every
exchange is the transfer of meaning. Communication
is the act of conveying meanings from one entity or
group to another through the use of mutually

1
An Overview Of Communication

understood signs, symbols, and semiotic rules.

Communication is the process by which people
interactively create, sustain and manage meaning. As
such, communication both reflects the world and
simultaneously helps to create it. Communication is
not simply one more thing that happens in personal
and professional life; it is the very means by which we
produce our personal relationships and professional
experiences; it is how we plan, control, manage,
persuade, understand, lead, love and so on.
Communication according to Asemah (2009) is
the process of sharing information, ideas and attitudes.
To share means to give or receive a part of something
or to assume something in common. It means that the
sender and the receiver are actively working together
for common understanding. More so, communication
is a process and as a process, it entails action, reaction
and interaction. Action is the step taken by someone to
share ideas with another person; reaction is the
response of the receiver. If the receiver reacts
positively, they begin to interact. Corroborating this
definition, Idowu (2008, p. 769) says that
''communication is the process of transmitting
mutually understandable and meaningful message
that is, information between two or more interacting
parties.'' The import of the definition is that
communication is not just giving of information, it is
the giving of understandable information and
receiving and understanding the message. For
communication to be effective, there must be a
common understanding of the information by the
parties involved. That is, the sender and the receiver.

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Handbook on African
Communication Systems

Communication, according to Asemah (2015) has to

do with the exchange of ideas between two or more
people. According to Orewere (2006, p. 3), ''the oldest
meaning of communication in English can be
summarised as the passing of ideas, information and
attitudes from person to person or from one to many
other persons or people.'' Communication takes place
among human beings in a natural setting and social
environment. The environment, be it social or natural,
may be the cause of communication and the
consequence of communication.
Communication, apart from being essential, is
also the central fact of human existence and social
process. Nobody can be an Island without
communicating with others in one way or the other
and existence would be impossible without it. Thus,
the communication process itself involves action,
reaction and interaction which can also be likened to a
“cause and effect” relationship.
Another working definition of communication
is the one given by Wilson (1993, p. 14) which says
that “communication is the process involving the
sorting, selecting and sharing of symbols in such a way
as to help a receiver elicit from his or her own mind, a
meaning similar to that contained in the mind of the
communicator.” This definition just like the one given
by Idowu implies that the receiver must have the same
understanding of the message which is being sent just
the way the sender understands it. The point here is
that both the sender and the receiver should have the
same understanding of the language, code or symbol
which is being used.

3
An Overview Of Communication

Communication involves not only spoken and

written words, but also language, personal
mannerisms and styles-anything that adds meaning to
a message. Communication is simply intended to
influence. Thus, the major purpose of communication
is to influence behaviours. Communication according
to Ailoje (2002, p. 35) ''is the process by which we
transfer information, understanding and feelings from
one person to another.'' Ailoje went further to say that
communication is not a natural activity, it must be
learned. Communication is defined as the process by
which information is transmitted and understood
between two or more parties (McShane & Glinow,
2003). Communication is the process by which
information is passed between individuals. It is the
system of passing information, ideas, messages,
feelings, etc. between two or more people through
previously agreed language, code, sign or symbol.
This implies that, for there to be any meaningful
communication between or among persons or groups,
there has to be an agreed language, code, symbol or
sign that is comprehended by all the actors,
particularly between the sender and the receiver of the
message. Communication process includes all acts of
transmitting messages to channels which link people
to the languages and symbolic codes which are used to
transmit messages; it includes the means by which
messages are received and stored as the rules,
customs, beliefs and conventions, which define and
regulate human relationships and events. Every
communication is aimed at influencing the receiver.
Be it mass communication or interpersonal

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Handbook on African
Communication Systems

communication, the major purpose of communication

is to influence the receiver of the message. To
influence the large audience of mass communication,
the sender uses radio, television, books, pamphlets,
magazines, newspapers, direct mails, circulars,
posters, records, audio tapes, motion pictures, videos
tapes, computer networks, etc.
It is, however, worthy to note that the whole
essence of communication is for persuasion. That is,
the purpose of communication is to affect the
behaviour of the receiver. Thus, communication has
just one purpose. Although, communication has so
many functions, everything boils down to affecting the
behaviour of the receiver; whether you are
communicating to entertain, socialise, inform,
educate, etc., it boils down to changing the behaviour
of the receiver. Salami (1987) observes that
communication is one means through which organised
activity may be unified, behaviour modified, change
effected, productivity enhanced and goals achieved, if
properly conceived. Demare, cited in Odetoyinbo
(1998, p. 33) recommends four key questions about
any communication situation:

i. To Whom Am I S p e a ki n g ? As a
communicator, there is the need for you to know who
you are speaking with. The messages being
communicated should not be seen as directly to the
recipient alone, but sometimes, to others who will
eventually see or have to act upon it or be guided by it.
Every message has its own target audience, but in most
cases, the people who the message sender did not have

5
An Overview Of Communication

in mind may end up coming in contact with the

message. It is, therefore, the duty of the message
sender to know who he is speaking to.

ii. What is the Value of this Communication?

Value here can be likened to the relevance of the
message. What will the message actually do for the
receiver? Odetoyinbo (1998) says that the value is
more important than the purpose of the message, since
value may be different from the purpose and the value
is of vital interest to the receiver than the purpose.
Hence, a message has to be well-timed and given out at
the right circumstance before it can be effective.

iii. What is the Point of Conclusion? This

requires that the sender should give the receiver in one
or two sentences, the substance of the whole
communication (That is, what it is all about). This is
aimed at creating a quick grasp of the message by the
receiver.

iv. Can the Substance of the whole Message be

immediately grasped by the Reader through
Skimming the Title or Heads and Subheads? The
title of the message or information which gives little or
no immediate clue to its substance is generally read
with difficulty and reluctance.
The main steps inherent to all communication
are: The formation of communicative motivation or
reason, message composition and message encoding.
Salami (1987), cited in Asemah (2011) observes that
communication is one means through which organised

6
Handbook on African
Communication Systems

activity may be unified, behaviour modified, change

effected, productivity enhanced and goals achieved if
properly conceived and affected. According to Ineji
(2003), cited in Asemah (2011), the term
communication is too broad to be understood without
defining its parameters. He however provides the
parameters thus:

a. Communication is Dynamic: Communication

is not static and this is because the society itself
i s dynamic; i t changes with t ime.
Communication is seen as a dynamic process
whereby human behaviour, both verbal and
non-verbal, is perceived and responded to.
Communication is ongoing and active. It has no
beginning and no end.

b. Communication is a Symbolic Behaviour: In

order to make significations or meanings,
symbols and signs are used to send messages to
the receivers. The symbol is something used for
or regarded as representing something else. As
communicators, our internal notions, feelings
and states are symbolised in a code and the
process of producing a code is called encoding.
A symbol may be understood to mean any
human behaviour, either verbal or non-verbal,
to which meaning may be attached.

c. Communication Elicits Response: When the

source encodes a message which is sent to a
receiver through a channel, he expects to get a

7
An Overview Of Communication

response. However, if the receiver is not there to

receive the message, the message would have
failed to receive the desired response.

d. Communication is a Receiver Phenomenon:

When the receiver gets the message, he
interprets it and attaches a meaning to it
depending on how he comprehends it. The
message must get to the receiver when he is in a
good mood. The sender must ensure that he
communicates his ideas to the receiver
effectively, otherwise, the receiver will not be
willing to take part in the communication
process. Effective communication is the one in
which the meaning that is stimulated is similar
to or the same as that within the communicator.
It is simply shared meaning, shared ideas and
shared feelings between and among
participants.

e. Communication is Complex: Communication

is complex with so many variables. Each
communication context has many interrelated
conditions. The context includes the physical
setting in which the act takes place. The
components of physical context include
location, time, atmosphere, etc. Each of these
affects the communication process. A second
aspect of the context is historical. The previous
communication experience affects the meaning
currently shared. A third context is
psychological; the manner in which people

8
Handbook on African
Communication Systems

perceive themselves as well as others they are

communicating with will affect the meaning
that is shared. Many aspects of human
personalities are brought into the act and the
messages take diverse forms with their
attendant influence on the outcome of the
communication episode (Culled from Ineji,
2003, cited in Asemah, 2011).

SEVEN CS OF COMMUNICATION

The 7 Cs of communication is a checklist that helps to

improve the professional communication skills and
increases the chance that the message will be
understood in exactly the same way as it was intended.
Below are the seven Cs of communication:

1. Clear: The message should be clear and easily

understandable to the recipient. It is only when the
purpose of the communication is clear to the sender
that the receiver will be sure about it. The message
should emphasise on a single goal at a time and should
not cover several ideas in a single sentence. The
message should, therefore, not be ambiguous.

2. Correct: The message should be correct that is,

a correct language should be used and the sender must
ensure that there are no grammatical and spelling
mistakes. Also, the message should be exact and well-
timed. The correct messages have a greater impact on
the receiver and at the same time, the morale of the
sender increases with the accurate message.

9
An Overview Of Communication

3. Complete: The message should be complete;

that is, it must include all the relevant information as
required by the intended audience/receiver. The
complete information gives answers to all the
questions of the receivers and helps in better decision-
making by the recipient.

4. Concrete: The communication should be

concrete, which means the message should be clear
and particularly such that no room for
misinterpretation is left. All the facts and figures
should be clearly mentioned in a message so as to
substantiate whatever the sender is saying.

5. Concise: The message should be precise and to

the point. The sender should avoid lengthy sentences
and try to convey the subject matter in the least
possible words. The short and brief message is more
comprehensive and helps in retaining the receiver's
attention.

6. Consideration: The sender must take into

consideration the receiver's opinions, knowledge,
mind-set, background, etc. in order to have an
effective communication. In order to communicate,
the sender must relate to the target recipient and be
involved.

7. Courteous: It implies that the sender must take

into consideration both the feelings and viewpoints of
the receiver such that the message is positive and
focused at the audience. The message should not be

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Handbook on African
Communication Systems

biased and must include the terms that show respect

for the recipient (Business Jargon, 2019).

Communication Process
The communication process is a dynamic process that
begins with the conceptualising of ideas by the sender
who then transmits the message through a channel to
the receiver, who in turn gives the feedback in the form
of some message or signal within the given time
frame. Thus, there are seven major elements of the
communication process:

Source: Business Jargon (2019)

1. Sender: The sender or the communicator is the

person who initiates the conversation and has
conceptualised the idea that he intends to convey it to
others. He is the originator, initiator or communicator
in any exchange between persons. The sender is the
person who reacts or responds to the stimuli and sets
the communication process in motion. The sender can
also be known as the transmitter of the message who
decides to communicate his feelings, ideas, thoughts,

11
An Overview Of Communication

etc. by selecting the right words and expressions that

could best communicate his intended meaning to the
receiver.

2. Encoding: The sender begins with the

encoding process wherein he uses certain words or
non-verbal methods such as symbols, signs, body
gestures, etc. to translate the information into a
message. The sender's knowledge, skills, perception,
background, competencies, etc. have a great impact on
the success of the message.

3. Message: Once the encoding is finished, the

sender gets the message that he intends to convey. The
message can be written, oral, symbolic or non-verbal
such as body gestures, silence, signs, sounds, etc. or
any other signal that triggers the response of a receiver.
It is the thoughts, feelings, ideas or needs which the
source transmits after he has received the stimuli. The
sender must plan properly on the type of message that
would be suitable to the receiver. That is, he must
decide the language he intends to use which he
believes the receiver will understand, whether the
message should be sent verbally or non-verbally and
the type of signs, symbols that would be understood by
the receiver. The sender should also determine the
style of the language to employ and ensure that the
message is properly transmitted in such a way that the
receiver will understand. For a message to be
effectively and successfully communicated, the
sender has to ensure clarity in the method of delivery
of the message. If the atmosphere is not suitable, the
message will not be effective.

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Handbook on African
Communication Systems

4. Communication Channel: The sender

chooses the medium through which he wants to
convey his message to the recipient. It must be
selected carefully in order to make the message
effective and correctly interpreted by the recipient.
The choice of medium depends on the interpersonal
relationships between the sender and the receiver and
also on the urgency of the message being sent. Oral,
virtual, written, sound, gesture, etc. are some of the
commonly used communication media. The choice of
the channel to use depends on the nature of the
message.

5. Receiver: The receiver is the person for whom

the message is intended or targeted. He tries to
comprehend it in the best possible manner such that
the communication objective is attained. The degree to
which the receiver decodes the message depends on
his knowledge of the subject matter, experience, trust
and relationship with the sender. The receiver is also
known as the decoder; for others, it is the destination
of the message or simply the audience to whom the
message is sent. It could be one or more persons who
get the message and react to it appropriately. In the
process of communication, the decoder could change
roles with the encoder because, as he analyses the
encoder's message, he initiates a fresh idea which now
embodies the feedback which promotes him to the
status of a sender thus, confirming the continuity of the
communication process as an interactive process. The
most important thing to note is that the receiver must
be in the right mood to receive the message, analyse it
and respond to it accordingly. The receiver must be

13
An Overview Of Communication

willing to participate in the communication process

for any successful and meaningful communication to
take place.

6. Decoding: Here, the receiver interprets the

sender's message and tries to understand it in the best
possible manner. An effective communication occurs
only if the receiver understands the message in exactly
the same way as it was intended by the sender.

7. Feedback: The feedback is the final step of the

process that ensures the receiver has received the
message and interpreted it correctly as it was intended
by the sender. It increases the effectiveness of the
communication as it permits the sender to know the
efficacy of his message. The response of the receiver
can be verbal or non-verbal (Business Jargons, 2019).

Types of Communication

There are different ways of categorising

communication; but for the purpose of this book,
communication is classified into four as follows:
verbal communication, nonverbal communication,
written communication and visual communication.
Let us briefly explain each of them.

1. Verbal Communication
Verbal communication has to do with the use of sound
(vocal chords) for information dissemination. In
verbal communication, the sender and receiver of the
message make use of sounds to exchange ideas. Thus,
Career Guide (2019) sees verbal communication as

14
Handbook on African
Communication Systems

the use of language to transfer information through

speaking. It is one of the most common types, often
used during presentations, video conferences and
phone calls, meetings and one-on-one conversations.
Verbal communication is important because it is
efficient. It can be helpful to support verbal
communication with both nonverbal and written
communication (Career Guide, 2019). It is a type of
oral communication wherein the message is
transmitted through the spoken words. Here, the
sender gives words to his feelings, thoughts, ideas and
opinions and expresses them in the form of speeches,
discussions, presentations and conversations
(Business Jargons, 2019). The foregoing implies that
it is an oral method of communication which has to do
with the use of sounds and words to express yourself,
especially in contrast to using gestures or
mannerisms.
Verbal communication is about language, both
written and spoken. In general, verbal communication
refers to our use of words. Thus, written words can be
classified under verbal communication. The
effectiveness of verbal communication depends on the
tone of the speaker, clarity of speech, volume, speed,
body language and the quality of words used in the
conversation. In the case of verbal communication, the
feedback is immediate since there are a simultaneous
transmission and receipt of the message by the sender
and receiver respectively. The sender must keep his
speech tone high and clearly audible to all and must
design the subject matter keeping the target audience
in mind. The sender should always cross check with
the receiver to ensure that the message is understood in

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An Overview Of Communication

absolutely the same way as it was intended. Such

communication is more prone to errors as sometimes
the words are not sufficient to express the feelings and
emotions of a person. The success of the verbal
communication depends not only on the speaking
ability of an individual but also on the listening skills.
How effectively an individual listens to the subject
matter decides the effectiveness of the
communication. Verbal communication is applicable
in both the formal and informal kind of situations
(Business Jargons, 2019).

2. Nonverbal Communication

Nonverbal communication is the use of body

language, gestures and facial expressions to convey
information to others. It can be used both intentionally
and unintentionally. For example, you might smile
unintentionally when you hear a pleasing or enjoyable
idea or piece of information. Nonverbal
communication is helpful when trying to understand
others' thoughts and feelings. It is, therefore, the
transmission of messages or signals through a
nonverbal platform such as eye contact, facial
expressions, gestures, posture, body language
(kinesics) pitch of the tone and the distance between
two individuals. Thus, Cherry (2011, p.1) notes that a
substantial portion of our communication is
nonverbal. Every day we respond to thousands of
nonverbal cues and behaviours, including postures,
facial expressions, eye gaze, gestures, and tone of
voice. From our handshakes to our hairstyles,
nonverbal details reveal who we are and impact how

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Communication Systems

we relate to other people. The foregoing assertion

shows that we consciously and unconsciously engage
in nonverbal communication on daily basis. Cherry(
2020 ) , however, c a tego ris ed nonverbal
communication into the following:

i. Facial Expressions: Facial expressions are

responsible for a huge proportion of nonverbal
communication. Consider how much
information can be conveyed with a smile or a
frown. The look on a person's face is often the
first thing we see, even before we hear what
they have to say. While nonverbal
communication and behaviour can vary
dramatically between cultures, the facial
expressions for happiness, sadness, anger, and
fear are similar throughout the world.

ii. Gestures: Deliberate movements and signals

are an important way to communicate meaning
without words.? Common gestures include
waving, pointing, and using fingers to indicate
numeric amounts. Other gestures are arbitrary
and related to culture. In courtroom settings,
lawyers have been known to utilise different
nonverbal signals to attempt to sway juror
opinions. An attorney might glance at his watch
to suggest that the opposing lawyer's argument
is tedious or might even roll his eyes at the
testimony offered by a witness in an attempt to
undermine his or her credibility. These
nonverbal signals are seen as being so powerful
and influential that some judges even place

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An Overview Of Communication

limits on what type of nonverbal behaviours are

allowed in the courtroom.

iii. Para-linguistics: Para-linguistics refers to

vocal communication that is separate from
actual language. This includes factors such as
tone of voice, loudness, inflection, and pitch.
Consider the powerful effect that tone of voice
can have on the meaning of a sentence. When
said in a strong tone of voice, listeners might
interpret approval and enthusiasm. The same
words said in a hesitant tone of voice might
convey disapproval and a lack of interest.
Consider all the different ways that simply
changing your tone of voice might change the
meaning of a sentence. A friend might ask you
how you are doing, and you might respond with
the standard "I'm fine," but how you actually
say those words might reveal a tremendous
amount of how you are really feeling. A cold
tone of voice might suggest that you are
actually not fine, but you don't wish to discuss
it. A bright, happy tone of voice will reveal that
you are actually doing quite well. A sombre,
downcast tone would indicate that you are the
opposite of fine and that perhaps your friend
should inquire further.

iv. Body Language and Posture: Posture and

movement can also convey a great deal of
information. Research on body language has
grown significantly since the 1970s, but
popular media have focused on the over-

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Communication Systems

interpretation of defensive postures, arm-

crossing, and leg-crossing,

v. Proxemics: People often refer to their need for

''personal space,'' which is also an important
type of nonverbal communication. The amount
of distance we need and the amount of space we
perceive as belonging to us are influenced by a
number of factors, including social norms,
cultural expectations, situational factors,
personality characteristics and level of
familiarity. For example, the amount of
personal space needed when having a casual
conversation with another person usually
varies between 18 inches to four feet. On the
other hand, the personal distance needed when
speaking to a crowd of people is around 10 to 12
feet. As noted by Ella & Onwochei (2005, p.
47), such gaps are:

a. Personal Distance: This explains the gap

which separates individuals from other people
on a personal level. The way a person relates to
a friend, brother, father, etc. is different from
the distance he keeps between him and his boss.
Thus, in this type of distance, the gap between a
person and his friends or family is narrow and
can be broken into. Ella & Onwochei (2005)
note that a person could like to sit close to his
friend, mate, relation, etc. to communicate
trust, confidence, friendship, etc. Again, there
are personal issues, needs, secrets, etc. that we
can only discuss with people that are close to us.

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An Overview Of Communication

Ella & Onwochei's assertion shows that

personal distance is narrow. Thus, one can
easily break into it, but it is only based on
closeness; based on closeness between you and
your father, you can enter your father's room at
any point in time. But you cannot just go into
someone else's house and move straight to his
bedroom without any form of closeness. Such a
person will definitely frown at that. More so, a
lady who is not your friend, sister or relative
will frown at you when you as a man makes
effort to hug her or have a handshake with her.
This is what expectancy violations theory is all
about.

b. Business Distance: This refers to the gap or

distance created between a person and his
senior colleague or boss (Ella & Onwochei,
2005). For example, there is a gap between a
Director and the Messenger in the office, thus,
the Messenger cannot just burst into the office
of the Director without invitation. The Director
will frown at it.

c. Social Distance: This is the gap that separates

people as a result of their social status, political
inclination, religious affiliation, etc. (Ella &
Onwochei, 2005). There is a yawning gap
between those in the upper class and those in
the lower class. The distance between a student
and a professor for example is so wide that a
student cannot break into it disrespectfully; the
professor will definitely frown at it when a

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Communication Systems

student breaks that gap. Thus, a student cannot

see a professor and begin to ask him “how far?”
That is, trying to exchange pleasantries with
him as if they were mates. This perhaps
explains why Ella & Onwochei (2005) argue
that the distance on educational background
and qualification keeps the student and
lecturers apart. They further explained that this
is exactly how people are kept apart socially in
order to communicate the differences in their
status.

d. Public Distance: This is the type of gap that is

created between public figures and “ordinary”
members of the public. Top government
officials, such as governors, politicians, etc. do
not visit or tour states and institutions
unaccompanied. They are often guarded or
protected by body guards and other officers so
that some respectful and reasonable distance is
maintained between them and other members
of the society. If public distance is not kept, the
safety of leaders and top officials would always
be at risk (Ella & Onwochei, 2005).

vi. Eye Gaze: The eyes play an important role in

nonverbal communication and such things as looking,
staring and blinking are important nonverbal
behaviours. When people encounter people or things
that they like, the rate of blinking increases and pupils
dilate. Looking at another person can indicate a range
of emotions including hostility, interest, and
attraction. People also utilise eye gaze as a means to

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An Overview Of Communication

determine if someone is being honest.? Normal,

steady eye contact is often taken as a sign that a person
is telling the truth and is trustworthy. Shifty eyes and
an inability to maintain eye contact, on the other hand,
is frequently seen as an indicator that someone is lying
or being deceptive.

vii. Haptics: Communicating through touch is

another important nonverbal behaviour. There has
been a substantial amount of research on the
importance of touch in infancy and early childhood.
Harry Harlow's classic monkey study demonstrated
how deprived touch and contact impedes
development. Baby monkeys raised by wire mothers
experienced permanent deficits in behaviour and
social interaction. Touch can be used to communicate
affection, familiarity, sympathy, and other emotions.
Women tend to use touch to convey care, concern, and
nurturance. Men, on the other hand, are more likely to
use touch to assert power or control over others.

viii. Appearance: Our choice of colour, clothing,

hairstyles, and other factors affecting appearance are
also considered a means of nonverbal communication.
Research on colour psychology has demonstrated that
different colours can evoke different moods.
Appearance can also alter physiological reactions,
judgments, and interpretations. Just think of all the
subtle judgments you quickly make about someone
based on his or her appearance. These first
impressions are important, which is why experts
suggest that job seekers dress appropriately for
interviews with potential employers. Researchers

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Communication Systems

have found that appearance can play a role in how

people are perceived and even how much they earn.
One 1996 study found that attorneys who were rated as
more attractive than their peers earned nearly 15
percent more than those ranked as less attractive.
Culture is an important influence on how appearances
are judged. While thinness tends to be valued in
Western cultures, some African cultures relate full-
figured bodies to better health, wealth, and social
status.

ix. Artefacts: Objects and images are also tools

that can be used to communicate nonverbally. On an
online forum, for example, you might select an avatar
to represent your identity online and to communicate
information about who you are and the things you like.
People often spend a great deal of time developing a
particular image and surrounding themselves with
objects designed to convey information about the
things that are important to them. Uniforms, for
example, can be used to transmit a tremendous amount
of information about a person. A soldier will don
fatigues, a police officer will wear a uniform, and a
doctor will wear a white lab coat. At a mere glance,
these outfits tell people what a person does for a living.

3. Written Communication

Written communication is the act of writing, typing or

printing symbols like letters and numbers to convey
information. It is helpful because it provides a record
of information for reference. Writing is commonly
used to share information through books, pamphlets,

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An Overview Of Communication

blogs, letters, memos and more. Emails and chats are a

common form of written communication in the
workplace. Written communications should be as
simple and clear as possible. While it might be helpful
to include lots of detail in instructional
communications, for example, you should look for
areas where you can write as clearly as possible for
your audience to understand. The sender of a message
must be careful when trying to communicate a certain
tone when writing. For example, attempting to
communicate a joke, sarcasm or excitement might be
translated differently depending on the audience.
Instead, try to keep your writing as simple and plain as
possible and follow up with verbal communications
where you can add more personality.
Setting time aside to re-read your emails, letters
or memos can help you identify mistakes or
opportunities to say something differently. For
important communications or those that will be sent to
a large number of people, it might be helpful to have a
trusted colleague review it as well and there is need to
keep a file of writing you find effective or enjoyable. If
you receive a certain pamphlet, email or memo that
you find particularly helpful or interesting, save it for
reference when writing your own communications.
Incorporating methods or styles you like can help you
to improve over time (Career Guide, 2019).

4. Visual Communication

Visual communication is the act of using photographs,

art, drawings, sketches, charts and graphs to convey
information. Visuals are often used as an aid during

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Communication Systems

presentations to provide helpful context alongside

written and/or verbal communication. Because people
have different learning styles, visual communication
might be more helpful for some to consume ideas and
information (Career Guide, 2019).
Rishante (2007) says that visual
communication is limited to the standardisation of
signs and symbols which have found wide spread
application in diverse societies, cultures and
professional settings; prominent among these
conventions are traffic signs, isotopes, industrial
signs/symbols, electronic and print media icons which
have found universal applications. In their most
advanced forms, signs and symbols are increasingly
being rationalised into abstract cross cultural
communication forms and are fast becoming the
world's lingua-Franca. Rishante went further to say
that a movie or a piece of painting say, landscape or
seascape has the capacity to transport the viewer to a
world beyond through the visual path. In other words,
the impact on human sensation must begin with a
communication of feelings. In a similar manner, signs
and symbols also have the capacity to invoke
emotional sensations beyond their conventional
attribute. For example, a simple red cross is a
universally recognised symbol associated with a
hospital, but, it also has the capacity to arouse those
unpleasant feelings associated with hospital-
casualties, blood, sickness and even death (Rishante,
2007).

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An Overview Of Communication

Significance of Communication in Society

Communication plays a very key role in every society;

let us as quickly as possible look at some of the
importance of communication in our society:

1. For Transfer of Ideas: To transfer ideas from

one person to another, communication plays a vital
role. Every human being has some ideas that are
unique to his own mind. Many of these ideas can be
implemented in real life and can turn into major
creations too. But to make the transition from just a
thought to an implementation, it requires effectual
communication; hence, the idea should be
communicated as a plan, drawing or description so
that it can be created further. This implies that it is
through communication that we transfer our thoughts
and feelings to people.

2. For Interacting with Society: It is very

important that we interact with our surroundings and
people living in the surroundings. Whenever we talk to
someone, we, unknowingly or knowingly, react to
his/her questions, actions or comments. This is
communication. While corresponding to someone in
any way, we are actually communicating. Through
communication, we exchange ideas with people in our
environment and surroundings. Thus, we can say that
healthy communication is essential for a healthy
society.

3. To Update Oneself: In the modern world,

nothing is more important than staying up-to-date.
Only through proper channels of communication can

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people be updated with current affairs and important

events across the globe. Communication is the actual
transfer of information through various media in such
a way that it caters to the needs of people from
different strata of life. News can actually stand for a
collection of information from different directions

4. For Entertainment: Entertainment today is

mostly based on the channels of mass communication,
like films and television. Moreover, theatre and other
arts also communicate certain ideas to its audience.
Internet is another common platform for
entertainment, which again is a mode of
communication. In short, we can safely conclude that
communication and entertainment are entwined in
today's world.

5. To Understand the World: Unless we

communicate with the world, we will never
understand the way things function and how things are
piled up and related to one another. People are just a
fragment amongst these things. We need to interact
with the environment in order to understand life.
People who do not communicate tend to get isolated,
which thereby leads to many problems (Lifestyle
Lounge, n. d).

6. Communication helps us Assert and

differentiate our Personality: From the moment we
were born, we were engaged in the communication
process. Our parents talked to us, read books to us and
played games with us. It is through communication
that we learned our name and gender; we learned about

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An Overview Of Communication

love, frustration and fear and we learned how to be part

of a family. Specifically, communicating with others
helped us to create who we are. For example, what
does it mean to be a girl in our society? Well, that
depends on whom you ask. In some families, it means
to take care of all the household chores like cooking,
cleaning and laundry. Although, social expectations
are changing and some families share all the
household responsibilities, in many homes, gender
stereotypes still dictate who does what.

7. C o m m u n i c a t i o n h e l p s u s C re a t e
Communities: We all live and interact in a
community of some kind just by virtue of living in a
house, apartment or dorm. But communities are more
than geographic locations. Communities are also
created by shared meanings for symbols. These shared
meanings bind people together in support or work
networks. So, someone who lives hundreds or
thousands of miles from you could be part of your
social community because you both share a similar
language or symbol system.

8. Communication forms and strengthens

Relationships: Through communication, we form
human bonds that, in turn, form our friendships,
families and work relationships. We fall in love using
communication. We solve problems at work by
communicating with our co-workers and we create
lasting friendships by sharing stories, experiencing
new things and being supportive of one another. It is
through communication that we share our emotions
and feelings.

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9. Communication helps us to Influence

Others: Communication allows us to sell products,
campaign for an issue or candidate, debate a topic in
class and get the other person to think like us.
Persuasion is an integral part of our lives because it
allows us to influence people and sell our views to
them.

10. Communication Conveys and Creates

Information: Communication helps us create
information and knowledge. We learn from one
another and use that information to develop new ideas
and concepts. Communication allows us to find
information that will help us fulfil our needs.

Barriers to Effective Communication

There are certain factors that can act as barriers to

effective communication. When there is a barrier,
then, there will definitely be communication
breakdown. Whether an individual is engaged in intra-
personal, group, inter-personal, cultural or mass
communication, there are factors that can hinder
effective communication. Let us examine some of
them:
a. Barriers emanating from the Sender: The
sender of the message can act as a barrier when he does
not clearly express himself when passing his message.
There could be communication breakdown when there
is lack of clarity of objectives, inadequate planning,
lack of empathy for the intended receiver and when the
sender does not express him or herself very well. More
so, semantic distortion which has to do with wrong

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An Overview Of Communication

choice of words may act as a barrier to effective

communication. When for example, the sender says,
“why do you want to pandemonium this place?”
instead of saying, why do you want to cause
pandemonium in this place?, it can lead to
communication breakdown. When the sender says,
“Did you saw him?” instead of, ''did you see him?” all
these can lead to communication breakdown.
Most communicators make their mother
tongues manifest in their pronunciation. For example,
some communicators say, ''tlavelling,'' instead of
travelling, “yunction” instead of “junction,” etc. All
these are capable of causing communication
breakdown. This is because, when the sender makes
such a mistake, the receiver tends to focus more on the
mistakes instead of the message that the
communicator is trying to pass across.

b. Barriers emanating from the Receiver: The

receiver may interpret the message from an angle
different from that of the sender. When this happens,
there is likely to be communication breakdown. The
receiver may create a communication barrier if he is
biased, egoistic, argues or interrupts, reads poorly or is
a poor listener.
We have individual differences because people
have different beliefs, cultures, attitudes, etc. Thus,
they interpret messages in line with their pre-existing
attitudes and if the message is not in line with their pre-
existing attitudes, there will be communication
breakdown. More so, when there is fear, distrust and
threat on the part of the receiver, there may be
communication breakdown. The receiver who is not in

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a good mood will not be attentive to the message that is

being passed by the sender. The state of mind as at
when the message is being sent determines whether
the communication will be effective. Thus, anxiety,
fear, happiness, ill-health, etc. can serve as barriers to
effective communication.

c. Ba rri ers created by Chan ne ls of

Communication: Every medium of communication
has its advantages and disadvantages. The
communicator should critically analyse the audience
to be reached before choosing communication
channel. The different communication channels are
face to face, radio, television, letters, newspapers,
magazines, internet, e-mail, etc. When these channels
are not properly used, they can cause communication
breakdown. For example, a badly printed book,
newspaper or magazine can cause communication
breakdown. More so, the oral communication may
provide opportunity for quick response while letters
may require time before a response is received. Thus,
the lack of immediate feedback may also serve as a
barrier to effective communication.

d. Barriers from the Environment: The physical

setting where the communication is taking place can
also cause communication breakdown. If for example
there is an exchange of ideas between people in a very
noisy environment, there will definitely be
communication breakdown. Effective communication
cannot take place in a noisy environment. Sounds of
vehicles, footsteps of persons, shouting, etc. can cause
communication breakdown. Such noise could be
physical noise that may be coming from grinding

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An Overview Of Communication

machines, children crying, people fighting, stone

crushing, car passing, etc.
More so, the temperature of the room or the
environment where the communication is taking place
can affect communication. If the room is too hot or too
cold, it can cause communication breakdown because
the sender and the receiver will not be comfortable.
Offensive odour or smell from dead things or from the
“release of gas” “mess” can cause communication
breakdown. For example, if in a lecture hall, someone
pollutes the air with a very offensive smell, both the
teacher and the students will experience
communication breakdown. This is because they will
first of all make an attempt to cope with the foul smell.

e. Clouds: Clouds refer to the perceptions,

prejudices and paradigms that individuals hold. We all
perceive the world differently based on our prejudices
from our cradle. Clouds, like noise in communication,
constitute total breakdown in communication.
Prejudice could be seen from different angles-
religion, culture, experience, ethnicity, etc.

Basis for Effective Communication

According to Ogunmilade (1984), for communication

to be effective, the following factors must be
considered:

1. Seek to Clarify Your Ideas before

Communicating: The more systematically we
analyse the problem or the idea to be communicated,
the clearer it becomes. This is the first step towards
effective communication. You have to think before

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Communication Systems

talking. “It is not good opening the tap if there is

nothing in the tank.” Communication often fails
because of inadequate planning. Good planning must
consider the goals and attitudes of those who will
receive the communication and those who will be
affected by it.

2. Examine the True Purpose of Each

Communication: Before you communicate, ask
yourself what you really want to accomplish with your
message. Is it to obtain information, initiate action or
change another person's attitude? Identify your most
important goal and then adapt your language tone and
total approach to serve the specific objective. Do not
try to accomplish too much within each
communication. The fewer the objectives, the sharper
the focus of communication and the greater the
chances of its success.

3. Consider the Total Physical and Human

Setting whenever you Communicate: Meanings and
intents are conveyed by more than words alone. Many
other factors influence the overall impact of
communication and the person must be sensitive to the
total setting in which he communicates. Consider for
example your sense of timing; that is, the
circumstances under which you make the
announcement or a decision; the physical setting,
whether you communicate in private, or otherwise,
and the social climate that pervades work relationships
within the company or department is a vital factor
which should influence and guide the mode of
c o m mu n i c a t i o n . Like a l l l iving things,
communication must be capable of adapting to its
environment.

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An Overview Of Communication

4. Consult with Others where Appropriate in

planning Communication: Frequently, it is
necessary to seek the participation of others in
planning communication or developing facts on which
to base it. Such consultations often help to lend
additional insight and objectivity to your message.
Moreover, those who have helped to plan your
communication will give it their adequate supports.

5. Be Mindful of the Overtones as Well as the

Basic Content of Your Message: Your tone of voice,
expressions and apparent receptiveness to the
response of others have tremendous impact on those
you wish to reach. Frequently overlooked, these
subtleties of communication often affect listeners'
reaction to a message even more than its basic content.
Similarly, our choice of words particularly our
awareness of the fine shades of meanings and
emotions in the words we use predetermine to a great
extent the reaction of our listeners.

6. Take the Opportunity When it arises to

Convey Something of Help or Value to the
Receiver: People on the job and learners are most
responsive to the manager/teacher who takes their
interests into account.

7. Follow up Your Communication: Our best

efforts at communication may be wasted and we may
never know whether we have succeeded in expressing
our true meanings and intents, if we do not follow up to
see how well we have put up our messages across.
Make certain that every important communication has
feedback so that complete understanding and
appropriate action result.

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8. Communicate for Tomorrow as Well as for

Today: While communication may be aimed at
meeting primarily the demands of an immediate
situation, it must be planned with the past in mind if it
is to maintain consistency in the receiver's view; but,
very importantly, it must be consistent with long-
range interests and goals.

9. Be Sure Your Action Supports Your

Communication: Both your action and your words
must agree. If your action does not support your
communication, then it will not be effective.

10. Lastly, but by no means the least, do not seek to

be understood only but also to understand. Therefore,
be a good listener.

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CHAPTER TWO
AN OVERVIEW OF AFRICAN
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Africa is unique not only in customs, tradition and
culture, but also in its means of communication. The
African indigenous media have come to exist for their
uniqueness and originality based on the tradition and
culture of the people. These essentially make them
highly effective and enduring in the dissemination of
information personally, inter-personally and through
group communications. They remain what essentially
sustain the information needs of the rural African
societies (Ejejimogbe, 2020). The word “indigenous”
means what originates from “a specific place or
culture.” That is, what is indigenous should be
considered in terms of its roots.
Before we delve into the discussion of
indigenous media, it is pertinent to comprehend what
culture is. “Culture is the beliefs, customs, traditions,
practices and social behaviours of a particular nation
or people.” Culture distinguishes one human group
from the other. People's culture includes their rules of
behaviour, language, rituals and arts, dress codes,
religions and economic system; the way of life of a
people through which they associate and relate with
their environment; it is usually established from

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An Overview of African
Communication System

enlightenment and acquired through education,

observation and exposure to the environment
(Ejejimogbe, 2020).
Culture is the total way of life of a group of
people that has been developed, shaped and practised
over time. The advancement of these cultural norms
and practices are shaped by the environment and the
needs of the people. As societies develop and
modernise, these cultural practices experience
changes to mirror the changing times to better serve
the needs of the people. This means that culture is not
dormant, but continually undergoing development
based on the changes in the environment in which it
exists (Ejejimogbe, 2020). Culture is the combined
indoctrination of the mind which differentiates the
members of one human group from another; the
interactive total of common characteristics that
control a human group's reaction to its milieu. In
general, people are seen as being from different
cultures if their ways of life are notably different
(Ejejimogbe, 2020). These components can be
classified into six; namely:

i. Beliefs: The basic ideas of a people about how

to make the society operate physically, morally
and spiritually.

ii. Values: Standards and principles set by

different cultures for morality in the society.

iii. Norms and Sanctions: They are rules about

what people should do and should not do, say

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Communication Systems

or think in a given situation. It differs from

values which are abstract.

iv. Symbols: Objects or materials that can express

or evoke meanings in different cultures, they
have over time acquired cultural meanings and
are used for symbolic rather than instrumental
purposes;

v. Language: The primary means of capturing,

communicating, discussing and passing shared
understanding to new generations; and

vi. Technology: It is seen as the body of practical

knowledge and equipment used in enhancing
the effectiveness of human labour, and also
altering the environment for human use
(Ejejimogbe, 2020).

What is African Communication System?

The African communication media are the indigenous

means of communication in the various countries of
the second largest continent in the world; they reflect
in the various channels talking drums, the folk songs,
drama, festivals, town criers, traditional wears, the
artefacts, art works, paintings, stories and among
others, cultural architecture that reflects in the palaces,
shrines and African cities, towns and villages. The
African communication systems are the indigenous
media or communication systems that remain what
essentially sustains the information needs of the rural
areas in the developing countries of Africa.

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The concept “indigenous communication

systems” has been variously called, folk media,
primitive communication system and local media.
Kombol (2002) avers that folk patterns of
communication and social interaction in Africa are
those ways of passing messages which are original to
the African people as opposed to the modern
communication methods. This implies that indigenous
communication systems are organised processes of
production and exchange of information managed by
rural communities. These also include traditional
theatre or drama, masks and puppet performances,
tales, proverbs, riddles and songs. This perhaps
explains why Chiovoloni (2004), cited in Daudu
(2009) notes that they are cultural and endogenous
responses to different community needs for
information, education, social protest and
entertainment. Indigenous system of communication
is seen as an admixture of social conventions and
practices, which have become sharpened and blended
into veritable communication modes and systems and
which have almost become standard practices, modes
of speech and social organisations whose chief
concerns may not be with communication, but with
other activities (Wilson, 1997, cited in Edegoh,
Kenechukwu & Asemah, 2013). It is a complex
system of communication, which pervades all aspects
of rural African life. Ansu-Kyeremeh (1998, p. 3),
cited in Edegoh, Kenechukwu & Asemah (2013) gives
a comprehensive definition of this form of
communication thus:

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Handbook on African
Communication Systems

Any form of endogenous communication

system, which by virtue of its origin, form and
integration into a specific culture, serves as a
channel for messages in a way and manner that
requires the utilisation of the values, symbols,
institutions and ethos of the host culture,
through its unique qualities and attributes.

Ansu-Kyeremeh's definition suggests that

African traditional communication is embedded in the
culture of the people. As noted by Akpabio (2003),
cited in Edegoh et al (2013), it works along three
principles: (1) It is part and parcel of the way of life of a
people; (2) it utilises symbolism from the community
and hence readily connects with the people; and (3)
values of the community, as well as, age-old
institutions, come into play in the communication
process. This implies that the folk media are
communication vehicles for promoting and improving
dialogue which the common people or rural farmers
employ to deliver their messages (Zwaal, 2000, cited
in Daudu, 2009). These messages embrace a wide
range of indigenous communication channels which
include storytelling, theatre, folk songs, dance and
folk puppetry (Fernandez, 1996; Van Den Ban &
Hawkins 1996, cited in Daudu, 2009). According to
Valbuena (1993), cited in Daudu (2009), folk media is
entertainment communication because i ts
performance such as storytelling, theatre shows,
puppet shows and drama could facilitate the
development of agricultural extension programmes
through the rapid diffusion of new technologies and its
demonstrational values could serve as an effective
vehicle for transmission of social messages

40
An Overview of African
Communication System

Wilson (1999) avers that oramedia are the local

means of communication that remain what essentially
sustain the information needs of the population which
represents over 70 percent of the national population
in the rural areas. The messages and ideas are
transmitted by means of itinerant dance and mime
groups, puppet shows and other folk media which
serve not only to entertain, but to influence attitudes
and behaviour. Ugboajah, cited in Ebeze (2002) sees
indigenous communication as the products of the
interplay between a traditional community's customs
and conflicts, harmony and strife, cultural
convergences and divergences, culture specific
tangibles, interpersonal relations, symbols and codes
and moral traditions which include methodology, oral
literature (proverbs, story-telling, poetry),
masquerades, witchcraft, rites, rituals, music, dance,
drama, costumes and similar abstractions and
artefacts, which encompass a people's factual,
symbolic and cosmological existence from birth to
death and even beyond death. Thus, Ndolo (2006),
cited in Asemah, Nwammuo & Edegoh (2013) sees the
indigenous media as credible and acceptable channels
of communication utilised by rural dwellers for
various functions, including dissemination of
messages. Thus, indigenous communication system
may be seen as the system of communication used in
the primitive days, but are still relevant in our
contemporary society. They are the systems of
communication used by our forefathers, but they still
remain relevant in our contemporary societies. The
fact that we have radio, television and other modern
mass media does not mean that we no longer use the

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Communication Systems

flute, drum, etc. for information dissemination in the

rural areas (Asemah, 2011).
It is, therefore, any form of endogenous
communication system, which by virtue of its origin,
form and integration into a specific culture, serves as a
channel for messages in a way and manner that
requires the utilisation of the values, symbols,
institutions and ethos of the host culture through its
unique qualities and attributes. The foregoing
definition shows that indigenous media are deeply
rooted into a specific culture and can be effectively
employed within the culture. They are culture-specific
and their effective uses do not transcend that particular
culture. So, we can say that African indigenous media
have their roots in Africa and can only be used
effectively on the continent. Indigenous media
penetrate rural African society and they have some
unique features embedded in them. These media are
understood by members of a community; readily
appeal to and connect with the people's language,
culture, beliefs, myths, legends and customs which
enhance effectiveness of communication as it relates
to the values, norms, ethos and culture of Africans; use
symbols, values and indigenous institutions which
enhance message effectiveness; project the African
historical past (tradition); derive from the culture,
beliefs and ways of life of Africans; are rooted among
the local people and so respected by them; are
embedded in the culture of the people, which is the
driving force; rely on indigenous technology and
employ values and symbols that the people identify
with.

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An Overview of African
Communication System

Indigenous media serve different purposes and

their importance in the society cannot be underplayed.
They provide teaching and initiation, with the object
of imparting traditional aesthetic, historical, technical,
social, ethical and religious values. They play
important roles in the village society such as
mobilising people's awareness of their own history,
magnifying past events and evoking deeds of past
ancestors. Thus, they tend to unite a people and give
them cohesion by way of ideas and emotions
(Ejejimogbe, 2020).The messages and ideas are
transmitted by means of itinerant dance and mime
groups, puppet shows and other folk media which
serve not only to entertain, but to influence attitudes
and behaviour. It is important to note that indigenous
communication media are highly effective than all
other means of communication because they are
interactive, inter-personal, combines verbal
communications with non-verbal codifications and
they are simple, natural and less expensive. The high
level of non-verbal contents in the indigenous media
actually makes them to be more effective because non-
verbal cues communicate the mind more than verbal
ones. One unique thing about indigenous media is the
immediate feedback, which makes communication to
be effective (Osho, 2011). African communication
systems are highly effective in the dissemination of
information among the peoples of Africa; they are
embedded in the cultural values and tradition of the
people through body language, signs and objects;
starting with the simplest vocal and gestural signals
rooted in their physical structure, human beings
developed a whole range of non-verbal means for

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Communication Systems

conveying messages: music and dance; drum

messages, signal fires, drawings and other forms of
graphic symbols, including the pictogram, followed
by the ideogram, important, especially because it is
associated with the representation of an object with an
abstract idea…facial expression, gesture, mime,
dance, images, music, songs, drawings, paintings,
sculptures, sport…of special value are lip reading and
sign languages used by millions of handicapped
persons (Osho,2011).
Indeed, the system of communication is
culturally based as it is natural with the tradition and
customs of the people. It involves their language,
dialect, individual occupation or family occupation or
communal occupation. So, people of another culture
may not necessarily understand the message within a
particular oramedia because it is culturally situated
and conditioned (Osho, 2011). Awa (1988) notes that
the indigenous mode of communication performs all
the functions of the modern mass media like radio,
television, magazines and newspapers. These
functions are:

i. Surveillance: They survey the environment

and report what has happened to the members of
the society. The indigenous media also share
knowledge of the environment. That is, the
collection and distribution of information.
Surveillance of the environment, collection and
distribution of information concerning events
in the environment, both outside and within any
particular society; this is the news function of
the mass media.

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An Overview of African
Communication System

ii. Correlation: They correlate different parts of

the society. That is, just like the modern mass
media, the indigenous media also interpret and
explain events as they happen in our society.
This is the explication of events from a cultural
looking glass. Correlation is the interpretation
of information about the environment and
prescription for conduct in reaction to these
events. This is the editorial or the opinion
function.

iii. Transmission of Cultural Heritage: The

indigenous media can be used to transmit
cultures, values and norms of the rural dwellers
from one generation to the other. Thus, they
socialise new members of the society (that is,
those newly born) and also tell them about the
secrets of the society. They teach the rural
dwellers their culture and norms. This focuses
on the communication of knowledge, values
and social norms from one generation to
another or from members of a group to
newcomers. This is the education function.

iv. Entertainment: They provide entertainment

through music, dances, etc.

Advantages of African Communication System

The advantages of African Communication System in

our contemporary society cannot be overemphasised;
the African indigenous communication system or
media have the following advantages:

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Handbook on African
Communication Systems

1. They are the indigenous media of

communication in Africa as they are
transmitted from one generation to the other.
People grew up with them and they get
accustomed to them in their day-to-day
interactions. So, they are bound to be with the
people till eternity. When you seek to separate a
people from the indigenous media, then you are
attempting to exterminate them from the face of
the earth.

2. They are both verbal and non-verbal means of

communication which make them more
appealing, effective and understandable.

3. The indigenous media in Africa serve as

alternative media in the modern age because for
messages to properly get to the rural dwellers,
the people must be linked up through them;
hence, traditional rulers across Africa even in
big cities still use the Town Criers to announce
festivals, restrictions and traditional
ceremonies. This is being done in the face of the
mass media and the new media that are still
elitist among a few. It is oramedia that
reinforces the information they get from the
mass media because the market women and
others have the opportunity of asking questions
directly from the representatives of the
traditional ruler, the Town Crier who brought
the message (Osho, 2011).
4. The indigenous media are derived from the
culture and way of life of the people; hence, it is
enduring and effective.

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An Overview of African
Communication System

5. The indigenous media are less expensive, as it

costs less to send messages and to receive. It
contradicts the new media and the mass media
that take toll on your lean purse every second.
The more you are on your laptop, handtop or
handset communicating online or talking, the
more you are paying for the service. It is not so
with oramedia.
6. The folk media use indigenous technology
which can be improved upon by our engineers
and traditional experts in the transmission and
reception of information which are peculiar to
the way of life of the people.

7. The indigenous media are communal in nature

because they are used within the confines and
understanding of a particular people, tribe or
ethnicity.

8. The people believe in the messages of the

indigenous media more than the exogenous
media or the new media.

9. The messages that are being transmitted

through the indigenous media are easy to
understand and do not require the interpretation
of anybody. They are transmitted in the
language and culture that are traditional to the
people.
10. The indigenous media are simple and less
sophisticated to apply. A lot of elites still do not
know how to manipulate many things in their
handsets and laptops after many years.

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Handbook on African
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11. The people of Africa believe strongly in their

opinion leaders and whatever information they
get from them. They include the traditional
rulers, traditional Chiefs, market leaders, Aides
of traditional rulers and heads of families and
religious leaders. The people believe that these
leaders cannot mislead them because they are in
position to serve them (Osho, 2011).

12. They have value. Values in communication deal

with the effectiveness of communication.
Effectiveness means that messages are received
by intended audience, interpreted as conceived
by the sender; message is remembered over a
reasonably extended period of time and
message is used appropriately. African
communication systems have value and it is an
important aspect of our culture. It is the agency
by which culture is preserved, handed down,
responds to new situations and adapts. The
influx and explosion of exogenous media
endanger the survival of and may even lead to
t he e rosion of t r a d i t i o n a l Af r ic a n
communication, which might threaten cultural
transmission and the survival of indigenous
technical knowledge (National Open
University of Nigeria, 2018).

13. African media are ubiquitous because they

reach many rural people who are not reached by
even the most widespread exogenous channels.
So, it should always be realised in designing
communication strategy and in choosing

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An Overview of African
Communication System

channels of communication that television,

newspapers and magazines are largely confined
to the urban areas in the developing countries.
African communication systems are useful in
conveying messages to people out of the reach
of exogenous channels (NOUN, 2018).

14 Messages from indigenous media are credible.

Messages transmitted through the exogenous
mass media are more often than not, greeted
with hostility or scepticism. Since indigenous
channels are familiar to the target and
controlled locally, they are deemed credible
(National Open University of Nigeria, 2018).

15 They are channels of change. Researches into

diffusion of innovations have shown the
importance of informal and inter-personal
contacts in persuading people to adopt, or reject
innovations (Opubor, 1975, cited in National
Open University of Nigeria, 2018).

16 Promotes participatory development and

sustainability of programmes. Exogenous
communication transfers knowledge, while
indigenous communication promotes
indigenous-based development. To diffuse
innovation, exogenous media need to co-opt
indigenous media because African traditional
media enhance cultural continuity; hence
sustainable change. Indigenous channels of
communication give the local people the
opportunity to participate in development
programmes. The local people should be
involved in the choice of channel, messages

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Communication Systems

development, design and dissemination; and

they should communicate with themselves,
decision makers and development experts in
reaching a decision on their development
programmes. This enhances the retention and
control of the indigenous programmes, which
will enhance sustainability (National Open
University of Nigeria, 2018).

Problems of African Communication

Despite the advantages of the indigenous

communication media, they also have their
disadvantages; some of the disadvantages are:

1. A lot of African languages are going into

extinction because of the adoption of the
language of colonial masters as official
language. Nigeria adopts English as the official
language as part of the colonial heritage. This
threatens the over 250 languages being spoken
in the over 200 million population country.
Once the language of a people is taken, the
whole of its culture is eroded.
2. The manifestation of the 'global village' theory
of Marshall McLuhan is a challenge too
r a m e d i a . We n o w h a v e t h e n e w
communication culture of electronic age that
perhaps enslaves man on the websites and
internet.

3. The erosion of the cultural technology in

preference for new technologies constitutes
threats to oramedia.

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An Overview of African
Communication System

4. The reliance of oramedia on the opinion leaders

is a challenge as the new sets of opinion leaders
in Africa are selfish, self-centred and protégés
of the West that continues to undermine African
culture. The new opinion leaders are now
partisan and now colour and distort information
to the people through the folk media.
5. The social system in the African family set up,
community and institutions are greatly affected
by the dominant Western culture which
threatens oramedia. The African children now
lack the home training, and the understanding
of the African languages to the understanding of
the oramedia messages.
6. The erosion of African value system in various
homes in Africa also threatens the folk media.
7. The domineering nature and indeed the
ubiquitous nature of the mass media and the
new media threaten the indigenous
communication system in Africa.
8. The lack of understanding of African body
language, paralanguage and other non-verbal
codes by the new generation of African
children, constitute threat to oramedia.
9. Lack of pride in African tradition and values
among the new generation of African children is
a challenge to the African communication
system.

10. Urbanisation constitutes a threat to oramedia

through the expansion of African villages and

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Handbook on African
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towns into cities, as it destroys the communal

way of living of the people that gives fillip to
folk media.

11. The problems of illiteracy, poverty, ill-health,

lack of social amenities, and population
explosion constitute threat to oramedia in
African countries. This is because, knowledge
is power and health is wealth (Osho, 2011).
12. It has a problem of defining and explaining
issues and illustration in modern language; that
is, there is lack appropriate terminologies
(National Open University of Nigeria, 2018).
13. Indigenous communication is an extension and
externalisation of the individual knowledge
system. So, the relevance of indigenous
communication depends on the setting/area of
occupation. There are the core and peripheral
people who make up the indigenous people.
Essentially, indigenous communication
systems thrive most where they employ such
indigenous forms of communication as the
town announcer (National Open University of
Nigeria, 2018).

Reasons for Studying African Communication System

A look into the reality of the existence of indigenous

communication systems in Nigeria shows that before
the advent of modern means of communication, there
were traditional means in Nigeria by which
information is made to reach its recipient. There were

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An Overview of African
Communication System

also means of propagating the collective knowledge of

the recognised custodians of the people's oral
traditions. Some of these are still being used. From the
above, it is obvious that a variety of indigenous
communication channels existed in Africa,
particularly in Nigeria before the introduction of the
modern mass media systems. So, it should be noted
that a communication system which does not take into
account the traditional, social and cultural dynamics
of society will only succeed in alienating the highly
placed from the majority of the people in the rural
areas (Wilson, 1982). This statement summarises the
effect of negligence in the study of our indigenous
sources of communication, opinion formation,
processes of decision and actions. What is
responsible? According to Ibagere (1994), Western
education is the bane of these, as it has made people to
continue regarding African communication systems
with contempt. The question at this juncture is: should
this be allowed to continue? Again, Ibagere (1994, p.
96) states that the modern mass media, however,
cannot serve, fully, the communication needs of
Africa, unless they are combined with the indigenous
modes of communication.
Therefore, rather than supplanting these
indigenous modes, efforts should be geared towards
harnessing and developing them to serve our
information needs in general. Therefore, there is the
need to increase studies on our indigenous
communication systems not just to add to knowledge,
but also to find alternative systems of information
dissemination; fully understand the dynamics and
systems of delivering information and receiving

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Communication Systems

feedback among the various ethnic groups in

indigenous Africa who live mostly in the rural areas,
and who are currently outside the effective reach of the
westernised mass media ( Opubor, 1975).
Furthermore, Ugboajah (1972), cited in Wilson &
Unoh (1991, p. 28) says “the most important thing
about African's traditional communication is that the
audience has learnt to attach great significance to it.
Indigenous media have (sic) force and credibility.
They put stability into African's indigenous
institutions.”
So, from all that has been discussed so far, one
can argue like Opubor (1975) that African traditional
channels of communication represent the most potent
mechanism for communication among the various
peoples of Africa. Furthermore, notwithstanding the
flaws that may be inherent in the traditional channels
of communication in Africa, the fact remains as
Hatchen (1971, p. 15) points that “the sheer range and
variety of traditional communication offer a challenge
to contemporary (African) communication scholars.”
This underscores the need to stimulate scholarship in
this area of communication studies. Hence, we should
study it to educate ourselves on the culture and
heritage of Africa. Put succinctly, we should study
African communication systems for knowledge and
because of its relevance and acceptance in Africa.
Looking at knowledge, studying African
communication systems will help us to understand our
cultures, idiosyncrasies and peculiarities. Again, it
relates to African culture, values and beliefs which
engenders acceptance. On relevance, it is still relevant
for communicating with some people in Africa

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An Overview of African
Communication System

(National Open University of Nigeria, 2018).

Difference between Indigenous Communication

Media and Mass Communication

There are differences between indigenous

communication media and mass communication; they
are:
1. Indigenous communication systems are
developed locally; controlled by the local
people; use local technology, especially those
that are not under institutional communication.
But the channels of mass communication are
the mass media like radio, television,
newspapers, magazines and others and such are
controlled bureaucratically.

2. When using indigenous communication

channels, the audience members are known to
the sender; that is a personal relationship
between the sender and the receiver; but in mass
communication, there is no personal
relationship between the sender and the
receiver.

3. The audience of indigenous media is narrow,

while the audience of mass communication is
large. The messages of indigenous media can
reach few people, but with a great deal of
influence within the network; whereas those of
mass communication can reach a broad
audience, but with little influence.

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4. African communication system is essentially

owned by the society whose leadership only
acts as the chief gate keeper. The channel or
medium, then, is open to use by anybody to
reach anybody. It has always operated under a
clear-cut dynamic policy which serves the
interest and need of the society. The structure of
the media is determined by the ownership
which eventually determines the method of
operation and may influence messages (Culled
from National Open University of Nigeria,
2018).

Similarities between Indigenous Communication

Media and Mass Communication

Below are some of the similarities between the

indigenous communication system and mass
communication:
1. They have sources, which they derive from the
local people, opinion leaders, healers,
sorcerers, shamans, scribes, traditional birth
attendants, blacksmiths and irrigation systems
among others; innovators; intermediaries, town
announcers, etc. Media of mass communication
also have sources, originated by outside
institutions such as newspaper/magazine
houses and television/radio houses. The
similarity is that a television programme may
show a local source who has benefited or
adopted an innovation. Furthermore, folk
media have been widely used to communicate
development messages. Exogenous source is

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An Overview of African
Communication System

mediated (National Open University of

Nigeria, 2018).

2. Messages conveyed by the two systems are

sometimes similar; for instance, news and
entertainment. The only difference is that the
indigenous media use local channels. News and
entertainment messages are also conveyed
through the media of mass communication. The
only difference is that the exogenous media use
modern channels (National Open University of
Nigeria, 2018).

3. They both have receivers; although the

receivers of indigenous media are few, while
those of mass communication are large.

4. They both have feedback. The obedience

through the transformation into deeds and
actions or not of the announced messages
informs the village authority of the
effectiveness or ineffectiveness of their
messages. People respond favourably when
they turn up en mass in support of the
disseminated information. But they show
apathy and indifference to the unfavourable and
undesirable information. The exogenous media
(mass communication) also have feedback
mechanism. It is mainly through letters to the
editor for the print media and call-in/text
messages to live programmes on the broadcast
media.

57
CHAPTER THREE
VISUAL CHANNELS OF AFRICAN
COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Visual communication as a classification of
indigenous communication generally hinges on the
sense of sight and knowledge of the peoples of Africa.
Colours of various shades communicate messages.
What they communicate could be pragmatic, society
specific and also generic. In Africa, meanings are
attached to colours in various communities and so they
are used to communicate. The denotation and
connotation of each colour depend on specific
communities and people.
Thus, through visual communication, any
person at any level is capable of making statement
about himself and his environment in a contemporary
form that will scarcely be forth-coming by other
means of expression. This generalisation will suffice
as an advance organiser for this chapter. The term
visual communication would strike most people as a
form of communication which is highly specialised,
scientific, technical and somewhat, intellectual. But in
the real sense, visual communication is probably the
most fundamental and primitive form of
communication known to man. It characterises all
living organisms. Visual communication seeks to

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Visual Channels of Communication

relate the visual and concrete aspects of life to

communication. The visual concepts are put together
with the psychology of communication to show the
inter-relatedness of the visual to any form of
communication. The human being is famed to have
five senses: sight, smell, hearing, taste and feeling.
The most commanding is the visual sense of sight
because it corroborates and supplements the other
senses. For instance, the aroma of fried egg would
register in the brain pictorially the same way the noise
of an uproar in the street will conjure the image of a
demonstrating crowd. This tendency for the sight to
register and record visual objects makes it primary in
communication.
A Chinese proverb has it that ''what you hear,
you forget, but what you see, you cannot forget.'' This
has been empirically proven in human research thus,
children from the age of two years are taken to nursery
schools to be educated. Generally, among children, a
book with pictorial accompaniment will be more
explanatory than the one without photographs. This
underscores the importance of photographs or
drawings as part of story-telling or essay reading. In
adulthood, the emphasis on the photograph is less, yet,
it has a greater significance to every communication.
In other words, while visuals are used to help children
identify objects and situations, it is a much more
complicated pattern of communication with the
adults. An elephant might be used to teach children
letter "E" but the same visual may fall short of the
demand by the adult to know why it is an elephant
(Asemah, 2016).

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What is Visual Communication?

Visual communication is the effect of what we see on

communication. It has to do with how what we see
affects our thinking. It may be described as any
information that is transmitted through the power of
the visuals to appeal to the sense of sight, but with the
intention of creating a meaning. Visual
communication may be described in its broadest sense
as any form of communication whose message
appeals to the sense of vision. It depends totally on
vision as the sensory modality for the interpretation or
decoding of messages. In this broad definition, visual
communication is a grammar of conventional and
unconventional signs and symbols. A sign here means
anything that tells us or points to the presence of
something. The something being suggested by the sign
could be an idea, situation, condition or even an object.
A foot print for example, is a sign that somebody has
passed this way. A high temperature on a person is a
sign that there is a metabolic dysfunction. Rishante
(2007), cited in Asemah (2016) says visual
communication is limited to the standardisation of
signs and symbols which have found wide spread
application in diverse societies, cultures and
professional settings; prominent among these
conventions are traffic signs, isotopes, industrial
signs/symbols, electronic and print media icons which
have found universal applications. In their most
advanced forms, signs and symbols are increasingly
being rationalised into abstract cross cultural
communication forms and are fast becoming the
world's lingua-Franca. Rishante, cited in Asemah

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Visual Channels of Communication

(2016) went further to say that a movie or a piece of

painting say, landscape or seascape has the capacity to
transport the viewer to a world beyond through the
visual path. In other words, the impact on human
sensation must begin with a communication of
feelings. In a similar manner, signs and symbols also
have the capacity to invoke emotional sensations
beyond their conventional attribute. For example, a
simple red cross is a universally recognised symbol
associated with a hospital, but, it also has the capacity
to arouse those unpleasant feelings associated with
hospital- casualties, blood, sickness and even death
(Rishante, 2007, cited in Asemah, 2016).
The f o r eg oi ng imp l ies t hat v i sual
communication is the practice of graphically
representing information to efficiently and effectively
create meaning. There are many types of content in the
realm of visual communication, with examples
including infographics, interactive content, motion
graphics, and more. The possibilities are endless. But
no matter the medium, all incorporate at least some of
the following elements: interactivity, iconography,
illustration, supporting text, graphs, data visualisation
and animation (Killer Visual Strategies, 2020). Visual
communication has to do with the conveyance of ideas
and information in forms that can be seen. It in part or
whole relies on eyesight and it is a broad spectrum that
includes signs, typography, drawing, graphic design,
illustration, industrial design, advertising, animation,
colour and electronic resources.
Visual communication is the transmission of
information and ideas using symbols and imagery. It is
one of three main types of communication, along with

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Communication Systems

verbal communication (speaking) and non-verbal

communication (tone, body language, etc.). Visual
communication is believed to be the type that people
rely on most, and it includes signs, graphic designs,
films, typography, and countless other examples
(Study.com, 2020). Thus, we can that any
communication which is done through sight is called
visual communication. Such communication includes
facial expression, gesture, eye contact, signals, map,
chart, poster etc. it also includes graphic design,
illustration and animation, books, print, magazines,
screen-based media, interactive web design, short
film, design for advertising, promotion, corporate
identity and packaging design, etc. (The Business
Communication, 2020). Visual presentation of
information and data is having an increasing impact on
our practical life. In spite of having impact on our life,
visual communication is not alone sufficient for
exchanging information. For example, to indicate
'danger' we use red sign, to indicate 'no smoking'; we
use an image showing a lighted cigarette with across
mark on it, etc. (The Business Communication,
2020).
Visuals communicate in traditional African
society. It is derived mainly from the sense of sight and
knowledge of the peoples of Africa. The mere sight of
someone's tribal marks, hairdo, tattoos and incisions
communicates. Visual communication is used for
different purposes and communicates different
messages. Each has its own peculiar meaning. Some
warn people or signify sundry things. Black for
instance communicates mourning; red, signifies
danger, fire, war; green, conveys life; black, gloom,

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white, purity, simplicity, innocence, purity and gaiety;

yellow, lighteness; brown, blightness; and parched
environment, communicates famine (Project
Materials, 2020).

Advantages of Visual Communication

The advantages of visual communication are:

a. Effective for Illiterate Receiver: If the

r ec eive rs are i l l i t erate, the visual
communication will be more effective to
exchange information. They can easily
understand the information that is presented
visually.
b. Helps in Oral Communication: Visual
t echniques can be used with oral
communication. Oral communication
becomes more meaningful if graphs, pictures
and diagrams are used with it.

c. Easy Explanation: Everyone can explain the

meaning of it very easily. Easy explanation has
made the visual techniques more
popular.

d. Simple Presentation: Complex information,

data and figures can be easily presented very
simply on graphs, pictures and diagrams.

e. Prevents Wastage of Time: Visual techniques

help to prevent the wastage of time. Writtenand
oral communications take much time to

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exchange information. But a higher number of

receivers can be communicated at a time
through visual methods.

f. H e l p s i n Q u i c k D e c i s i o n : Vi s u a l
communication helps to take quick
decision. So management prefers visual
techniques to communicate with others.

g. Popular: Visual communication is very much

popular because people do not like much
speech and long explanation rather than a chart
of a diagram (Culled from Business
Communication, 2020).

Disadvantages of Visual Communication

The limitations of visual communication are as
follows:
a. Costly: The visual methods of communication
are more costly than those of other methods. To
draw maps, charts, diagram is costly. That is
why only large companies or organisations can
use this technique.
b. Complex Presentation: Sometimes visual
presentation of information becomes complex.
The receivers cannot understand the
meaning of the presentation.
c. Incomplete Method: This technique is
considered as an incomplete m e t h o d . Visual
presentation is not sufficient to communicate
effectively and clearly but also it can be
successfully used with oral
communication.

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d. Wastage of Time: Sometimes visual

techniques take much time to communicate;
whereas oral communication takes no time to
exchange information.
e. Difficult to Understand: Difficult to
understand and requires a lot of repetitions;
since it uses gestures, facial expressions, eye
contact, touch, etc. for communicating with
others, which may not be understandable for the
simple and foolish people (Culled from
Business Communication, 2020).
What then are the Visual Elements of African
Communication?
There are many visual elements of African
communication system; below are some of them:
1. Colours
The use of colours for the purpose of communication
has remained for a long time a very important mode of
human communication. All societies have had a
relatively common symbolism attached to the
different colours produced by human beings or present
in nature. But while others have retained theirs, some
have, through cultural imperialism, been deprived of
their original notions or symbolisms (Ejejimogbe,
2020). Racism and ethnocentricism have tended to
obliterate the culture of many technologically
deprived nations. The foregoing shows that colour is
an important form of human communication and the
meanings attached to different colours are general in
all societies. Colonisation and advancement in
technology have eroded the meanings attached to
some of the colours. Also, misnomer or
misinterpretation has distorted what some of these
colours represent (Ejejimogbe, 2020).

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Colour as noted by Asemah (2016) is the

sensation produced in the eyes by the use of rays of
light. It is the wave of light separated by different
things before reaching our eyes. Colour is a concept
that depends on light hence, we cannot identify colour
in the dark. Colour is present in light and dependent on
light too. A green leaf is seen as green in the eyes
because it reflects the green waves in the ray of light
and then, absorbs all the other colours. In art, colour is
seen as pigments applied to a surface, shape or design
to make it more appealing to our senses. Colour is one
of the most expressive elements which arouses
universal appreciation. It also affects our emotions
directly and immediately. As an element of design,
colour modifies form, it is a powerful stimulus that can
change the dimension of form and generate optical
interaction. Colour comes either in light or pigment.
Dugga (1999), cited in Asemah (2016) says that as an
element of design, it is a powerful stimulus that can
change the dimension of form, reverse the direction of
line, alter the interval between forms and generate
optical motion. Over one hundred years ago, Isaac
Newton (father of science), the great scientist
undertook an experiment on colour, by letting a beam
of sun light fall on a special kind of transparent glass
known as prism. He discovered that the white light that
came in on one side of the prism was separated in the
prism and came out on the other side as a kind of
rainbow. This kind of rainbow was called a spectrum.
According to Osho (2001, p. 179), cited in Asemah
(2016), colour may be divided into six classes which
are:
a. Primary Colours: They are the most basic
colours that can be found. They are primary and
basic because, they cannot be obtained by

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mixing other colours. They can only be

obtained as solid colours from natural
substances such as odd colours flowers, leaves,
bark of trees and other forms of vegetation like
those from animal sources, animal fats, etc. The
primary colours are red, yellow and blue.

b. Secondary Colours: They include orange,

green and purple or violet. They can be obtained
by mixing the required proportion of some
primary colours. The following is an example
of how the mixing can be done: Blue + Yellow=
Green, Red + Yellow = Orange and Blue + Red
= Purple or violet.

c. Tertiary Colours: There is also a third group

known as tertiary colours. They can be obtained
by mixing an equal amount of secondary
colours together.

d. Complementary Colours ( Opposite

Colours): They are colours opposite each other
in a colour wheel. Any mixture of two primary
colours is complementary of the third. For
example, when you mix blue and yellow, it
gives you green. The third primary red colour is
therefore, complementary to green. Also, blue
and orange are complementary and so are
yellow and purple.

e. Harmonious Colours: They are colours that lie

near each other on the colour wheel. Since red
lies near yellow, we say they are harmonious.
They are colours that complement each other.

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They can be mixed to form another colour and

go well together. They seem to belong to one
family group because they share a common
basic colour. An example is yellow that is
common to green and orange. Also, we have
blue, blue- green and green.

f. Intermediate Colours: They are colours that

are obtained after mixing p r i m a r y a n d
neighbouring secondary colour. The six
intermediate colours are: Yellow- green, blue-
green, blue- purple, red- purple, red- orange and
yellow- orange (Culled from Asemah, 2016).

Colours serve the following purposes:

a. For Beautification: It adds beauty to our

designs and makes them more attractive if
effectively used.

b. For variety: Colour plays an important role in

our choice of goods and materials around us.

c. For Indicating Mood: Colour affects our

mood at any time and so, we have different
colours for different occasions.

d. To make work of art look more real and solid.

e. For recalling of a situation and making an art

work linger on in our memory.

f. For Signalling: Red connotes danger, evil; blue

connotes love; green represents freshness;
white signifies peace, purity, victories,

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achievements, purity of heart, peace and

goodwill, it also in special cases, speaks of bad-
announcements of the death of very old people;
black stands for evil, death; pink means lady
like, while purple signifies royalty.

g. For Identification: School children, police and

other organisations are easily identified by the
colour of their uniforms.

Colour is a vital means of communication. We

use colours to communicate definite messages either
through the choice of the clothes we wear or outright
body decoration. While red colour for instance, spells
danger to some people, others take it to mean very
religious. The same goes to different colours that we
have (Asemah, 2016). This implies that in the
traditional setting and generally speaking, various
colours have different significations.

2. Appearance

This is categorised into physical appearance, clothes

and accessories. Meanings and symbolism are
attached to different forms of clothing, looks and
demeanour in communication process in various
cultural contexts. Appearance communicates a lot
about people. Thus, our clothes and dresses provide a
good visual signal to our interest, age, personality,
taste and sex. Our choice of colour, clothing, hairstyles
and other factors affecting appearance are also
considered means of visual communication (Business
Communication, 2020). Akpabio (2003) notes that
appearance communicates and it might communicate
about ethnic origin and to some extent, disposition and

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attitude to life. Akpabio further notes that appearance

is discussed from five angles, which includes physical,
dress pattern (clothing and accessories), tattoos, tribal
marks and records.

a. Physical Appearance: Physical appearance is

a major channel of visual communication in
Africa. In Nigeria, people who are tall, light
skinned and have a pointed nose are commonly
identified as Fulanis; while the short and stocky
are mostly south easterners and people from
Calabar (a city in Cross Rivers State of Nigeria)
and so on. Again, short people are said to be
aggressive and try to assert themselves, while
tall people are more amiable, accommodating
and tolerant (Akpabio, 2003).

b. Clothing: Clothes communicate class, social

grouping, associations, age, profession and
other demographic variables. In Africa, it is
easy to identify a person from the kind of cloth
the person is putting on. Again in Nigeria,
velvet material (Akwa-Oche) is associated with
the south-south and south-east geographical
zones; plain George wrapper with the people
from Rivers and Bayelsa States; George
Wrapper, especially Intorica and Supermint
(mainly used for occasions) brands are common
among Delta State people; Ankara (Hollandis
Dutch wax) with people from the Delta and Edo
States, South Eastern and Northern Nigeria.
However, the single yards variant of Hollandis
Ankara is more common with Delta State
women, while the double yards are more
common with the other parts mentioned. Lace

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materials of various brands, quality and colours

are more commonly used in Western Nigeria.
Furthermore, the way it is sewn (designed) and
tied communicates. The Itsekiri people of Delta
State tie the big wrapper underneath and the
small one on top. Igbo women make a blouse
and two wrappers and among the Igbos, a
married woman ties her wrapper full length,
while the unmarried a little above the knee.
Hausa women sew a top and skirt/top and
wrapper plus a head tie; Edo women buba and
wrapper; and a Delta State woman two
wrappers and a matching top commonly made
of a different fabric. Buba and Sokoto/Buba and
wrapper (made of aso-oke, brocade, lace,
ankara or other fabrics) for Yoruba men and
women respectively; and Babaringa and
Kaftan; and dansiki are also associated with the
Hausa/Fulanis. Babanriga (Hausa): Chakwara
(by Kaduna State people); and Agbada
(Yoruba) – an over flowing gown is worn by
both Hausa Fulani and Yoruba men. It is worn
over Kaftan and trouser, and Buba and Sokoto
by Hausa Fulani and Yoruba men respectively.
As a result of acculturation, men from other
Nigerian cultures wear it. However, the way it is
used and the physique of the man wearing the
clothes will communicate the person's area of
origin (Ogwezzy, 1999; Akpabio, 2003).
Adire and Kampala are commonly made
and worn by the Egbas (a Yoruba sub-ethnic
group). Commonly, women make Boubou (a
free long flowing gown) with it. However, as a
result of acculturation, it is now worn by other
ethnic nationalities in Nigeria. The Yorubas are

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also known to wear lace materials more than

other ethnic nationalities in Nigeria.
Traditionally, they are sewn in form of Buba and
wrapper for the women; and Buba and Sokoto
for men. Again, a man who ties wrapper, with a
top, cap and walking stick is normally from
Delta State (Urhobo, Isoko and Itsekiri) of
Nigeria. Chiefs from the Ukwuani Speaking
area of Delta State, Nigeria also dress in the
same way (Ogwezzy, 1999; Akpabio, 2003).

c. Accessories: Accessories are channels of

communication in Africa as various accessories
such as neck/wrist/ and waist beads tell about
places of origin, show royal status/title in the
society, ethic nationality and occasion amongst
others. They are worn to complement clothing
and enhance beauty and dignity. The type of
dress worn by a man or woman shows whether
he or she is a Chief or not. Beads and in some
cases, caps distinguish a chief while the man
with the crown must be the king (Ogwezzy,
1999; Apkabio, 2003). In Nigeria for instance,
beads (a collection of clay moulded and refined
to bring out the desired colours (mostly
brownish and Tawny red) are commonly worn
by chiefs, royal families and also during burials,
christening, chieftaincy installations amongst
others. In Yoruba land, first daughters and first
sons of the dead wear beads on the neck and
wrists during burials. Also, during festivals and
marriage ceremonies, women from Yoruba
land, Edo and Delta States wear mainly red
coloured beads on their necks, wrists and legs;
use them as earrings; and also use them to

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decorate their hairs. Similarly, in northern

Nigeria, cowries, shells from the sea, and other
leather made accessories are used like beads
(Ogwezzy, 1999; Apkabio, 2003).
Northern women are known to wear a lot
of gold necklace, ear rings, wrist watches and
bangles. Asaba (Delta State capital) young girls
are made to wear white beads on their waist to
signify their virginity. Head ties popularly
known as gele is meant for occasion and when
going to church. Southern Nigerian women
commonly tie gele made of various materials
(Aso-oke, mainly by Yoruba women), Damask
and other brands from Switzerland and other
countries) for various occasions. The Abeti-aja
(dog ear-shaped cap) is a Yoruba accessory and
any man wearing it, is more often than not a
Yoruba man. It is worn mostly by warriors in
Yoruba land and made of woollen cloth. The
Hausas (Kaura sub-ethnic nationality) wear it as
well. Generally the Yoruba man wears his cap
and bends it to the left, which is referred to as
gbenusoun, but the Hausa man wears his cap
and shapes it into a circular form (most Hausa
caps are already fashioned to be circular), while
the Ijaw man wears Bowler hat. Hausa women
who are predominantly Muslims generally
wear veil, while the Yoruba Muslim women and
other Nigerian Muslims women also wear veils.
It should be noted that some Nigerian women
who are not Muslims also wear it for fashion or
to identify with the Muslim women. Queens in
Yoruba land plait their hair Suku and decorate
with beads. Also, Fulani women wear plenty of
earrings on their ears and noses; while Fulani
cattle rearers wear raffia hats, carry water
bottles and staffs. Crown made of metal and

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beads are symbol of kingship and worn by the

royal families in various Nigerian ethnic groups
(Ogwezzy, 1999; Apkabio, 2003).
Images of Some Traditional Attires and Accessories
in Nigeria

The Edo people (Binis, Esan, Afemais and other tribes

that live in Edo State) are known for their flashy and
colourful wears. Edo men wear flowing attire made
with voile, Ankara, lace, Guinea or Jacquard, along
with trousers or white wrappers and loose shirts. They
also tend to accessorise their looks with walking sticks
and embroidered caps. Edo women usually adorn their
gowns or wrappers with jewellery made of coral
beads. That said, men are also often seen wearing
corals, especially for special events. The beads are
meant to symbolise freedom and royalty (Falae,
2018).

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The Isoko and Urhobo people are the predominant

tribe in Delta State, particularly in its central and
southern regions. While Urhobo and Isoko are
different peoples, they are often grouped together
because of the similarities in their cultures and
languages (Falae, 2018). As for the way they dress,

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Urhobo/Isoko men usually wear white lace shirts (or

sometimes other pastel shades), Georgian wrappers
and black cowboy hats and they carry walking sticks.
Ladies can be seen wearing two wrappers made out of
the same material as the men's, along with a head tie
and a blouse. Both genders tend to accessorise their
looks with coral bracelets and necklaces (Falae, 2018).

Yoruba women wear Iro and Buba (wrapper and a

top), along with a Gele (head wrap) on their heads and

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Visual Channels of Communication

Ipele (sash) over the shoulder. Usually, the Ipele and

Gele are made out of matching fabrics; some of the
time, the wrapper also matches, while the top can be a
completely different colour.

Igbo men wear Isiagu (a shirt with large lion heads,

crowns or other symbols) or a long shirt, wide-legged
pants or wrappers, as well as caps (for example a
leopard hat called Okpu Agwu or a fez) and corals. The
clothes of Igbo women are very similar to those of the
Edo women, as the main attraction of their outfits is
the abundance of coral. The clothes usually consist of

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a blouse and skirt or a dress. If we are talking about a

special event, such as a wedding, the women can also
be seen carrying horse tails.

These people have traditionally occupied the north of

Nigeria and their culture and clothing share a lot of
similarities, which is why we have grouped them
together. Hausa/Fulani men traditionally wear large

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flowing gowns called Babban riga with robes by the

name of juanni and jalabia. These clothes usually
have elaborate embroidery around the neck. Men also
wear either Tuareg-style turbans or embroidered caps
(hula). As for women, they traditionally wear zani
(wrappers) that are made out of colourful cloth called
atampa, along with matching blouses, head ties and
shawls. They can also be seen with beautiful body
paint ornaments. In everyday life, they can wear
embroidered blouses and wrappers and sport some
face marks and traditional jewellery

The traditional clothes of the Tivs are among the most

fascinating we have ever seen. Both men and women
can be seen wearing striped black and white clothing
by the name of Anger. When they moved to the place
they currently reside in, they realised that the zebras,
whose skin they used to make clothes, was not native
to their new home. That was why when they learned
how to loom, they chose to honour their heritage by
making black and white garments. While traditionally

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the striped cloth was meant to be draped around the

torso, these days, it has been fashioned into all kinds of
clothing, particularly robes and dresses. In order to
accessorise, Tiv people wear black and white bead
jewellery, and men in particular wear striped hats and
sometimes scarves. While there are still lots of peoples
in Nigeria we have not mentioned, most of their
clothing is similar to what we have already described
(Falae, 2018).

The tie-dye attire among the Jukun is a way of life

which, among many other things, serves as a means of
motherhood identification. The Jukun people have
different types of cultural attires made from different
colours, patterns and weaves. Weavers among the
Jukun people produce their materials ranging from
narrow strips of cloth from narrow loom to a large
piece of yard for garment making which is used during
their cultural festivals. During the festival, the king
and his prominent chiefs made a display of authority
and power to their subjects using these varying
colours, pattern and weave. Good examples of Jukun
Adire are: the Kyadzwe, Ayinpo, Adire and Baku.
Kyadzwe is used by the Jukun rulers for royalty.
The finer weaving of the King's royal Kyadzwe
cloth was highly restricted. Skilled royal weaving

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groups were established to produce high-quality

materials. The weaving technique was jealously
guarded and kept secret. Traditionally, the king would
never wear the same cloth in public more than once,
hence hundreds of clothes were woven for him to use.
The Jukun Adire also contains some patterns which
resemble the ones on Adire Eleko. These patterns
resemble fish, birds (eiye in Yoruba), fruits, leaves,
sunsets, rainbows, stars and moon and other spectacles
of nature. The symbolic meaning of the cloth inter-
woven with golden thread represents wealth, green-
freshness and newness, black sadness, red showed
danger and white purity and joy (Royalty Culture,
2017).

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The Etuno (Igarra) people have their traditional attire.

The attire is called It'owoji and the attire reflects origin
of the people. It is seen as one of the most beautiful in
the world and it is made for every Anetuno (meaning
the Igarras). The attire is of a unique quality and
handmade with Owu woven on oguntoro just like the
kente attire of Ghana. The attire is used for all
ceremonies in Igarra land- Azi, Ovarage, Irepa, Aiyo
and many more. The elegance untouched, adds
'beauty' to the meaningful colour. The humble drape
stirring the traditional motion, since time immemorial,
It'owogi never overpowers the struggles woven
within. It marks the beauty of a demure bride, tells tale
of our prejudice and pride. It covers the beauty with all
its layers.
d. Facial Marks: The use of facial mark as a
channel of communication is an age long
practice and common among Africans. Such
marks are usually on the face and are used as a
means of identification, particularly during the
periods of intertribal wars and slave trade. The
marks are sometimes associated with
aesthetics, a concept that varies from tribe to
tribe. Facial marks and scars communicate
personal satisfaction, achievements, status, or
ranks and bravery. It is also meant for personal
gratification. To some people it actually
gratifies, but some people who were given
facial marks, especially on the face when they
were young, grow beards to cover them up for
various reasons such as to hide their identity or
because they do not like the marks (Doob,
1966). In Nigeria, facial marks commonly

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reveal people's ethnic groups i.e. we can tell

where a person comes from by looking at the
facial marks. The Isokos and Urhobos have
short horizontal marks on the cheek; Igbos,
short vertical on the sides of the forehead;
Igalas, three horizontal marks on each side of
the mouth, and one vertical on each cheek;
Yorubas varieties, depending on the sub-ethnic
group. Oyos a group within the Yoruba group,
horizontal “tiger” marks normally four to five
depending on the sub-ethnic group (Project
Material, 2020). See below some images of
facial marks:

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Tattoos: Tattoos are designs printed on people's faces,

hands, body and at calves. They are printed for certain
reasons and easy identifications. Some are tribal, for
fancy or aesthetic interests and to identify easily and
silently aristocrats and other castes, including slaves.
The practice is becoming distasteful for the obnoxious
messages or information it gives of some sets of
people. The habit is fast dying away except the aspects
that relate to the ethnicism and aesthetic interests.
Sooner or later, it will become a thing of the past for the
pains it gives people morally, socially and physically.
Tattoos are in vogue and young boys and girls both in
the developed and developing countries are having
tattoos on their bodies (Ogwezzy, 1999; Akpabio,
2003; Project Material, 2020). See below some
tattoos:

3. Records
Records are assemblage of public information which
are highly informative, reminding and effective.

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Records do not have to be only written on paper. Some

examples of records from outside Africa are the South
Asian treaties on Animal management written on palm
leaves; ancient scripts on bail and leaves preserved in
Thai Buddhist temples and similar leaves containing
records of land ownership and tax obligations in Bali
(Ogwezzy, 1999). Examples of records are very
common among the Binis; that is, people from Edo
State, Nigeria. Records, whether formal or informal
are found in museums, village centres, palaces and
homes are other visual forms of indigenous
communication. Perhaps a study of indigenous
librarianship would reveal many examples of such in
Africa. Local examples of records are found in local
works of art such as paintings, sculpture, excavations
and art pieces. Some examples are written works,
carved, painted, sculptor and excavations, market
sticks, etc. (Ogwezzy, 1999).

Sculptors of the records of the Bini Market woman

(Emotan) who helped to restore the right heir to the
Bini Kingdom.

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CHAPTER FOUR
INSTRUMENTAL CHANNELS OF
INDIGENOUS COMMUNICATION
Instrumental communication is the use of traditional
African musical instruments for communication.
They are divided into three main categories (Akpabio,
2003). Instrumental devices are part of items used for
communication in traditional African society. Ibagere
(1994) refers to it as the hardware of music. Every
group of people in Africa has instrumental devices that
are peculiar to their setting and perform different
communication functions. Such instruments may be
totally different from those used by other people or
they have special meanings as used by people in other
cultures (As cited in Project Materials, 2020).
Ejejimogbe (2020) observes that instrumental media
are instruments which when beaten, blown or
scratched produce diverse sounds and messages based
on the expertise of the traditional newsperson and on
the nature of his or her message.

The Instrumental Elements

The media are idiophones, aerophones and
membranophones. Let us discuss them in detail.

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of Communication

1. Idiophones
They are self-sounding instruments which produce
sound without the addition or use of an intermediary
medium. The sound or message emanates from the
materials from which the instruments are made and
they could be shaken, scratched, struck, pricked
(pulled) or pressed with the feet. In this group we have
the wooden drum, woodblock (Such as Ekele, Oponda
and Uneh found in Delta State of Nigeria), ritual
rattles, bell, metal gong (such as akankang and ekere
found in Akwa-Ibom and Cross River States of
Nigeria), xylophone, hand shakers and pot drum
.a. Drums
Drum is the oldest musical instrument. Bunhart (1995)
described it is as a member of the percussion family
which consists of instruments that are played by
striking them with the hand, sticks, or other objects.
Such other objects may include a pair of enters or
brushes. Akpabio (2003) states that the wooden drum
is made from tree-trunk; to enable it produce
mellifluous sounds, the bark is removed and an
opening is made at the top. This way when struck with
a stick it produces sounds. The drums come in various
sizes and shapes and it has various designations. The
Annangs of Akwa-Ibom State refer to the wooden
drum with the brass sound as Aworum; the smaller one
with the tenor/treble sound as Akporo (Akpabio,
2003). Furthermore, Akpabio (2003), citing Akpabot
(1975) states that among the Ibibios, there are three
main types of wooden drums– Obodom Ubong (royal
drum), Obodom Mbre(common drum used by

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masquerade group),Obodum Usuan Etop or Obodom

Ikot (drum for message dissemination). He however,
did not specify the functions of the royal drum (As
cited in Project Material, 2020).
Drums generally function to summon villagers
to village square meetings and other meetings of
village importance; summon the villagers for
communal labour; remind the people of planned work;
communal celebrations; public launching; farm
harvest; and for entertainment. When people do not
understand the specific messages of the drums, they
seek clarification. For example, canon shots and
drums are used either separately or combined to
announce the death of non-members of the church in
the village. Wooden drums perform four function–
installation of kings and royal celebrations;
announcement of the passing away of kings; alerting
citizens of grave danger and ushering in various
masquerade groups such as Ukwa, Ekombi, Ekong,
Ekpo Nyoho and Ekpe (As cited in Project Material,
2020). The talking drum is an extension of oral
tradition and can vary from membranophones like the
hour- glass -shaped drum of the Yorubas, to the large
tomtoms or silt drum “ekwe” of the Igbos

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b. Bell
Elephant tusk, bells, canon shots and drums are
common African channels of communication.
According to Akpabio (2003), the bell is referred to in
Yoruba as Agogo; Igbo, Ngbirigba; Ibibio, Nkanika
and Hausa, Kararraw. He stated that the bell has
wooden handle from which a conical shape metal is
suspended. It produces sound when the ball-shaped
metal suspended on the inside of the cone-shaped
structure hits the side of the structure in the process of
jiggling (Akpabio, 2003).
A bell is mostly used to get attention, opening as
well as to announce closing and break-time (Akpabio,
2003). Bells are used as communication instruments
mostly by modern institutions, especially the
Christian churches and schools. They are used to
summon the congregation to service. During the
service too, bells are manipulated to provide
melodious tunes to songs. Apart from this, bells are
used to silence the congregation, and to signify the end
of a particular prayer bit, thereby informing the
congregation of the time to open their eyes. Apart from
these, some churches also use the bell to announce the
death of their prominent members. When the bell is
used for this purpose, it is usually manipulated in a
very peculiar manner, which differs markedly from
those of other times for which bells are used. For
example, instead of being struck continuously for only
about three minutes, it is usually struck once in an
interval of one to two minutes; when it is struck this
way, it is meant to announce the death of a person who

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is a member of the church. Also, bells are commonly

used by schools to summon pupils to the schools. In
addition, it is used to inform pupils and their teachers
when to change teaching of subjects. The bell is also
used to announce recess, lunch time, breaks and the
closing of schools. When the bell is rung continuously,
it is meant at such occasions to signify emergencies
which require the pupils to assemble for special
briefings from the school authorities (As cited in
Project Material, 2020).
Bells are used primarily by religious
organisations to summon members to prayers and
services. Besides, the church bell is also used to
communicate the death of any member of the
congregation. Bells also announce the sacrificial rites
being performed before the new yam is eaten in some
communities. It equally indicates that the New Yam
Festival is in progress (As cited in Project Material,
2020).
The foregoing shows that bells have
communication functions in Africa. The various
functions already discussed and the people to whom
its messages are targeted respond to it. However, its
effectiveness could be explained in terms of the low
literacy level of the people that attend churches in the
rural communities, while the relatively high cost of
wrist watches and table clocks could be explained as
being responsible for the effectiveness of the bell in
schools. For the illiterates, however, even those who
can afford wrist watches underutilise them, as they
usually seek the help of others who are literate to

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regulate the wrist watches and read the time of day for
them from their wrist watches.

c. Gongs
The metal gong is made from metal and it is of various
sizes and shapes. It is known in Efik as Akangkang;
Ibibio, Akpongkpong and Igbo, Ogene (Wilson,
1998). Some are carried by the younger persons and
beaten by the older people.
They are beaten to convey different messages.
Gongs are appliances of instrumental sound in
traditional channels of communication. Some are
made of woods and others of metals, but mainly of
metals. They are of different sizes dependent on need
and use. There are king size or giant size which is
about four feet high and others between ten and
eighteen inches long. Their mouths or openings
depend also on size. The king size is really for the
kings and aristocratic orders. They are seen at high
places and palaces. This type of gong serves as “phone
call” for kings and men of importance. If a king is
asleep and has an important and urgent
visitor/message respectively, the king size gong is
used to wake him in the first instance, whether asleep
or awake. That is repeated at intervals to get the king
prepared for appearance and to invite his aids if
necessary (As cited in Project Material, 2020).
Besides royal use of that type, it is also used at
sophisticated dancing groups and at shrines adored
with awful reverence. At shrines, when it is struck,
sudden silence falls on the people and one can hear the

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fall of a pin. At social gatherings, gongs are struck to

call for silence if the gathering is rowdy. The wooden
and Indian bamboo types are mainly for social
activities, particularly at festivals. During festivals,
boys, girls and ladies in particular dance and sing
along streets striking various gongs rhythmically
alongside songs. They are also instruments for social
entertainments. They help ginger people to dance by
sharp and fast recording sound. Furthermore, Mede
(1998), cited in Project Material (2020) states that the
wooden gong known as Ilyu in Tiv is an instrument
used in transmitting important messages (such as
death of kings, chiefs or announcement of local
meetings) across to neighbouring villages. It is also
used in time of emergency or war, to alert neighbours.
Its sounds generally depict the happenings of
importance, horror and/or alarm

d. The Woodblock (Entertainment Instrumentals)

The woodblock which Ibagere (1994) refers to as
chordophone is any instrument which produces sound
through the exertion of pressure on string…and it is
released intermittently. It includes all types of string
instruments such as guitars, harp, lyre and other
related instruments. Describing the woodblock,

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Wilson (1998) states that the woodblock is made from

wood; hollowed inside but flat on its sides and it serves
entertainment function. This description fits the Ekele
or Akpata,Oponda and une used among the Ukwuani
speaking people of Ndokwa West Local Government
Area of Delta State, Nigeria. Ekele or Akpata is an
instrumental appliances built or mounted on half of
gourd keg of the size of a medium football. A small flat
piece of plank is firmly fixed to the gourd. On the
plank, seven small flat umbrella veins/spokes are
firmly strung to it.
The fourth spoke, the central one, is always the
longest with others shorter on both sides to the last
which is the shortest. At both ends of the spokes, two
tiny pieces of iron or wood are plugged across under
them and struck close to the stringed centre to make
them produce the vibration sound required. The two
adjusters therefore help to raise or lower the volume of
sound from it. Besides, on top of the flat plank, a round
hole of about two inches is smoothly chisslled out. It
helps to also control and raise sounds to the volume
required. Oponda is built on a small box of about one
and half feet long and one foot wide. The structure on
top over the hole like Ekele is the same. Both are
operated like a piano. Uneh is a harp. It is made of a
flexible hard shrub cut to size, not longer than four
feet. The head of the stick is torn to admit a string of
cane which is wound round the tail several times. For a
complete set, two strikers –Eka Nkwa are carved also
of hard sticks. Ekele or Akpata, Oponda and une
(varieties of woodblock) are all indigenous channels
of communication used in entertainment during social

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occasions, festivals and funerals to comfort the

bereaved. They speak the languages that suit
occasions. They raise and/or lower people's spirits for
specific occasions (Ogwezzy, 1999, cited in Project
Material, 2020). According to Wilson (1998), cited in
Project Material (2020), just like the metal gong,
woodblock play prominent roles during installation of
kings and at funerals; used to speak to ancestors and
used by members of the Ekpo society in Akwa-Ibom
and Cross Rivers States of Nigeria. It is also used for
information dissemination as well as entertainment
(cited in Project Material, 2020).

e. Xylophones
Local xylophones are made of wooden bars with
varying lengths and a stand (Akpabio, 2003). In this
case, wood, metal or any other hard material is used in
place of membranes and the bottom of the hollow is
usually covered. They are mostly made of many

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hollows (they could be as many as twenty), each

having a different sound, depending on the size of the
hollow. Most of the instruments are made of cow horns
(Ibagere 1994). Ibagere (1994) further stated that
because of the hardness of the materials used, that is
the wood, or metal which is struck or beaten, it
becomes difficult (if not outrightly impossible) to use
the hand. Thus, well-carved sticks (some of which the
beating area is covered with synthetic material) are
used to beat or strike the wood or metal to produce the
sound. For the message produced through the sounds
of the xylophone to be understood, one has to be
familiar with and literate in code of the music from the
xylophone being used to convey the message,
otherwise, one could misinterpret the message and
either fail to be substantially affected by it, or, at best,
be wrongly affected. It is mainly used for
entertainment during occasions. It accompanies other
musical instruments and song for melody, soothing
and rhythm (As cited in Project Material, 2020).

f. Pot Drum
The pot drum is a drum which looks like a water pot
and is made of baked clay. The pot drum has the shape
of a pot and the beater is normally made from foam. It

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is used to accompany chants and help set the rhythm

for dancing. Just as one could use a highly symbolic
kind of music to satisfy one's entertainment
proclivities when one understands the melody from
the drums. Sounds from the pot drum could be
combined with dance. The pot drum is played
regularly by young girls who are passing through the
preliminary stages of marriage, and is used to
accompany chants; it may also set the rhythm for
dancing. It is used most commonly in churches in the
eastern part of Nigeria (Doob, 1966; Akpabio, 2003).

2. Aerophones
They are media which produce sound as a result of the
vibration of a column of air. They comprise media of
the flute family, whistle, reed pipes, horns, ivory tusks,
trumpets, deer horn and reed pipe. They are musical
instruments which produce sound as a result of the
vibration of a column of air which is forced through a
kind of pipe. It is the mouth that is usually used to force
this air through the instrument. The aerophones
include instruments such as the flute family, reed
pipes, horns, trumpet and other such kinds (As
retrieved from https://bowenstaff.bowen.edu.ng/
lectureslides/1585846898.pdf).

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Whistling by forcing breath through closed lips

communicate in Africa. In most parts of African
countries, people use instruments like deer horn, ivory
tusk, gourd or reed pipes as devices and for the most
parts as musical instruments in African
communication. According to Ogwezzy (1999), Odu
is the biggest of all. It is of wild animal large horn; for
example, Antelope. Odu Ossai is the herbalist flute. It
is produced mainly from tips or fractions of elephant
tusks. It could also be fashioned out of soft wooded
trunks of plants. It is called Odu Ossai because it is
used for shrine services. The piper as noted by
Ogwezzy (1999) exerts greater force than others to
produce the required sounds and messages. It sends
the head reeling with burning desire to act in defiance
of even death. It acts, serves in absence and defiance of
Ekpili or Eze-Anu. It is a master of itself and can appear
in any show that demands force and valliancy. It raises
very high sensations in people. Ulete are flutes
produced from good branches of Indian bamboos. The
tail of a node of the branch is neatly cut off. The other
end is also neatly cut off very close to the corked point.
It usually has seven holes all on top and on straight
line. However, the first hole is separated from the other
six which are located closer to the open end. The
piper's hole is located far from others to enable him
blow or pipe comfortable into it for his desired music
for social entertainments (As cited in Ogwezzy, 1999).
Odu is the instrument used in summoning the
Council of Elders' meeting – the council of the
community. Early in the morning at about five-thirty
(5:30am) on Eke days (native Sunday, of nine days

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interval); it is blown to invite everybody to the Council

of Elders, chiefs and all. It could be blown also on
emergency cases on ordinary days when something
requiring the attention and action of the people such as
sharing of meat got from hunting expedition or sharing
fish from community lakes and when there is any
emergency. Odu Ossai produces only a kind of sharp
sound to show the presence of a herbalist or a
physician. When a physician visits “sacred places”
such as cemeteries, grave yards, lakes, streams, rivers,
evil forests etc. they blow it once on a sharp note to
inform or warn spirits of the approach of people. Its
use is believed to invoke spirits, warn them of the
presence of lay people and invite them to the services
of herbalists. It is one of herbalist's tools. It has a place
among collections of ancestral shrines of rich
families.
The uses of Opi are numerous, but mainly for
social purposes. It is used to summon people to
community labour, hunting and festival camps and
camp sites; and inform farmers that it is time for them
to leave for home for security reasons; encourage,
discourage, stop, warn and moderate a speaker in an
audience. It calls the hunters together in emergency. It
also coordinates the hunters and points the way to a
lost hunter in the bush. At nights, this same medium
sounds to ward off thieves. The whistle also summons
hunters to meetings. It informs them of the time to go
for game-hunting and when to return home. It offers
secret guide or advice to a speaker and people who
understand its language. It also offers checks and
balances on a speaker's time by secretly advising him

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on brevity. It is also used during festivals to raise

festival songs for the chief artists. The trumpeter uses
it to direct and stimulate the artists and the whole
dance. At times of emergencies, it is used to raise
alarm and warn the people of possible danger. It is also
of great value when searching for a missing person.
The trumpeter uses it to call the person's name, alert
him/her of people searching for him/her, and of the
direction of the people. It is used to tell the person to
indicate that he/she is alive and how to reach him/her.
Furthermore, Opi is very important to a chief on his
initiation day both as an escort, information carrier or
errand man in inviting people to the ceremony. During
the ceremony, it directs and tells the new initiate on
how to take steps and other actions during installation
ceremonies.
One exclusive use of Ekpili or Eze-Anu is to
raise alarm. To hear an alarm from Ekpili or Eze-Anu is
to see yourself in a war front or search for a missing
person. Therefore, to hear the blaring of an Ekpili or
Eze-Anu is a warning to charge yourself with whatever
would make you a valiant man. The only mild sound of
Ekpili or Eze-Anu is heard when a king or a noble or
chief is led- through the town and on ceremonial
occasions. The owner never blows it except a dire need
arises (Culled from Ogwezzy, 1999).
Cow horn is used to remove bad blood or poison
and administer drugs among the Hausa/Fulani in
Northern Nigeria. It is also used in consuming palm
wine as well as to announce the death of a great farmer.
It dictates tones in music and steps in dances. It tells

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actors of what to do, how to do, when to do and where

to go. It carries and delivers all messages and
information that any sound system is required. The
sound from it is very high, harsh, inciting and most
sensational. Ulete serves in delivering messages like
others, but mainly for entertainments, social and
personal needs. This medium is blown like a trumpet.
It is used by the age group to communicate communal
work to members; while youths practise using it to call
and invite their loved ones to their secret hide outs
without parents knowing what is happening around
them. The flute referred to as Imyar is a phallic symbol
and consequently played only by men in Tiv land. It is
used to relay information on death, war, marriage or
other feasts depending on the tune played. It is equally
used for praise singing and at funeral of members of
Ebre society in Akwa-Ibom and Cross-River States);
during the installation of Emirs and marriages in
Northern Nigeria; in announcing Ogun festival in
Ondo town (a town in Ondo State, Nigeria); and to
direct Ojomu during new yam festival in Yoruba land
(Mede, 1998; Ogwezzy, 1999; Wilson, 1999;
Akpabio, 2003).

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3. Membranophones
They are media on which sound is produced through
the vibration of membranes. They include all varieties
of skin or leather drum. These drums are beaten or
struck with well-carved sticks. Thus,
membranophonesare media on which sound is
produced through the vibration of membranes. They
include all varieties of skin or leather drum. These
drums are beaten or struck with well carved sticks. For
instance, among the various Nigerian groups, skin
drums of various sizes and shapes abound. Perhaps the
most popular, because it is the most exposed and
intricate in its craftsmanship, is the Yoruba talking
drum, locally called dundun. Some call it stick drum.
Thus, examples of membranophones are all kinds of
traditional African skin drums, for example, talking
drum, bata drum, omele, acuba, etc.
Omu (1978) notes that when some drums are
expertly sounded, they are capable of conveying
specific meanings; they “talk. The “talking drum” is
one of the most fascinating agencies of
communication in Africa. The Yorubas of South
Western geo-political zone of Nigeria have an
impressive array of talking drums sets and probably
possess the richest heritage of drums the prominent of
which is dundun–said to be able to imitate all the tones
and gibes in Yoruba speech, hence can be used to
communicate insults, praises, admonition and even
proverbs which are understood by the initiated.
Akpabio (2003) observes that skin drum goes by
various names in different parts of Nigeria and the size

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of the drums are factored into the names they are

given. Known as Ibit among the Ibibios,
differentiation is made between the big and small
drums with the addition of the prefix (es) eka(-) and
etok(-) for the former and latter respectively. The
situation is different in the Hausa language as each size
of drum goes by a different name: emi-big; Kalangu-
medium and Kanzagi-small. Among the Yorubas who
have a rich variety of skin drums, one encounters
names such as Gangan, Bata, Sakara, Omele,
Dundun, Iya Ilu, etc.
During festivals, talking drums are put into
rampant uses by all age grades and groups to call their
grades and groups into moods, actions and to assemble
them. During other ceremonies, they are used to
encourage chief artists– dancers and wrestlers to be
keen, strong and dexterous (Ogwezzy, 1999). Talking
drums direct chiefs on steps and skills to adopt during
public exhibitions to avoid errors and win public
acclamations during their initiations in foot-work
dances. So, one other special use of the talking drum is
the noble dance during installation of chiefs. During
the dance, the rub-a-dub drums tell, direct and
influence actors' steps and behaviours at every dance.
It incites, excites and stirs them into gale action, when
they have to demonstrate various aspects of past
adventures and gallantry. When messages and
instructions from the instruments die down or slowly
fade away; actors slump as if they have just ended a
marathon race (Ogwezzy, 1999).
Talking drums reproduce the tonal pattern of a

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sentence in the proper sequence and can be heard over

a long distance. Their community functions are two-
pronged: official and social. Officially, they are used
to call meetings, for making some official
announcements, at sacrificial ceremonies and for
pumping the adrenaline during wars. Socially, they
provide gaiety during festivities and ceremonies like
new-yam festivals, weddings and chieftaincy titles,
and they provide the atmosphere of suspense and
tension during wrestling matches. In Nigeria today,
drummers can be seen at almost every social and even
funeral event, soliciting for money by singing the
praise of wealthy and highly placed members of the
society. The talking drum serves for two-pronged
communicative functions: Official and social
functions. Officially, they are used to call meetings,
for making some official announcements, at sacrificial
ceremonies and also for pumping the adrenaline
during wars. Socially, they provide gaiety during
festivities and ceremonies like new-yam festivals,
weddings, and chieftaincy title taking; they also
provide the atmosphere of suspense and tension
during war and wrestling matches (Asemah, 2011).

Talking drums (Gangan)

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CHAPTER FIVE
DEMONSTRATIVE CHANNELS OF
AFRICAN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Demonstrative media as forms of communication use
music and signal thereby making it more of aural
communication. It also includes canon shots,
gunshots, campfires, whistles, etc. Music is a form of
group and mass communication in all societies. Music
is an unconsummated symbol which evokes
connotation and various articulations, yet is not really
defined.

1. Music
Music is one of the greatest forms of communication
in the world. Even though we do not understand the
language a singer uses, we get the innate pleasure of
sounds and their concatenation. If we look around our
surroundings, we will find that our every action
implies some form of motion and is usually
accompanied by some kind of sound. It is believed that
music has its roots in the impersonal and unintentional
activities (Sharma, 2013). It could come in songs,
choral and entertainment music. Songs convey
meanings that relate to the cultural norms and values
of the people. The songs can be used to warn, entertain

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or to simply inform. Itinerant musical entertainment

groups sing all kinds of songs- praise songs and
generally criticise wrong doings of individuals in the
society. Names of those being satirised or praised may
be mentioned or descriptions of their physical or
personality attributes given; where they live or what
they do may form part of such songs. Grapevine
stories concerning events that are being planned for
the society may be featured as a way of alerting the
generality of the people. Such groups are potent
sources of information (Asemah, 2011).
Music is the art of giving structural form and
rhythmic pattern to combinations of sound produced
instrumentally or orally. Music is sound arranged into
pleasing or interesting patterns; it forms an important
part of many cultural and social activities. People use
music to express feeling and ideas. Music also serves
to entertain and relax. Music is a basic form of African
communication. Music is defined as the art or science
of combining vocal or instrumental sounds (or both) to
produce beauty of form, harmony and expression of
emotion. It is the art of making pleasing combinations
of sounds in rhythm harmony and counterpoint. This
means that music does not only consist of songs, but
other accompaniments (sounds, lyrics, etc.) that go
along with the human voice.
The foregoing definition becomes very
important when one considers that various
instruments used in African music can convey
different messages, even when a combination of
instruments is used, it also conveys a message. It has a
universal language of its own and it is tradition based

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(Hornby, 1984; Pearsall, 1999). Ibagere (1994) notes

that music could be referred to as the melodic
expression of feelings in sound and the expression is
done in harmony. Because of its nature, music is
divided into a number of sub-groups through which
Africans communicate. The main feature of this mode
is immediacy.
Functions of Music
Music is a unique form of communication as it does
not only function as emotional expressions, aesthetic
satisfaction and symbolic representations of
innermost feelings, but also contributes in the
continuity and stability of cultures and integrity of
human society. Music speaks not to our thoughts as
words do; it speaks through our hearts and spirits, to
the very core and root of our souls. Music soothes us,
stirs us up, it puts noble feelings in us, it can make us
cringe and it can melt us to tears. Music conveys and
responds to what is deep inside the human soul.
The musician conveys emotions and innermost
feelings, which are universal and are experienced by
all in one way or the other. Music also helps humans
from different cultures or societies to connect with and
understand one another. Thus, it can be argued that
from the ancient times, music has been an important
aspect of human life. The communication value of
music is, however, more apparent in Africa where
music forms a very important part of their rich cultural
heritage. This explains why music is used to transmit
the cultural values of the society in different parts of
African countries (Sharma, 2013).

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Music is used to encourage people to work; lull

children to sleep; praise the living and the dead and
even as it is believed in Africa, aids the passage of the
dead. Music can be used as a double edged sword to
promote peace and war; forge a link between past and
present; forge national unity; and sensitise the society
and mobilise people for development. Thus, it could
be used to promote family planning, hard work,
honesty, accountability, transparency, and the
prevention of HIV transmission. Music could take the
form of grapevine stories to alert the people on
development planned for them (Wilson, 1998).
People play music during ceremonies, at work,
during personal and social activities. In Africa, music
is used for different occasions and purposes – it is used
during religious worship/festivals, wars, peace time,
celebrations/ceremonies (marriage, christening,
house warming, chieftaincy, burial, etc.) and as an
instrument of vengeance by ways of sarcasm or
euphemism. Music plays important roles during
festivals. In fact, many festivals are more like
carnivals. Thus, Fola (1998) argues that music is used
to announce the beginning of major festivals in most
Yoruba communities. He stated that there are usually
different drums and drumbeats for announcing each
festival.
Before going to war, music is used to mobilise
local warriors into action. The musicians sing their
praises extolling their past achievements, as well as
the achievements of their progenitors by singing their
Oriki (Yoruba term for praise name). On hearing their
Oriki, the warriors are usually charged and propelled

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into action because they would like to justify the

honour accorded to them. This even goes on during the
actual war to encourage them to fight gallantly until
they win. On return from such wars and for the party
that won, it is celebration galore and music is on hand
(Project Materials, 2020).
Celebration is part of African culture and
Africans enjoy celebrating. Africans celebrate after
new birth; during house warming, chieftaincy,
marriages and when joining a new age group amongst
others. Essentially, any outstanding achievement in
life of an individual calls for celebration in Africa.
Relatives, friends and well-wishers are normally on
hand to celebrate and rejoice with the celebrant. Such
occasions are characterised by eating, drinking,
singing, dancing, donating and rejoicing. It is rare to
have a celebration in Africa without music to entertain
guests.
The power of music in the social development
of a people rests in its capacity to raise issues of
concern, condemn actions that are inimical to change,
entertain and commend individuals who work for the
advancement of society. From this assumption, a
communication-hinged function can be associated
with music. Communication is an interactive process
between people and information providers,
extension/advisory service and the government in
which information, knowledge and skill relevant for
development are exchanged (Inyang & Nsereka,
2021). Chester & Neelameghan (2006), cited in
Inyang & Nsereka (2021) attest to the fact that rural
communities in Africa constitute the larger percentage

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of the population whose information and

developmental needs are not adequately met and
consequently they have not been able to productively
participate in the development process and enjoy the
benefit thereof. The danger facing many countries is
the drift to the cities by the young, attracted by urban
facilities. The only way to prevent this is through rural
development. Communication can be the cheapest and
swiftest method of reaching rural communities, using
the power of music as a veritable channel to reach
people on a wide range of issues and provide some
expertise where none has existed. Music is food for the
soul. It is a tool for social mobilisation, political
sensitisation, social criticism, campaigns of various
sorts and ultimately entertainment (Inyang & Nsereka,
2021).
Music has many socio-psychological effects on
people. Music is a resource of considerable
intellectual, artistic, cultural, technological, and
economical breadth and depth. Young people,
especially, devote huge amounts of time and money to
music listening. Music has social effects which are so
noticeable; they have claimed that music has many
different functions in human life, nearly all of which
are essentially social. In infancy, lullabies promote a
fundamental social bond, namely maternal
attachment. The potency with which music stimulates
and modulates interpersonal relationships in social
events (e.g. concerts, sporting events, parties, dates,
dances, ceremonies, rallies, dinners) has led authors to
refer to it as a 'social lubricant' (Hargreaves & North,
1997; Lewis, 2002; Milligan, Atkinson, Trehub,
Benoit & Poulton, 2003; Roberts, Henriksen & Foehr,
2009).

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Communicative Aspects of Music

Music communicates various feelings, ideas and
emotions through its communicative elements such as
rhythm, harmony and sound.
i. Rhythm Music: It is inherent in us and it is
evident from the rhythm of the heartbeat. Music is
believed to be expressed in time and is inherent in all
aspects of nature. It not only beautifies the melody but
it also makes imagination melodious in a certain sense
of the world. Someone has rightly observed that
'rhythm is the pulsation of melody, say, of the
universe.' Tagore defines rhythm this way, “What is
rhythm? It is the movement generated and regulated
by harmonious restriction. This is the creative force in
the hand of the artist. So language as words remains in
unadvanced prose form as they do not give any lasting
feeling of realty. The moment they are taken and put
into rhythm, they vibrate into radiance.”
ii. Harmony: It involves the notes harmonious to
each other, that is, notations in same scale, which make
complex, but beautiful textures in music. So harmony
is a form of innovation and experimentation, which
heightens the meaning and beauty of music. Many
musicians and singers find harmony to be the ultimate
basis of all music.
iii. Sound Harmony: It is accompanied by timbre
and texture which are the characteristic qualities of
sound and sound combinations. Sound, an important
element of music, is a measure to qualify a good
music. It must have a pleasing melody, harmony,
texture and good rhythm. The combination of these
elements helps in communicating the intended
emotions in listeners. Therefore, true music becomes

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the voice of our emotions and feelings in such a way

that we are transported into a world of joy and beauty
and also enables us to look at the reality in a new
manner. So music becomes the manifestation of our
spirit and soothes our mind and heals our heart (Culled
from Sharma, 2013)
.
2. Poetry
Poetry in whatever language is a respected literary
genre. Poetry is an important mode of communication
in Africa. Poetry is mostly used for entertainment.
This does not presuppose that all poetry in traditional
African societies are sung, although Mython (1983)
erroneously believes that “poetry tends to be chanted
or sung” in Zambia where he conducted his study.
Poetry is usually regarded as emotions recollected in
tranquillity (tranquil moment) because of its “high
order” as demanded of the poet and audience.
According to Ibagere (1994), cited in Project
Materials (2020), poetry is language with the most
connotative meaning. This is a beautiful construction
of spoken words about something, an experience,
people or the society itself in the best ways. This
rendered in the most concise and most connotative of
ways.
Poetry is usually in verse and the words used are
arranged differently from ordinary everyday usage.
Most times, emphasis is on sound of words as well as
the connotative meaning as distinct from the
denotative meaning. In Africa, poetry is used at
different occasions, especially those of social
significance. Poetry is mostly used for entertainment.
It could be rendered in form of praise singing as in

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Hausa/Fulani culture. Among the Yorubas Ewi (oral

poetry) is often used to inform, eulogise
achievements, guide individuals through the murky
waters of the world's hazardous terrain, to celebrate
the inexorable link between life and death and to
satirise unacceptable behaviours and practices. Again,
because of its entertainment, intellectual and
instructional values, oral poetry can be laden with and
used to convey development information (Project
Materials, 2020).
Poetry can be that articulate tool that gives the
voice to those hidden parts of us: sensitive, beautiful,
vulnerable, brave, but weak, dark and frightening at
the same time. Connection to poetry is always
personal and deep and it goes to the farthest roots of
our being and helps us recognise, accept and
communicate who we are: who we truly are. To
anyone who is struggling with finding direction in life,
self-doubt and self-acceptance, poetry can help reveal
those hidden treasures, strengths that move us
forward; helps us discover our place in the world. In
your writing and reading poetry you can find the
intimacy you might be lacking in the extroverted and
often shallow world we are living in
(Businessrhyme.com, 2016).

Communication Functions of Poetry

Poetry is a deeply valuable tool for communication
and artistic expression. When you read a poem, you
seek for something and when you write a poem, you
communicate. Communication is the exchange of
information or ideas. There are many means of
communication at our disposal, ranging from complex

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spoken language to simple hand gestures. Writing is

one of the foremost methods of communication, used
in a wide variety of settings, from office memos to
artistic expressions.
Poems can use simple, straightforward
language to convey clear ideas, or it can use complex,
opaque language to communicate vague, even
uncertain, concepts. Like music, poetry has a unique
ability to fill a reader's mind with images and fill their
heart with feeling. As a communication tool, poetry
stretches language, allowing a poet to communicate in
a way that other forms of written communication, such
as regular conversation or even stories, do not offer.
We can use imagery and sensation to reach a deeper
level of communication, even if our poetry is not
infused with secret meaning and hidden messages
(Denovan, 2018).

Features of a Poetry
Here are some of the features of poetry:
I. Experience: Some poems share experiences. They
might elaborate on an experience, passing judgement
on it, placing a value on it or revealing how the
experience affected the narrator. They show
something that happened, and it could be anything
from a baby's first steps to a grueling fight on a
battlefield.
ii. Description: Other poems paint a picture or set
a scene. In some cases, there is no action; nothing
happens in the poem, it just is. These poems show us
something, like a snapshot from a camera. Descriptive
poems paint a picture with words.

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iii. Stories: Many classic plays and children's

stories are written in poetic form, and plenty of poems
tell a story. “Annabel Lee” by Edgar Allan Poe is one
such poem.
iv. Ideas: Poems can also share ideas. “The Road
Not Taken” by Robert Frost is often interpreted to
mean that taking a less-traveled road is beneficial,
although this interpretation can be disputed.
v. Tributes: Tributary poems pay homage to
anything from people to nature, communicating that
the object of the tribute is being honoured, valued, and
celebrated (Denovan, 2018).

3. Chants and Incantations

According to Ibagere (1994), chants and incantations
are closely related to poetry. Chants are special kinds
of songs. The difference between a song and a chant is
that while a song is usually done articulately in
musical succession, a chant may not. Incantations are
rendered significantly in praise or worship.
Incantation, like poetry, is a specially constructed
language, also having connotative meaning. Chants
and incantations could be used at occasions of social
significance, like occasions designed to provide
entertainment and during worship. Depending on the
circumstance, incantation could be used to serve
different purposes. In religious worship, it could be
used as an inducement to get into character or used to
commune with extra-terrestrial forces. In this regard,
it falls under the esoteric mode of communication
(Ibagere, 1994)

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4. Gunshots
Gunshots are used to communicate during festive
periods. In Igarra, Edo state, the celebration of the
“Abba Festival” is accompanied with gunshots. It is a
festival that is celebrated once in 7 years. During the
festival, there are lots of gunshot to show that the
festival is on; also, during the burial a very old man or
woman, especially the oldest in a family or even in the
community, the sounds of gunshots often rent the air.
When the village head dies in Igarra, a lot of gunshots
also rent the air.
Other demonstrative channels under the signals
are camp fire, cannon fire, whistle call, fire, road
blocks and mark on roads.

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CHAPTER SIX
ICONOGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
This is essentially the use of icons for communication.
Icons are generally symbols and the meanings are also
culture-based. African indigenous systems call for a
high level of intercultural competence to be able to
associate, and communicate efficiently and
effectively with people from another culture. Some
icons have been described under visual
communication. Do not forget that meanings can be
denotative or connotative (https://bowenstaff.bowen.
edu.ng/lectureslides/1585846898.pdf).
Icons are symbols. For instance, your
photograph is your icon. In a symbolic relation, the
medium is able to suggest reality because not through
any necessary or inherent connection, but through
custom and habituation, the symbol arouses response
very similar to those evoked by reality itself. In some
parts of Nigeria, when people who are living abroad
want to do their traditional marriages and cannot come
to Nigeria either for reasons of cost or questionable
travel documents or their documents are expired and
they might be refused entry when returning to the
foreign country, their families normally place the
enlarged and perhaps framed photographs of the bride
and the bride groom in a strategic place at the venue of

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the ceremony to represent the couple. This has become

established in many parts of Nigeria and it is
understood by many Nigerians.
Akpabio (2003) notes that icons are generally
regarded as standing for or representing something; do
not uniformly communicate the same message and are
culture-specific as what they communicate is based on
a society's history, experience and circumstance,
elements, symbols and icons . This might account for
why a number of icons have been in use to
communicate and people decoded their meanings as a
result of long association with their use. Iconographic
media communicate ideas or information through the
use of objects or “concrete reality in inanimate or
animate form.
Every group of people in Africa has
iconographic communication devices that are peculiar
to their setting that perform different communication
functions. Such devices may be totally different from
those used by other people or they have special
meanings as used by people in other cultures. So,
iconographic communication devices are items that
transmit messages to the target audience. Essentially,
iconographic communication devices are part of items
used for communication in traditional African society.
Although, iconographic communication has been
defined, it is essential to emphasise their
communication functions. All iconographic
communication devices employed in indigenous
channels of communication have various functions.
Modes of Iconographic Media
There are two modes of iconographic media; these are
the floral media and the objectifics.

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1. Floral Media: Floral media involves using

selected plants of the local vegetation to convey
particular information or ideas to people living or
passing through the place where the media are used.
Examples are young unopened palm frond, okon tree,
nsei, palm stems, mimosa.
Floral as iconographic communication device
can be classified into young unopened palm frond,
okono tree, Nsei, Nyama, Mimosa (These are found in
Akwa-Ibom and Cross Rivers States of Nigeria) and
plantain stems.
There are some other signs that are associated to
floral, plants and crops. For instance, when branches
of fresh shrubs are dropped across a path or road it tells
people to avoid it and follow the open one for security
reasons and safe arrival at intended destination. A
shrub cut mid-way and strung down with a rope by the
entrance to a road or path tells that there is danger
ahead and should be avoided to escape being trapped
or miss the way; when standing grasses are gathered
and knotted on top, it shows arrival at the desired
destination and a sign of spot of conquest or a feat. It is
more commonly used by hunters or fishermen to tell
people scouting for them, that they are within the area.
If a grown plantain or banana plant is cut off
high at the top growing end and planted with the
sucker base or end turned upwards, it is a clear
declaration of war on the people who own the land and
against the people who planted it. By this, it is said that
the cut off end or tail of the plantain is dug into the
ground with the roots and sucker upward. The planter
is the aggressor. It has no remedy, except a very quick
and powerful intervention is employed. Cutting of
yam vines and destruction of growing food crops in
farms are traditional channels of communication. The

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action is carried out by the aggrieved party to speak out

that they are on revenge against a grievous offence
against them. Offences which attract this type of
action are always very serious, such as manslaughter
by a fellow citizen or relation. The offending party
never takes retaliatory actions, which is the only way
they can demonstrate remorse for the ignominy
committed by their person or relation (Ogwezzy,
1999).
Planting of crops like maize and/or cassava
vertically along ridges in a farm denote a boundary
between two contiguous/adjacent farms which may
either belong to two or more people; a hunter who
carries a gun with a palm frond label clearly tells the
villagers that he has shot a great animal. Similarly, a
motor vehicle tagged with palm frond explains to the
public that a corpse is in the vehicle (Ogwezzy, 1999).
2. Objectifics: It is the use of objects as
communication. This concrete representation of
messages is meaningful in the context in which it is
used. For instance, presentation of snail shell to
someone is symbolic and conveys a powerful
meaning. Other objectifics used are feather, red or
white cloth, cowries, pigeon, egg, kola nut and so on
(Ejejimogbe, 2020). Objectified icons are charcoal
(treated as black colour under visual communication),
white dove, kola-nut, cow tail, white clay (treated
under native chalk), egg, feather, cam-wood (treated
as red colour under visual communication), calabash,
beads (treated as accessories under visual
communication), limb bones, drinking gourds and
flag.
Marks on trees or grasses and leaves tied
incertain ways are also used to send messages.
Akpabio (2003) says to show that a visitor is

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welcomed, drinking water is presented first. Among

the Igbos, it is the presentation of kolanut that
represents this sentiment. White egg, white he-goat,
white clothes, depending on the culture represent
ritual objects or connection with the occult. Feathers
are used in coronation as well as to indicate titled
chiefs. Cowries and kolanuts are used in divination to
determine the will of deities. Alligator pepper
indicates long lasting relationship as in marriage.
This might account for why the Igbos say: “He
who brings kola-nut, brings life.” Also, cowries and
kola-nuts are used in divination to determine the will
of deities; a white, red and black flag at some points in
some Nigeria communities signify a shrine and or the
presence of a traditional priest; rainbow signifies that
no one should visit the stream; shooting star heralds
the death of an important individual; broom could
communicate quarrel and settlement; alligator pepper
signifies long-lasting relationships as used in
traditional marriage in Nigeria; white egg, white he-
goat and white cloth in most Nigerian cultures
represent rituals or connection with occult; drinking
water (In northern Nigeria) and presentation of
drinking water to a visitor signifies that the visitor is
welcomed, cow tail, metallic staff, hand fan and horse
Tail communicate chieftaincy ranks and titles. Those
who carry metallic staffs are war lords or the village
warriors. Those who hold the large hand fan are
another set of warriors and the chief couriers, while the
horse-tail bearers are the elders. The mere sight of any
of these examples communicates their status and rank
(Ogwezzy, 1999; Akpabio, 2003).

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CHAPTER SEVEN
INSTITUTIONAL CHANNELS
OF COMMUNICATION
Institutional communication is the use of traditional
authorities, socio-political institutions, religious/grass
root organisations and associations and kingship
grouping to convey messages.
Institutions are part of traditional African
society. There are various institutional structures that
must be taken into account in studying African
communication systems. Experts have even
recognised that knowledge of and relationships with
institutional structures can facilitate or inhibit
expected development outcomes. This justifies why
this chapter i s focused on institutional
communication. Since the traditional authorities and
socio-political organisations are the custodians of a
people's cultural heritage, it is essential that they
should be “properly” understood in the context of
African communication (National Open University of
Nigeria, 2006). It is important to ascertain most
acceptable ways of approaching, looking and
discussing with the traditional, socio-political
organisations in a community and to know the flow of
communication. Even in some cultures, it might be
necessary to go through an intermediary; in some
others the best approach could be to seek audience
with the highest traditional authority like the

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Emir/Sultan, Eze/Obi, Ooni/Alaafin, etc. The flow of

communication is culture-specific, but the guiding
principle is to recognise traditional structures in Africa
(National Open University of Nigeria, 2006). Let us
discuss some of the institutional channels.

1. The Traditional Authorities

The traditional authorities are the traditional rulers or
leaders as the case maybe. Traditional rulers or
authorities continue to hold a symbolic cultural role in
most African countries. They have become informal
administrators and points of liaison between local
communities and state institutions.
Officially, traditional authorities do not have
formal political power, but still, the traditional rulers
have considerable influence and respect of their
people. Traditional leaders maintain the monarchical
style of rule and hold the titles introduced by their
ancestors. In the time of the pre-colonial period, a
territory of modern Nigeria was occupied by many
ethnic groups. In these times, the recognised rulers
were the main political figures, who controlled the life
of people. The main empires of these times were
Benin, Oyo, Sokoto and Kanem-Bornu (Agu, 2018).
In the time of the colonial era, many of
traditional rulers played only symbolic roles. But the
relationships between traditional rulers and the
colonial administration evolved over time. As a result,
in some cases, traditional rulers were the means of
communication between colonial administration and
local people. In the time of independent Nigeria, the
role of traditional rulers has become even more
evolved. Traditional rulers are still highly respected in
many communities and states and have considerable

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economic and political influence in the country. There

is intense competition for royal seats of the dynasties,
although they have no formal power in the democratic
structure. The rulers play a significant role in the
communication between people and state government
(Agu, 2018). The traditional authorities are, therefore,
institutions of communication in Africa as they
communicate the culture of the people to the society
and also help to preserve the cultural heritage. Some of
the traditional authorities in Nigeria are Emir of Kano,
who is one of the most powerful traditional rulers in
Nigeria; Aalafin of Oyo, who is considered as the most
powerful leader of Yoruba land; Sultan of Sokoto, who
is an influential leader of Northern Nigeria and
spiritual leader of Muslims in the country; Ooni of Ife,
one more influential figure of Yoruba land; Oba of
Benin, the position held by Omo N'Oba N'Edo Uku
Akpolokpolo Erediauwa II, who is a ruler of historic
Eweka dynasty of Benin kingdom, Oba of Lagos,
another powerful leader of Yoruba land, the ruler is a
ceremonial and traditional leader of one of the largest
cities in Africa– Lagos, Olu of Itsekiri (Warri
kingdom), who is the leader of Itsekiri speaking
people, Olubadan of Ibadan, Otaru of Igarra and Otaru
of Auchi. Others are Etsu Nupe, Gbomgwom Jos, Obi
of Agbor, Obuenwe of Emu Kingdom, Igwe of Okpai,
Owelle of Onitsha, Attah of Igala, among others.

Roles of Traditional Rulers

Some of the roles of traditional rulers are:

I. Achieving Democracy in the Country Traditional

rulers often give advice to modern politicians
in such questions as economic policy, security,
culture and customs, and

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general wellbeing of the citizens. Because of

long experience of the dynasties, the monarchs
and kings often have the ability to give wise
advice in many questions related to the ruling.
Every traditional leader builds his relationships
with people on the basis of traditions that were
developed for centuries. This experience
sometimes is very helpful for modern
politicians.

ii. Order and Peace: Often, traditional leaders

settle land disputes and resolve minor conflicts,
they are more successful in these issues than
many modern politicians. Their function is not
to give the conflict a chance to escalate into any
hostility. Unfortunately, land conflicts are still
prevalent in rural areas. In this situation, the
rulers try to be the guarantors of peace and solve
the disputes in the most peaceful way. Order and
peace are the vital conditions for the economic
development of any country. Government
administration relies on local traditional leaders
who can support order and peace in their
domains.

iii. Religious Sanctions: Traditional leaders still

have the power to use religious sanctions in the
cases of stealing, quarrels of married couples or
neighbours, and land disputes. Only traditional
leaders have the power to use local religion as
an instrument to keep order and exclude the
cases of misbehaviour in local areas and
communities.

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iv. Outstanding Members of Society: This role is

very important for the development of
democracy in the country. Outstanding
members of society help to support moral
directions in the society, often traditional
leaders are considered role models for the
community. They play an essential role in the
formation of communities of good citizens.

v. Culture and Customs Protection: Often, local

traditional rulers are considered as spiritual
leaders. They are the keepers of traditional
religions and customs. This is a very important
role in the time of globalisation and losing the
traditions.

vi. Social Authorities: The authority of traditional

rulers often influences many essential social
questions, for example, the rulers can influence
government election process. Their influence is
significant almost in any social issue.

vii. Chair Meetings of Elders: Such chair

meetings of elders play a significant role for the
wellbeing of a domain. This is the main method
of regulation of the issues in the community.

viii. Taxes and Civil Duties: Traditional rulers

mobilise local citizens to pay taxes and not
forget about their civil duties. This is a common
responsibility of local government and
traditional rulers. They educate people about
civil duties. It is especially an important
function of rulers in rural areas (Culled from
Agu, 2018).

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2. Socio-Political Organisations/Associations
Under the above subtitle we shall treat the following:

i. Age Groups
Age Groups are old institutions that comprise mostly
males within the same age-brackets-usually those
born within one to five years age range. The Age
Groups help in getting things in order in the society
they belong. The names of age groups are derived
either from the name of their patron or father. The Age
groups carry out community development projects
which according to Ifemesia (1979) include the
cleaning of the source of water supply, the building
and maintenance of roads and bridges, village squares,
Assembly houses and deity shrine; the execution of
laws and decision of the council of elders and the
lineage or village assembly, including the collection of
dues and fines, the punishment of crime and the burial
of the dead. The age groups also help in educating the
young groups about the traditions and need for the
maintenance of their culture.

ii. Mothers' Clubs

A Mothers' Club (MC) is an association of volunteer
women who adhere to the principles of the Red Cross
and come together to exchange and sensitise other
members of the community on topics they have
previously been trained on such as maternal and child
health, WASH, nutrition, etc. After taking part in these
training sessions, the members of the Mothers' Clubs
become relays or ambassadors of good practices in
their village or neighbourhood. The development of
economic initiatives is a unifying factor, which fosters
the empowerment and resilience of its members and
ultimately the most vulnerable members of target

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communities (Livelihoods Centre, 2017). The

Mothers' Clubs are characterised and differentiate
themselves from other groups by the following four
pillars:

a. Adherence of members to Red Cross principles

and values, in particular voluntary work.

b. The planning and achievement of community

activities, mainly awareness and hygiene and
sanitation activities, to improve the living and
health conditions of their households and the
community.

c. A contribution to a common fund which can

also be divided into health solidarity fund
(HSF) and resilience fund (or savings and loans
fund).

d. Development of collective economic initiatives

(collective income-generating a c t i v i t i e s
–IGAs-) (Livelihoods Centre, 2017).

History of the Mothers' Club Institution

Mothers' Clubs have their roots in Ghana where the

first ones were founded in the1970s. Furthermore, the
idea of the Mothers' Club emerged in Togo in 1996 as
part of the reintegration activities of Ghanaian
refugees. This methodology was developed
particularly by the Togolese Red Cross (TRC), to
create social cohesion between refugees and host
communities, to promote best practices in WASH,
nutrition and health and to foster economic insertion

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of refugees. For the last 15 years, TRC has been

expanding this approach throughout the country. Over
time, other National Red Cross Societies in particular
the French Red Cross (FRC) picked interest in the
Mothers' Club approach (Livelihoods Centre, 2017).
Mothers' Clubs appeared in Chad in 2013
during the implementation of a WASH project to
improve access to safe drinking water and sanitation,
led by the French Red Cross (FRC) and the Red Cross
of Chad (RCC) in the Log-one-Occidental region
(2011-2015). Following the success of the initiative in
the South of Chad, both organisations (CRC and FRC)
introduced this approach in Batha in 2014 through a
resilience project (2012-2016). Since mid-2016, the
British Red Cross has supported CRC & FRC to
strengthen the "Mothers' Clubs" approach in Batha
and to implement them in urban contexts (N'Djaména,
the capital of Chad) (Livelihoods Centre, 2017).

iii. Village Square Meetings

The village square is a special square, set aside for
communal meetings and activities. The people
converge there to discuss topical issues and events that
affect their lives. At the village square, important
messages are passed to the members of the
community. The village square meeting brings people
from different kindred, clans, sub-communities,
families and dynasty together in the village square to
discuss pressing issues (Eluwa, 2010). Meeting days
are communicated to the members of the communities
through various channels such as the town crier,
gunshot, family, dance, bush burning, market place,
visits, religious association and youth association.

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The village square meeting is one of the media

of indigenous channels of communication in the rural
communities. It channels a lot of information on day to
day activities which takes place in the rural
communities. Village square meeting takes place in
the village square, where a lot of issues that affects the
community are being discussed. Such information
includes agricultural innovation programmes, burial
ceremony or burial arrangement, coronation, naming
ceremony, market days and product available for
sales, visit of a prominent member of the community
such as a member representing the community in the
state and Federal houses of Assembly, local
government chairman, party aspirant and party
manifestos to mention a few (Oden, n. d).
The meeting helps to service the society or the
rural communities through proper information that
help the community members in their daily
interactions. At the village square meeting in every
village, the channels are used as a medium for
inculcating the norms and values of the community,
social mobilisation, political mobilisation, economic
mobilisation, cultural mobilisation and the transfer of
cultural heritage from generation to generation or
from old members of the community to newcomers
(Oden, n. d).

3. Religious/Grass Root Organisations and

Associations
Much indigenous communication occurs within
highly homophilous groups or cliques. Such cliques
facilitate efficient communication among their
members, but act as barriers preventing new

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information from entering some cliques. Boundary

spanners such as bridges (religious leaders), liaisons
and cosmopolites have links with people outside their
cliques; together with innovators, they introduce
information to the network (Mowlana, 1983, cited in
National Open University of Nigeria, 2006).
Wang & Dissanayake (1984), cited in National
Open University of Nigeria (2006) note that grass root
organisations such as irrigation associations and
housing co-operatives allow structured discussions
involving organisation leaders and larger audiences
than is possible in unstructured situations. These
organisations orchestrate much communication
through formal meetings of members, by messages
sent about activities and obligations, and through
work activities. There is an overlap between this and
other categories. For example, indigenous
organisations often arrange folk media performances,
though performance is not usually their major aim;
they provide many opportunities for unorganised
communication among organisation members
(National Open University of Nigeria, 2006).

Forms of Institutional Channels of Communication

There are several forms of institutional channels of

communication; but we shall look at only three;
namely masquerade, town criers and courier chiefs.

1. Masquerade
Masquerade in its form, style, costume and
performance has remained an indispensable art in the
African society. It is one of the traditional media that is

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still used by most rural dwellers in Africa today. The

coming out of masquerade connotes different things in
different societies. In Igarra, Edo state for example,
masquerade is used to honour the oldest person who
dies.
The masquerade tradition is an ageless practice
in most African Communities. It enjoys among other
things, durability and continuity over time made
possible by family and communal inheritance of the
art, craft, magic and culture of masquerade through
generations. Molinta (2014), cited in Chielotam
(2015) observes that masquerades play very
significant roles in the people's belief system
influencing and shaping their personal view as well as
their social universe. In African society, masquerades
serve a complex diversity of social purposes; within an
indigenous traditional setting, each masquerade
performance usually has a principal as well as number
of subsidiary purposes which may express or reflect
the communal values and social relationship of the
people.
In Africa, especially in our indigenous society,
the masquerade art is sacrosanct irrespective of the
category the masquerade belongs to. The African
indigenous masquerades based on their cosmic
essence can be categorised under mystic, mythical and
thaumaturgy entities with different functions,
thoughts and ideological manifestations (Illah, cited
by Egwuda–Ugbeda, 2014, as cited in Chielotam,
2015). Among the indigenous African community,
masquerade thrives on the myth that a balance must be
maintained in the relationship between the living and
the dead. Some parts of Africa mythology believe in

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the celebration of life and this relationship is found in

the masquerades. Primarily, masquerade is believed to
be a vehicle of expression of the ancestors as they
continue with the desire to participate in the activities
of the living (Chielotam, 2015). In Africa, the
sociological potency of the masquerade portrayed
symbiotically, shows the various functions of the
masquerade. Some masquerades perform spiritual,
political and social functions, while some, based on
semiotic interpretation, place on their style, form or
names which are used to entertain the people.
Egwuda–Ugbeda (2014), cited in Chielotam (2015)
argues that masquerade performances are re-
entertainment of the people's spiritual and social lives.
In their spiritual lives, people re-enact the actions of
their ancestors, these are effectively represented by the
masquerade performance.

2. The Town Crier

The voice of the town crier or village gongman is
usually heard in the early hours of the morning

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preceded by the sound of a gong. He announces

important meetings, ceremonies, messages and
imminent troubles. Ugoboajah (1985) sees the town
crier as a significant village broadcaster who
summons the elders for decision- making and relays
their decisions to the village masses for
implementation. Always loaded with news, the village
gongman serves as the traditional communication link
between the legal head and the villagers. His
effectiveness usually lies in his oratory skills and
thorough knowledge of the community norms, values
and heritages.
The town crier or village announcer is the
community announcer who goes round the
community hitting a bell or a gong to draw attention.
The town crier often stands at a vantage position to
announce what he has for the people. Among the
Hausas, he is the “Mai Shela;” usually selected by the
Sarki or village head, but revered as a holy man whose
announcements are never doubted. One of his major
duties is the announcement of the date and time for the
new moon, which signifies the beginning of the
Ramadan festivals. Among the Yorubas, he is the
“gbohun- gbohun” whose duty among others include
announcement of the celebration days for the Sango
Religious Festivals. Among the other various ethnic
groups in Nigeria, he occupies no less credible and
authoritative position (Ndolo, 2006).
Town criers are the traditional announcers of
communities' news, decisions, instructions, laws and
many other issues of the community to the whole
people. They act as broadcasters of our modern time.

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The system is still in use in rural African societies. By

this channel of communication, designated persons
are employed as honorary official announcers of the
community whenever needs arise. Whatever they
announce are responsibilities of the community. Their
announcements cover everybody within the
community as modern new media do (National Open
University of Nigeria, 2006). According to Nwuneli
(1983), most of the information disseminated by the
town announcer usually originate from some
authoritative source such as the Emir, Oba, Council of
Elders or from someone or Age Grade with delegated
powers to perform specific tasks for the village or
town. It is these authoritative sources that determine
the content of the town crier's message. The attention
gaining medium chosen by the village announcer
depends on what has previously been accepted by the
town or village, and the choice of channels could vary
from gongs of various sizes and shapes to bells and
drums (National Open University of Nigeria, 2006).
The town crier is very effective in the village
system. The town crier knows his culture, he interprets
his culture to fit the objectives of his society, he is not
only respected and revered, but perceived as credible
and the notes from his communication medium- gong
or drum or elephant tusk- are decoded appropriately
and receive attention from specific audience to whom
they are addressed.
The post of the village announcer or the
gbohungbonhun in Yoruba land is in most cases a
hereditary position. According to Ugboajah (1980),
cited in National Open University of Nigeria (2006),

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an Ijebu village announcer trains his children in the

communication jobs that await them. Thus the young
village announcer must be briefed in his early years
about the time, place and utility of the news and about
technicalities in the use of the gong. A Hausa
announcer is called Mai Shela. He is the legendary
figure, aided by the general belief that he is the
appointee of Allah, but he is selected by the Sarki or
ruler of the village. Being revered and respected as a
holy man, his body is inviolate and his announcements
undoubted. The culmination of his yearly
responsibilities is when he predicts and announces the
date and sighting of religious Ramadan moon
(National Open University of Nigeria, 2006).

The History of the Town Crier

Historically, town criers or bellmen as they were

sometimes called were the original newsmen. The first
town criers were the Spartan Runners in the early
Greek Empire and as the Roman Conquest spread
through Europe the position increased in importance
until it became a position of the court. As England
colonised the world, the position of the town crier
spread with it. Before people could read, town criers
brought the news to the people, and served as
spokesmen for the King.
Town Criers were protected by law. “Don't
shoot the messenger” was a very real command;
anything that was done to a Town Crier was deemed to
be done to the King and was therefore a treasonable
offence. Usually, people of standing in the community
were chosen as Criers, for they had to be able to write

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and read the official proclamations. Often they were a

husband and wife team with the wife ringing the large
hand bell and the husband doing the shouting.
The Town Crier would read a proclamation,
usually at the door of the local inn, then nail it to the
doorpost of the inn. The tradition has resulted in the
expression “posting a notice” and the naming of
newspapers as “The Post.” Each Town Crier is
officially appointed by the Mayor and the style of
uniforms is authentic and date back to the 17th
Century. The Town Crier's robes are similar to those of
the mayor, and uniforms are usually designed,
incorporating the colours of the Crier's town.
The ceremonial tricorne is adorned with curling
feathers, a traditional representation of the quills used
by earlier town criers to write their proclamations.
Announcements are always preceded by the
traditional “Oyez Oyez Oyez” which means “listen” in
French and concluded with “God save the Queen.”
(Culled from Appleton, 2017).

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CHAPTER EIGHT
EXTRAMUNDANE COMMUNICATION
This is the mode of communication between the living
and the dead, the supernatural or supreme-being. It is
usually done through incantation, invocation, spiritual
crafts, rituals, prayers, sacrifices, trances, hysterics
and libation. It is a multi-dimensional communication
transaction which has become pervasive in all
societies, most especially in Africa. Cultural/ritual
performance evokes intensity of emotions, which may
lead to a temporary trans-migration of participants as
in religious or spiritual ceremonies. Such
performances convey the elements of a cultural
celebration, dedication and consecration as it is often
witnessed in marriage and funeral rites. Modern forms
of extra-mundane communication are found in
obituary and in memorial notices published in
newspapers, magazines or radio (Asemah, 2011).
Extramundane communication exists in
African communication systems. It can also be
referred to as supernatural communication or the
esoteric mode. Supernatural communication involves
supernatural beings– ancestors, spirits, gods, the
supreme being or when they involve processes,
elements or abilities that are superhuman as in
witchcraft, reincarnation, and so on. “The word

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esoteric has been so chosen to describe the extra-

mundane mode because of the peculiar nature of the
mode in that its understanding depends, to a large
extent, on the psychic development of the individual”
(Akpabio, 2003). The esoteric mode involves all other
modes, the only difference being that under the
esoteric mode, they are operated in the metaphysical
plane. One has to be initiated through some form of
education, into the ontological framework of the mode
to be able to understand its application (Ejejimogbe,
2020).
Extramundane is a form of communication
between the supernatural and living beings as a belief
system in individual cultural setting. It takes the form
of charms, dirges, incantations, ritual prayers,
sacrifice, libations, invocation, trance and hysterics. It
may also take the form of cultural and individual
performance and invokes intensity of emotion; may
lead to temporary spiritual rituals. It is a multi-
dimensional communication in Africa. This type of
communication in Africa is manifest as cultural
celebrations such as festivals, consecration of
marriages, naming and house war ming.
Extramundane communication in modern times takes
the form of obituaries, euphemistically packaged as
transitions as well as memorial tunes–Rest in Peace
(RIP) (Ejejimogbe, 2020). In addition, it involves
intra-personal processes such as incantation, physical
revelation, magical, other-worldly verbalisation,
spiritual transmigration and may carry elements of
ordinary cultural celebration, dedication and
consecration. These characteristics and elements can

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be neatly grouped into bottom-up and top-down

communication within the extra-mundane mode.

The Bottom up Extramundane Communication

The bottom-up extramundane communication
involves human beings seeking and getting attention
of preternatural forces for sundry reasons; for
example, to seek solution to a need, such as desire for
children, marriage, favour, promotion, bountiful
harvest or trying to meet spiritual requirements
expected of members of the community. In the
bottom-up approach, human beings are actively
involved in incantations, supplication to the
supernatural beings. Sometimes, it is in form of
celebration with food during festivals as a mark of
respect to the departed or even carrying sacrifice of
food at midnight to road junctions; sacrifice of cock,
goats, dogs, and so on. Again, it may involve
divination and ancestral worship. Feedback is also a
component of bottom-up extramundane
communication. Feedback is a receiver's verbal or
other reactions which will show the applicant that
effective communication has taken place
(Ejejimogbe, 2020). Examples of this form of
extramundane communication are:

1. Festivals
A festival is an event ordinarily celebrated by a
community and centring on some characteristic aspect
of that community and its religion or cultures. As
captured in National Open University of Nigeria
(2006), festivals remain a very veritable celebration in
many parts of Africa. They are not mere entertainment,

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but also serve as means of communication. There are

mainly two types of festival –cultural and religious.
They are tied to the culture of a people and
predominant among the rural and peripheral
population and many of the celebrations are connected
to farming and rural development (National Open
University of Nigeria, 2006). Although, it is a
traditional channel of communication, the scale of
usage is absolutely important; users must be part of the
culture; must understand and empathise with the
people to be able to use it most effectively. So, usage
should emphasise the traditional networks of
relationships. They signal times of planting and
harvesting crops. They may also give hints on crops
tending. They provide occasion for disseminating
information. So, modern development issues can be
incorporated into traditional festivals and ceremonies
particularly for as long as the ideas to be injected will
not depart basically from the inherent ideas of such
festivals (National Open University of Nigeria, 2006).

Some Festivals in Nigeria

Some festivals in Nigeria are:

Aba (Irepa)Festival in Igarra, Edo State
The Aba (irepa) festival was first celebrated about two
hundred and twenty eight (228) years ago as a victory
by hunters over the initial settlers of the land now
known as Etuno (Igarra).The Aba festival is the most
spectacular singular event in the celebration of Irepa
festival. It is the highest crowd pulling of all Irepa
festival events. It marks the climax of activities as it
indicates the end of six-year traditional administration

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tenure and the beginning of the new one, which would

last for the next six calendar years. It is an age long,
internationally acclaimed festival which is held every
six calendar years, it is adjudged the sixth most
important unadulterated indigenous cultural festival
in the whole of West Africa by Total E&P in their 2006
yearly publication. The Aba festival is celebrated
once in every six calendar years. The festival is made
up of several ceremonies, which are not less than
twenty five. For example, beating of Aba drums,
Manhood Dance (Ututanebe), etc. The origin of the
festival has been traced to Anafuas who were the
aborigines of the present day Igarra. The Anafuas were
said to be a dwarfish, but diabolical race. The Anafuas
were said to have posed a serious threat to the
existence of the Igarra people, hence they later saw to
it that the race was completely annihilated. It was said
that before they were finally wiped out, they taught the
Igarra people the secret of the Igarra festival, which
has to do with the administration of the communities.
The festival has two phases; the traditional rites
and the ceremonies. The traditional rites are inherent
in the festival and serve as the core of such a festival
while the ceremonies are outward, serving as a cloak.
In the Irepa festival, the traditional rites are shared
among the families. There is no family or person that
has overall authority on the traditional rites of the
festival. However, the ceremonies are enjoyed by all
the people. The traditional rites and the beating of the
Aba drums, which is the climax of the ceremonies, are
best known to the Ezia-Kuta family. The drums are
usually beaten in August of every ''Aba'' festival
period to herald the beginning of the festival. The
traditional rites are the beginning of the festival. The

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traditional rites are done in the beginning of the second

Aba drums (Ofuofifu), in January of every ''Aba''
festival or period at Ugbogbo; it is controlled by the
Anona family. The Anoseri, Eghimozoko and the
Eghinagada families control the traditional rites of
beating the Arido drums. The beating of the Aba drums
(Okukuku) before taking of elders' titles (AZEGBANI)
is controlled by the Anonyete Family. The ceremonies
flow into one another without hindrance from the start
to the end (Ometere Age group presentation).

Those in charge of Arido Drum

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Ikperima Festival in Enwan, Edo State

In Enwan in Akoko Edo LGA of Edo state, Ikperima
ceremony is done every year to initiate girls into
womanhood. The ladies are half-naked and the young
guys are permitted to be at the venue. They use only
beads to cover their private parts; they can wear beads
from up to down and the ladies that have not done and
those who refused to do theirs are forbidden from
watching the ceremony. The participants are kept in
the fattening room to prepare them for the festival.
More so, boys that are ready for marriage go to such
festivals to pick ladies of their choice. The ladies come
out to dance and it is in the process of dancing that the
guys select their choice for marriage. Also, Igarra,
Akoko Edo LGA of Edo State, Aba Ceremony is
celebrated once in seven years to launch people into
the group of the chiefs of the community.

Calabar Carnival
The Calabar Carnival started in 2004 when the then
governor of Cross River State, Donald Duke, had a
vision of making the state a hub for tourism and
hospitality in Nigeria and Africa. The Carnival
presents a perfect platform from brand visibility for
consumer and market awareness. The carnival aimed
to include more aspects of local heritage and culture
and at the same time strengthen the capacity of the
locals to participate in an economically beneficial
way. Recently, Cross River State has become the pride
of Nigeria in the areas of tourism, carnivals and
hospitality(https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calabar_Ca
rnival#:~:text=This%20time%20the%20world%20re
cognizes,Africa's%20talent%20and%20several%20o
pportunities).

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The programme of the event at the carnival is

drafted each year by the committee in charge of
tourism and cultural activities and new initiatives are
introduced every year. In December 2009, Carnival
Committee organised ''Carnival Cup 2009,'' a football
competition amongst the five competing carnival
bands - Seagull, Passion 4, Masta Blasta, Bayside and
Freedom. The Festival also included music
performance from both local and international artists,
the annual Calabar Carnival, Boat regatta, Fashion
shows (introduced in 2016), Beauty pageant (Miss
Africa introduced in 2016) , traditional dances and the
annual Ekpe Festival is a yearly events that brings in
thousands of tourists. Other activities that make up this
carnival include Essay Writing Competition which
involves both secondary school and tertiary students.
These competitions are aimed at resuscitating the
reading culture among the youths of the State as well
a s i n c u l c a t i n g t h e c a r n i v a l c u l t u r e(
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C
alabar_Carnival#:~:text=This%20time%20the
%20world%20recognizes,Africa's%20talent%20and
%20several%20opportunities).

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The Ofuruma Masquerade Festival

The Ofuruma masquerade festival is one of the
numerous festivals in Opobo town. This masquerade
festival is celebrated annually, and it takes place on the
1st of January. Usually, idiophone instruments such as
the gong, the wooden drums, the pot drum, to mention
a few, are used to play along some of the native songs
of the town. Also, membronophone and aerophone
instruments are used to accompany these idiophone
instruments. The Ofuruma masquerade is one, which
imitates sharks. The obvious water surrounding the
land makes it necessary for the indigenes of Opobo
town to become fishermen who sometimes encounter
enormous sharks, while fishing. As a result, when the
time comes for the masquerade to display for its
audience, the masquerade will imitate the shark,
which does not turn its neck when swimming or
looking for its prey. The masquerade is seen at the
shiri.

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The shiri is simply referred to as the square or

the arena where the audience are entertained. The
masquerade is seen chasing people from one place to
another as it acts like a Shark. This behavioural act is
done just to create fun. Usually, dignitaries in the land,
ranging from the chiefs in council to the king of the
town known as the Amanyanabo, put on white cloths.
The essence of the white cloth signifies peace. They
also put on their wrappers made from George material.
The chiefs also put on their bowler hats, while the
Amanyanabo puts on his crown. There are lots of
drinking and merry-making while the epochal
masquerade festival is celebrated. The Ofuruma
Masquerade Festival ends when the Amanyanabo
stands on the podium to take the benediction and to
announce to the people, that they should look forward
to having another entertaining Ofuruma masquerade
festival in the coming year.

Iguee Festival of the Bini Kingdom, Edo State

The people of Bini Kingdom in the Western part of
Nigerian celebrate the Iguee festival by making an

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offering to Uhunmwuen the head and Ehi his second

half-the spiritual self that guides and protects the
temporal self. The Oba and some Chiefs are also
involved in Agwe (festival) when the Oba and the
Chiefs break the fast they perform a ceremony called,
UGIE ERHA OBA-A (honouring the Oba's ancestors).
This is followed by the real Iguee-worshipping the
reigning Oba which takes place openly and rounded
off with Ugie Edohia and Ugie Ewere three days after.
The Enogies and traditional ruler in the ancient
kingdom, fixe their own dates in their respective
kingdoms after Ugie Ewere. Between 1897-1914
when the British invaded Bini kingdom and Oba
Ovonramwen was deported to Calabar, Chief Agho
Obaseki, the right hand man of Oba during this period
converted to Christianity which caused him not to
celebrate the Iguee festival in 1916-1917. The
influenza epidemic struck in 1918 in the aftermath of
World War 1. Thousands of Edo speaking people died,
and they blamed it on the non-observance of Iguee
festival. Till date, the Binis have the belief that the
observance of the festival keeps them alive and
protected.

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The Yoruba Eyo Festival

The Eyo masquerade essentially admits tall people,

which is why it is described as Agogoro Eyo (literally
meaning the tall Eyo masquerade). In the manner of a
spirit (An Orisha) visiting the earth on a purpose, the
Eyo masquerade speaks in a ventriloquial voice,
suggestive of its otherworldliness and when greeted, it
replies: Mo yo fun e, mo yo fun ara mi, which in Yoruba
means: (I rejoice for you, and I rejoice for myself).
This response connotes the masquerades as rejoicing
with the person greeting it for witnessing the day and
its own joy at taking the hallowed responsibility of
cleansing.
During the festival, Sandals and foot wears, as
well as Suku: A hairstyle that is popular among the
Yorubas, one that has the hair converge at the middle,
then shoot upward, before tipping downward, are
prohibited. The festival has also taken a more touristic
dimension in recent times, which like the Osun
Osogbo festival, attracts visitors from all across
Nigeria, as well as Yoruba diaspora populations. In-
fact, it is widely believed that the play is one of the
manifestations of the customary African revelry that
serves as the forerunner of the modern carnival in
Brazil and other parts of the New World, which may
have been started by the Yoruba slaves transplanted in
that part of the world due to the Atlantic slave trade.

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The Igbo New Yam Festival

The New Yam Festival of the Igbo people (Orureshi in

the idoma area, Iwa ji, Iri ji or Ike ji, depending on
dialect) is an annual cultural festival by the Igbo
people held at the end of the rainy season in early
August. Yams are the first crop to be harvested, and are
the most important crop of the region. The New Yam
Festival is therefore a celebration depicting the
prominence of yam in the social-cultural life of Igbo
people. The evening prior to the day of the festival, all
old yams (from the previous year's crop) are consumed
or discarded. This is because it is believed that the New
Year must begin with tasty, fresh yams instead of the
old dried-up crops of the previous year. The next day,
only dishes of yam are served at the feast, as the
festival is symbolic of the abundance of the produce.
Though the style and methods may differ from
one community to the next, the essential components
that make up the festival remain the same. In some

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communities the celebration lasts a whole day, while

in many places it may last a week or more. These
festivities normally include a variety of
entertainments and ceremony, including the
performance of rites by the Igwe (King), or the eldest
man, and cultural dances by Igbo men, women and
their children. The festival features Igbo cultural
activities in the form of contemporary shows,
masquerade dances, and fashion parades.

Durbar Hausa Festival

The Durbar festival is an annual festival celebrated in

several cities of Nigeria. It is celebrated at the
culmination of Muslim festivals- Eid al-Fitr and Eid
al-Adha. It begins with prayers, followed by a parade
of the Emir and his entourage on horses, accompanied
by music players and ending at the Emir's palace and
preparing the food. Since the main food was cassava,
which is poisonous in its natural state, preparing it
required very great care. First the root was grated on a

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board covered with small pebbles or rough coral until

it formed a paste.
The modern festival starts with prayers; then
long lines of horsemen, each representing a different
village, town, region or noble house, parade through
the town accompanied by drummers and dancers and
musicians with feather headdresses to take their place
in the square. Riders are magnificent in gorgeous
robes, lofty turbans and copper armour; horses,
caparisoned with fringed and tasselled harnesses, are
no less resplendent. Last to arrive, the Emir and his
splendid entourage position themselves in front of the
palace. Each group of horsemen gallops at full tilt
across the square, stops dead, and salutes the emir,
ceremonial swords raised and flashing in the sun. The
Emir's own regiment brings the thrilling display to a
close, after which the Emir retires to his palace and his
loyal subjects celebrate late into the night.

Argungu Fishing Festival

The Argungu Fishing Festival is an annual four-day

festival in The State of Kebbi, in the North-western
part of Nigeria. The festival usually takes place in

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Argungu, the capital city of Argungu Emirate Council.

The region is made up of fertile river areas
(matanfada, mala, gamji), with much irrigation and
orchards (lambu in Hausa). The majority of fishermen
are the followers of Islam and also predominantly
farmers. Kanta museum is the main historical centre in
Argungu for visitors across the globe; people from
around the world travel to Argungu just to witness the
occasion (Added by Allugu Young Farmers
Association, 2010). The importance of the festival to
the economy has led the government to conserve fish
stock by prohibiting use of gill nets and cast nets. The
Zauro polder project, an irrigation scheme in the Rima
River floodplain to the south of Argungu, has been
criticised because the reservoir threatens to flood the
traditional site of the festival (Retrieved fromhttps://
hometown. ng/ event/ argungu- fishing-
festival/).

Ekuechi Festival

Ekuechi is a festival celebrated at the end of the Ebira

Calendar year and the beginning of the new year,
Ododo is a diviner and Initiator for the masquerade
that takes place at night, Akatapa masquerade is held
during the beginning of the festival, they use phrases
like Irayi Ododo Si gu, Irayi Akatapa Osi gu, meaning

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the year of Ododo has ended, Akatapa year has ended

and there is another year. The festival begins with folk
songs and folk singers known as Ome Ikede which
they perform to the delight of both men and women,
people sing and dance throughout the festival, it is
believed it is restricted to men and only women stay
indoors, It is believed the dead relatives will return to
the earth to visit so they prepare beans and goat meat
for visitors, women also at times visit dead relatives.
The Ekuechi festival originated from Eika
district of Ebiraland. Obaji and Ododo were the
children of Ebira. Obaji, the eldest child of Ebira
instructed his sons to transform him to a masquerade
after his death. The sons did not act fast enough. When
Ododo died, his sons quickly brought out their
masquerade in memory of Ododo. This according to
tradition made Ododo the younger in life to become
the elder in the world beyond. The Ododo and Obaji
masquerades come out once in a year, usually at the
end of the year just before the yam planting season in
December. All other consequent masquerades pay
homage to Ododo before Obaji to accord the seniority.
The Ekuechi festival is a Song and Dance Festival,
during which the Eku (masquerade) on a higher
platform sings and the assisting singer repeats the song
to be chorused by the audience. Most of the songs
relate to life, death, social, economic, political and
moral issues of land. The Ebira, which means
“character” is a mobilising word to the average
Anebira, (Ebira person) who is conscious of any of
life's endeavour.
Some well-known masquerades at the Ekuechi
festivals include Ichirimi (father of all such

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masquerades), 'Ogugureba' (the tallest of all

masquerades), Okevere (Dresses in different colourful
attire), Achewuru (the most stubborn of the
masquerades), Oratauru (The shortest of all
masquerades), Arijanu (He behaves like a drunk),
Adebira (oversees activities of all other masquerades),
Kereni (Not to be witnessed by the women), Avereho
(give incantations for the needy),Avokuta (comes out
at night). Other festivals in Ebiraland are Echane
(festival for women), Echori in Ihima and Eganyi,
Eika, Echahana, in Okehi.

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2. Ceremonies

In African societies, ceremonies are channels of

communication. Ceremonies are used to communicate
and preserve the culture of the African society. The
ceremonies could be held to celebrate the birth of a
child, to launch a particular group of people into
adulthood and other ceremonies. Johanson (2020)
categorises ceremonies into the following:

i. Rites of Passage: From ancient times, African

societies have marked the transitions of the life
cycle, from birth to death, with rites of passage.
Through these “journeys of the spirit,” as the
West African shaman and teacher Maildoma
Patrice Some has called them, people are able to
transcend the everyday concerns of life to
connect with their own spirits and with the spirit
world. Rites of passage have value for both the
individual and the community. Ceremonies that
mark the stages of life provide clear definitions
of society's expectations of the individual and
they give him or her a sense of identity and
belonging.

ii. Childhood: From the moment of birth, an

African child is connected to family,
community and the ancestors. Many different
ceremonies are performed to reinforce these
connections, and to prepare children to become
the custodians of the culture of their people.
Because infant mortality remains high, the

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people of many African cultures are extremely

superstitious during the first few year of a
child's life and carry out rituals to protect
him/her from hazards. The Himba of Namibia
never left a baby on his/her own or even put
him/her down, lest the child be stolen away by
some malevolent spirit. The Wodaabe of Niger
does not name a child before his/her 12th
birthday so that he or she cannot be identified by
the spirit of death. For Maasai babies, however,
names are so important that they are bestowed
by village elders soon after birth. In all African
societies, childhood is a time for learning
responsibilities and skills that enable children
to contribute to their communities. It is,
nevertheless, also a time for children to develop
creativity through imaginative play. Children
are encouraged to take an active part in
communal ceremonies and thereby begin their
first steps on a journey that encompasses all the
realms of human experience.

iii. Coming of Age: As they enter the adult world

during their teenage years, African youngsters
undergo a variety of initiation rituals. These
rites provide individuals with instruction about
what will be expected of them during the next
phase of their lives. The common experiences
that they undergo during the initiation period
also bind the individuals together and reinforce
the idea of community. In all initiation
ceremonies, a select group of elders takes

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charge of the sequence of ritual events. To begin

their training, initiates often enter a special
place, a sacred forest or a ritually built house. It
is there that they lose their childhood identities
and gain their adult selves. After a period of
instruction, the initiates undergo an encounter
or ordeal that marks the climax of their
initiation and the beginning of their new lives.
Many African societies also make additional
transitions as the individual progresses through
a series of stages in life, with roles and
responsibilities clearly defined for each age
level. Among the Massai, for example, a male
moves from role to role - from young cattle
herder to bachelor warrior to married family
man to elder of the community - through a series
of ceremonies extending over 25 years. All of
the males of the same age in a community
participate as a group in the communal
ceremonies that mark each transition
(Johanson, 2020).

3. Divination

The term “divination” originates from Latin divinare

"to foresee, to foretell, to predict, to prophesy" related
to divinus, divine, or "to be inspired by a god."
Divination is the effort to obtain insight into a question
or situation by way of an occultic, standardised
process or ritual. To engage in divination is to reveal
mysterious knowledge by supernatural practices. It is
correlated with the occult and involves fortune-telling

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or soothsaying, as i t used to be called

(Christianity.com Editorial Staff, 2020).Thus, people
try to foresee, foretell, predict or prophesy or to be
inspired by a god; it is the attempt to gain insight into a
question or situation by way of an occultic,
standardised process or ritual. Used in various forms
throughout history, diviners ascertain their
interpretations of how a querent should proceed by
reading signs, events or omens or through alleged
contact with a supernatural agency. Divination can be
seen as a systematic method with which to organise
what appear to be disjointed, random facets of
existence such that they provide insight into a problem
at hand (Retrieved fromhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Divination).
Gilbert (2020) sees divination as the practice of
determining the hidden significance or cause of
events, sometimes foretelling the future, by various
natural, psychological, and other techniques. Found in
all civilisations, both ancient and modern, it is
encountered most frequently in contemporary mass
society in the form of horoscopes, astrology, crystal
gazing, tarot cards and the Ouija board. The forgoing
implies that divination is concerned with discovering
the will of the gods. That is, diviners communicate
with the gods of the land to ascertain the will of the
gods concerning an issue, situation, events, etc. The
diviners in turn, relate the will of the gods to the people
concerned or affected. Thus, it is universally
concerned with practical problems, private or public
and seeks information upon which practical decisions
can be made; but the source of such information is not

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conceived as mundane and the technique of getting it

is necessarily fanciful. The mantic (divinatory) arts are
many and a broad understanding can emerge only
from a survey of actual practices in various cultural
settings. A short definition, however, may be offered
as a preliminary guide: divination is the effort to gain
information of a mundane sort by means conceived of
as transcending the mundane.
This perhaps explains why Baker's Evangelical
Dictionary of Biblical Theology, cited in
Christianity.com Editorial Staff (2020) sees divination
as the communication with a deity for the purpose of
determining the deity's knowledge, resulting in a
clarification of a decision or discernment of the future.
Two forms of divination developed in the ancient Near
East, one using inductive manipulation of natural or
human phenomena and the other taking intuitive
forms of inner revelation.
In Yoruba land, the divination system is orally
transmitted by Ifa priests to apprentices.
Communication in divination entails audible speech,
although, some people do secondarily acknowledge a
number of nonverbal modes of communication. It is
critical to stress that African divination systems are
multisensory and variously utilise all forms of
communication. One of the means of communication
is the use of ''silent'' objects and creatures as agents of
communication between worlds. While humans are
greatly concerned about the ''other,'' spiritual world, it
is normally a silent world and must be given voice
somehow in order for communication to take place. In
African divination systems, this cross-world

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communication often takes the form of ''spirit

possession'' of diviners whereby ''silent'' ancestors or
spirit entities speak through the diviner. Equally, it is
understood that the other world ''speaks'' through
otherwise inanimate divinatory objects, such as
marked tablets, half-shells on a string or objects in a
diviner's basket.
Throughout Africa, religious and political
leaders are distinguished by having others who speak
for them. Among the Ashanti of Ghana such
spokesmen, okeyame, carry elaborate staffs decorated
with symbols signifying famous proverbs. "We speak
to a wise man in proverbs, not in plain language.''
These ''linguist staffs'' carry creatures presented as
emblems of wise and effective speech, including
snails, tortoises, and spiders. Although these are not
exactly the creatures which first come to mind when
we think of oral communication (one cannot be much
quieter than a spider), for the Ashanti, all these
creatures are associated with wisdom. In fact, the
spider is the supreme tale-teller of all animals and as
Anansi, is also a wondrous trickster. Snails are often
used in medicinal preparations and are thought to
''cool'' heated individuals and conditions. The Isoko
provide a wonderful example of how a ''speechless''
creature aids human speech: they use snails to cure
stuttering. Although, the silence and slow speed of
snails do not seem to recommend them as divinatory
agents, they are encountered in divinatory
paraphernalia throughout Africa, as with diviners in
Mozambique. Likewise, the tortoise is a frequent
character in African folk tales and is considered one of

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the wisest of animals. Its slow and deliberate

behaviour seems to be what is most recognised as
demonstrating its wisdom, but its silence is also
noteworthy. Tortoise shells often hold diviners'
apparatuses, as among the Baule & Senufo (Peek,
2020). A divination system based on the spiderexists
in Cameroon. Spiders are depicted in the royal arts of
Cameroon kings because they are mediators between
gods and men. Among a number of peoples in
Cameroon, the ground-dwelling spider is the main
agent of divination primarily because it lives near the
ancestors in the earth; the diviner draws out a large
number of marked leaf ''cards'' from a container lying
on the tail of a squirrel (who is also considered a
messenger between worlds). These cards are placed
near the spider's burrow and all is covered. When the
lid is removed, the spider's alterations of the cards are
"read" by the diviner (Peek, 2020).
Another form of divination, also from
Cameroon, employs a close relative of the spider (at
least in our scientific typology), the land crab, also a
silent creature. Among the Kapsiki of northwestern
Cameroon, specially marked pieces of gourd are
placed in a container with the crab and all is covered.
After about fifteen minutes, the cover is removed and
the rearrangement of objects is studied. Partial
answers are perceived; then the whole procedure is
repeated until the diviner is satisfied with the
revelations made by the crab (Peek, 2020).
Yoruba Ifa divination is perhaps the best known
divination technique. This is partially due to the
extensive field research done among the Yoruba, and

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because of the close links between the Yoruba in

Africa and the Americas. Because a large portion of
the enslaved people who were brought to the New
World originated in the Yoruba area of West Africa,
many elements of the systems of Yoruba belief have
survived or in some cases been reinvented. The
devastation of enslavement must have led Africans to
question the cruel fate that tore them away from their
homelands, friends and family. Despite the efforts of
slave owners to erase African culture, many elements
were retained and continue to thrive throughout the
Americas today. This, combined with a growing
interest in Yoruba and other African religious systems
by many Americans, partially explains why it is
possible to find a Yoruba diviner in virtually any major
city in the United States (Moyer, n. d).

The above picture shows Priests of Ifa gathered at the

palace to perform the rite of Ifa Adagba (Source, n.
d).

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The diviner is the babalawo (father of secrets).

The babalawo invoked Orunmila, Yoruba god of
divination, by tapping the end of his iroke ifa at the
centre of an opon ifa tray, “where the metaphorical
crossroads of life and the afterlife has been marked in
wood dust” (Drewal 1992, cited in Meyer, n. d). He is
usually consulted when trying to understand the cause
of current illnesses or misfortune or before engaging
in a new undertaking to reveal what role the orisha
might play in determining the future and perhaps most
importantly, to determine the necessary steps that must
be taken to appease them and smooth the way.
Although, it is not uncommon to see iroke ifa carved
from ivory, the very material is an indication of
prestige and honour and may even be associated with
the wealth of a successful babalawo (Meyer, n. d). See
below the iroke ifa:

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The tools of the diviner include sixteen palm

nuts stored in an agere Ifa (carved wooden bowl) and
an opon Ifa (round divination board with an
elaborately carved border). An image of Esu-
Elegbara, Yoruba divine messenger and intermediary
between the world of the living and the spiritual realm,
is carved at the top of the board and always faces the
diviner during a consultation. The diviner must
uncover the influential spiritual forces in a client's life,
control them, and reveal them. The agere Ifa has a
hinged lid, and is supported by a horseman who serves
as an icon of a man of honour, the warrior who has
defeated his enemies. During the divination process
the sixteen palm nuts are used by the babalawo
(diviner) to reveal one of 256 verses in the Odu, all of
which must be memorised by the diviner, who
undergoes a long period apprenticeship before being
permitted to practise (Meyer, n. d).

iv. Ancestral Worship

Ancestral worship is also known as veneration.
Although, ancestor worship is a phenomenon which
most people associate with primitive civilisations, it is
still prevalent in many countries around the world
today, including some who are generally accepted as
modern societies and economies. It is practised
extensively in Africa and other countries of the world.
In each of these countries this phenomenon is very
closely linked to the cosmology of the people
concerned and has a strong social and ethical function
(Bae & van der Merwe, 2008).

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In most societies where the belief in ancestors is

common, a record of people who have lived and died is
kept in the memory of the living members of the
community. They have moved into the category of
ancestors or the living dead. The concept of ancestral
involvement in everyday life is more than a story or a
myth. It is lived by millions in many areas in the world.
The living dead who hold influence over their living
descendants is a succinct and common way of defining
ancestors (Bae & van der Merwe, 2008). Their identity
is further explained as transcendental beings
representing the religious, ethical and institutional
values of society in their community. Their abode and
influence range from the physical to the spiritual
world (Bae & van der Merwe, 2008).In this situation,
it is believed that the living can communicate with the
souls of the dead by means of individuals who act as
intermediaries between the material and physical
world (spiritism). The communicators simply make
use of magical powers to reach out to the dead. Thus,
ancestral worship, which is prevalent in preliterate
societies, is obeisance to the spirits of the dead.
Ancestors also serve as mediators by providing
access to spiritual guidance and power. Death is not a
sufficient condition for becoming an ancestor. Only
those who lived a full measure of life, cultivated moral
values, and achieved social distinction attain this
status. Religion is thought to be ancestor worship.
Some of the main terms (grave, hades and soul) go
back several millennia. The cult concerned only dead
members of the family; other dead beings were

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experienced as restless hunters and aggressive

expelling rites were used to dispel them
(Britanica.com, 2020). It is not irrelevant that until the
19th century there survived here and there throughout
the Danubian-Balkan region the custom of reopening
graves three, five, or seven years after interment,
taking out the bones of the corpses, washing them,
wrapping them in new linen (Britanica.com, 2020).
The veneration of the dead, including one's
ancestors, is based on love and respect for the
deceased. In some cultures, it is related to beliefs that
the dead have a continued existence and may possess
the ability to influence the fortune of the living. Some
groups venerate their direct, familial ancestors.
Certain sects and religions, in particular the Eastern
Orthodox Church and Roman Catholic Church,
venerate saints as intercessors with God; the latter also
believes in prayer for departed souls in Purgatory.
Other religious groups, however, consider veneration
of the dead to be idolatry and a sin (Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veneration of the dead).

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Top-Down Extramundane Communication

In top-down extra-mundane communication, a
supernatural being through its priests/agents or signs
communicate his/her pleasure/displeasure, directives,
orders and so on to his/her adherents and priests. It
involves the demonstration of metaphysical abilities
and capabilities. Examples of this form of extra-
mundane communication are:
1. Potent Speech
In Igbo land for instance, every family head and Ozo
title holders possess the Ofo and it makes everything
that they say while striking the Ofo to the ground to
come to pass. This stick is made from the branch of a
tree bearing the same name and which becomes
effective after consecration. It is then regarded as the
abode of a spirit, especially of ancestral spirits. It is
used as a symbol of all departed spirits.
2. Dreams
In African communication, dreams are regarded
highly as a means of top-down communication and the

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phenomenon is used to communicate certain messages

between people who could be far apart or as means
through which supernatural beings, the Supreme
Being or even the departed members of the family
communicate with the living beings. Dreams are
regarded as experiences on a higher plane. It is the
initiated or one with a particularly high level of
psychic development who can apply appropriate
meaning to his dream. It demands even a higher level
of psychic development to interpret another person's
dream (Ejejimogbe, 2020).
In Africa, people can and do communicate or
receive ideas and messages through the use of their
inner and outer spiritual, human and material powers
or forces, depending on the relationship and
understanding of the individuals involved in the
communication process. For instance, the sudden
appearance of a person or loved one being talked
about; those talking about the person will simply say
“you are the true son of your father.” This is the mode
in which communication is between two or more
minds and effected through means other than the
known channels of the senses depending on the level
of psychic development of the individual concerned.

3. Natural Phenomena
In Africa, natural phenomena such as the blowing
wind, heartbeat, decomposing matter, flowing rivers
and streams, appearance of a strange or rare breed of
animals and birds, itching on the palm and cock crow
especially at odd hours amongst others could be

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interpreted as communicating something of

importance. So, this form of extra-mundane
communication involves “attributing meanings to (or
interpreting) some seemingly natural phenomena.
While it is easy to learn to send and understand
messages sent through the other modes of indigenous
communication, the extramundane is not as simple.
For someone to be involved in the use of the extra-
mundane mode, it might require certain rituals of
initiation. For instance, if one is not conversant with
divination, the person cannot perform the act without
performing certain initiation rituals aimed at initiating
the person and developing the person's senses to
understand the message sent through the channel, as
the essence of the extra-mundane mode is the ability to
understand the message (Ejejimogbe, 2020)

169
CHAPTER NINE
SYMBOLOGRAPHIC COMMUNICATION
This simply means symbolic writing or
representation. Communication takes place when an
encoder uses graphic representations to convey a
message which is understood within the context of a
known social event and an accompanying verbal
message. It is a descriptive representational device for
conveying meaning (Nwosu, 2012). It has to do with
the communication of messages through the use of
symbols. A symbol performs its function of being a
bearer of information; a means of communicating
meaning and a possible creator of meaning. The
symbol is the most flexible and liberal stage of
signification and surpasses both the icon and the index
in its ability to carry meanings. Cohen, cited in Dugga
(1999), as cited in Asemah (2016) defines a symbol as
objects, acts, concepts or linguistic formations that
stand ambiguously for a multiplicity of disparage
meanings, evoke sentiments and emotions and occur
in stylised patterns of activities such as rituals and
various cultural traits that constitute the style. To
Hayakawa, cited in Dugga (1999), the symbol is the
process by means of which human beings can
arbitrarily make certain things stand for other things.
Like the icon and the index, the symbol can best be

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understood by knowing its etymology, component and

composition.
The word ''symbol'' originated from
''SYMBOLUM'' in Greek and first used in 1490 for
something that stands for, represents or denotes
another, not exactly by its resemblance, but some
vague suggestions or by accidental or conventional
relations. When it was first used, it stood for a mark,
token, ticket or tallies as the two halves of a broken
coin which were exchanged by two contracting parties
and which established a person's identity such as
badges. They represented and communicated the
complete object or idea by their presence as parts. The
quality of the symbol is still retained today. The most
important property of a symbol is its capability to
convey disparage meanings in the same message.
Multiplicity of signification in a symbol is not limited
by the natural or physical features with the symbolised
object. It bears relationship with the signified by virtue
of its acceptance by those involved in the
communication process (cited in Asemah (2016).
Thus, symbolographic communication channels
involve the use of decorated bamboo, rino, Nsibidi and
chalk marks for communication(https://bowenstaff.
bowen.edu.ng/lectureslides/1585846898.pdf).
The foregoing implies that it is a descriptive
representational device for conveying meaning. In
other words, it involves the use of secret depiction in
the form of writing (or signs) made on hard or soft
surfaces. It could be made on cloth, walls, on the
ground and so on. This symbolic representation is

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mostly used in communication by members of an

“exclusive group.” Examples are the nsibidi writing
which can be found among the Efik-Ibibio, Ekoi and
Ejagham people of Nigeria, Mum of the Cameroon,
the Mai, Basa, Mende and Kpele in Sierra Leone and
Liberia and also 'uli' among the Igbo of Eastern
Nigeria and bamboo writing (nsadang), decorated
bamboo rind, chalk marks.
Anothe r aspect of s ymb o l o g r a p h i c
communication is symbolism which employs
technical and non-technical means to communicate.
Symbolism is the communication practice of using
symbols to represent things, messages, information or
by investing things. Examples include the kiss which
symbolises love, fondness; hugging expresses love or
a welcome to a friend; a handshake expresses love or a
please-to-meet-you attitude; a hair-do may express
rebellion, sadness, happiness, occupation, etc.
genuflection/prostration shows respect, while a
clenched fist shows solidarity, defiance, or an
acknowledgement of the symbolistic inferior position
reverence of the person communicating the message.

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CHAPTER TEN
VENUE-ORIENTED CHANNELS
OF COMMUNICATION
This form of indigenous communication takes place in
a particular place where activities are carried out. It is
basically limited to interpersonal communication and
it operates at different levels in every society. This
form of communication normally takes place at
individual and small group levels. Thus, in village
meetings, clubs, local meetings, etc. communication
takes place. One important area to note here is that
there are reasons, other than communication
prompting people to come together, they still
exchange ideas. It is called venue-oriented
communication because the communication takes
place right at the venue of the activities. Some of the
channels are:
1. Market
A market is a place where two parties can gather to
facilitate the exchange of goods and services. The
parties involved are usually buyers and sellers. The
market may be physical like a retail outlet, where
people meet face-to-face, or virtual like an online
market, where there is no direct physical contact
between buyers and sellers (Investopedia, 2020). In

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of Communication

common parlance, by market is meant a place where

commodities are bought and sold at retail or wholesale
prices. Thus, a market place is thought to be a place
consisting of a number of big and small shops, stalls
and even hawkers selling various types of goods.
The open market always remains one of the
most powerful and important institution in Nigeria. It
is mostly located in or near a village/town. The village
markets have a cycle, which may be every four-five–
days interval; town markets are open daily.
Notwithstanding the fact that the market functions as
the economic nerve centre, it has become a beehive of
all sorts of communication activities. The open market
serves as a natural infrastructure for multi-directional
dissemination of news, opinions and rumours and is
important for agitation, it provides a forum for
adherents of synergetic religions to propagate their
faith, politicians to solicit the votes of the common
people, the open market also offers one of the few
opportunities for communication to move from
community to another. Ndolo (2005) states that in
many Nigerian villages, murderers and thieves are
paraded and humiliated on market days where also one
can see newly-weds, new fashions, newly born babies,
new products and new traditional dances, new
products and masquerades.
Thus, Nwuneli (1983) sees the market as a
network of informal communication media. He
further opines that in Nigeria, the operational days of
markets vary from place to place. According to him,
while some are opened every day of the week
(participants are mostly residents of that community)

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and the kinds of information that are common in such

markets are mainly local information about what is
going on in the town and gossips about current
happenings or scandals, others have a cycle which
may range from three to seven days (participants are
residents and non-residents of that community),
depending on the part of the country.
In African societies, the market place is an
effective informal channel of information
dissemination. The market generates soft news. The
only hard news generated internally by the market
itself is the trade statistics and price index of that
particular market, the neighbouring markets and the
largest market nearest to the reference village or town.
The trade statistics and price indices are outside the
competence of the town crier. However, because of the
horizontal nature of communication in the market
place, high volumes of information disseminated there
have low accuracy and credibility. So, most of the
information received in the market is often verified for
authenticity by the recipient before use. The market
medium only carries hard news that requires no
verification when the town crier appears in the market
to make announcement. This is because those
announcements are considered official (National
Open University of Nigeria, 2006). The news given in
most African societies ranges from politics, social
events, to traditional festivals. People are interested in
all these kinds of news mainly because they want to
know among other things, whether a conducive
atmosphere exists in other towns and villages which
may enhance their participation in the next market
days scheduled to take place in such towns or villages;

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of Communication

this is in addition to constant anticipation of increase

in the prices of goods in next market days (National
Open University of Nigeria, 2006). Thus, apart from
the original purport of buying and selling, the market
square serves well as a communication arena. Women
who have picked information from various places
spread it around with the word of mouth.
Features of Market
The essential characteristics of a market are as
follows:
i. In practical life, a market is understood as a
place where commodities are bought and sold at
retail or wholesale price, but in economics
“market” does not refer to a particular place as
such, but it refers to a market for a commodity
or commodities; that is, a wheat market, a tea
market or a gold market and so on.
ii. In economics, market does not refer only to a
fixed location. It refers to the whole area or
region of operation of demand and supply.
iii. To create a market for a commodity what we
need is only a group of potential sellers and
potential buyers; they must be present in the
market of course at different places.
iv. In the market there must be the existence of
perfect competition between buyers and sellers.
But the opinion of modern economist is that in
the market the situation of imperfect
competition also exists, therefore, the existence
of both is found.

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v. For a market, there must be a perfect business

relationship between buyers and sellers. They
may not be physically present in the market, but
the business relationship must be carried on.
vi. Buyers and sellers must have perfect
knowledge of the market regarding t h edemand
of the customers, regarding their habits, tastes,
fashions, etc.
vii. One and only one price can be in existence in the
market which is possible only through
perfect competition and not otherwise.
viii. Sound monetary system should be prevalent in
the market, it means money exchange system, if
possible, be prevalent in the market.
ix. Presence of seculars is essential just to supply
business information's and prices prevalent in
the market (Shaikh, 2020).

2. Social Gatherings
Social gatherings are also one of the venue-oriented
channels of indigenous communication. A gathering
refers to a planned or spontaneous event, indoors or
outdoors, with a small number of people participating
or a large number of people in attendance such as a
community event or gathering, concert, festival,
conference, parade, wedding, or sporting event. The
social gatherings may be organised or spontaneous.
The organised social gatherings are those ones that are
planned for based on the events that have taken place,
as such, the gatherings hold; whereas, the spontaneous

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Venue-Oriented Channels
of Communication

gatherings are the ones that are just arranged without

any prior plan. Thus, social gatherings are more of
ceremonies like funerals, naming ceremonies, etc. in
the rural settings where a lot of important messages
can be disseminated across to the members of the rural
community.
Death and funerals attract large congregations
which often include participants from neighbouring or
distant places. These ceremonies often last quite long
while weeping and wailing characterise such
particular moments of death and burials. Other social
gatherings include town or village festivals, marriages
and circumcision feasts, naming, opening of new
houses, public meetings and trials, propitiatory
assemblies, open quarrels, disputes and several other
aggregatory events which characterise the African
way of life (Ogwezzy, 1999, cited in National Open
University of Nigeria, 2006). Exchange of
information is also promoted by means of organised
and spontaneous gatherings which are fairly frequent
in the Nigerian society. Since some ceremonies often
last quite long, the intervening periods within such
social gatherings are usually occupied with gossiping,
storytelling and general exchange of information
(Ogwezzy, 1999, cited in National Open University of
Nigeria, 2006).
Social gatherings are important because they
allow us to catch up with a large number of people in
one go. It can be difficult to spend quality time with
friends on an ongoing basis, and these events allow us
to talk for a few minutes in person with many of our

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friends, long enough to have a meaningful connection.

Over time, the people who come to these gatherings
have developed friendships that exist outside of and
without Mandy and me. This is the best possible
outcome as these groups then bring in new friends to
our circle. Many of the people that come were
originally friends of friends (Hanna, 2020).
3. Roads
The road is a venue for communication as some people
fix appointments to meet at a point on a road.
Although, roads are channels, they are also venues of
communication in Africa. In Africa, some people
arrange to meet at a particular road either on their way
to farm, market, river, et cetera to exchange
information.
4. Rivers
Rivers are precious sources of fresh drinking water for
people across the world. And when rivers are so badly
polluted by industry or unevenly distributed by poor
water management practices, it can be a case of life-or-
death. This unfortunately happens across the world.
Freshwater habitats account for some of the richest
biodiversity in the world, and rivers are a vital, vibrant
ecosystem for many species. Some people, especially
in some African societies depend on rivers for their
way of life and their livelihoods. From fishing to
agriculture, the way we manage our waterways, etc.
has a direct impact on peoples' lives (Retrieved from
https://www.wwf.org.uk/updates/why-are-rivers-so-
important-and-what-are-we-doing-protect-them).
Where riverine cities did develop, they commanded

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ready means of communication; the two lands of

Upper and Lower Egypt, for instance, were unified by
the Nile. At the same time, it can be argued that early
riverine and river-dependent civilisations bore the
seeds of their own destruction, independent of major
climatic variations and natural evolutionary changes
in the river systems (Encyclopedia Britanica, 2020).
People swim across streams, creeks and rivers
to communicate with friends, relations; hold
discussions and deliver messages, information and
receive same if necessary. Rivers are venues for
communication because people plan and meet at
particular river sides to wash clothes and other
domestic items as well as to exchange information
(Ogwezzy, 1999, cited in National Open University of
Nigeria, 2006).

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CHAPTER ELEVEN
FOLKLORE, PROVERBS AND PARABLES
1. Folklore
Folklore is the expressive body of culture shared by a
particular group of people; it encompasses the
traditions common to that culture, subculture or group.
These include oral traditions such as tales, proverbs
and jokes. They include material culture, ranging from
traditional building styles to handmade toys common
to the group. Folklore also includes customary lore,
the forms and rituals of celebrations such as Christmas
and weddings, folk dances and initiation rites. Each
one of these, either singly or in combination, is
considered a folklore artifact (Retrieved from
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folklore).
Folklore is made of two words: folk, which
means regional people and lore, which means stories.
Therefore, folklore reflects stories told by people in a
particular region. Folklore can define a population's
values, beliefs, and preferred way of life with its
literary themes. Folklore was passed down from
earlier generations, who told the stories verbally. Each
generation would then tell its own children and these
stories became part of a culture's tradition. The
invention of the printing press allowed these stories to
be published – and shared with the world (Your
Dictionary, 2020). Nwuneli (1983) posits that folklore

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in Nigeria touches every aspect of life; they are stories

of war, great men and events, religious happenings,
natural phenomena such as drought, famine and
mysteries such as why a tortoise has a shell on its body.
Folklore is a collection of fictional stories about
animals and people, of cultural myths, jokes, songs,
tales and even quotes. It is a description of culture,
which has been passed down verbally from generation
to generation, though many are now in written form.
Folklore is also known as “folk literature,” or “oral
t r a d i t i o n s ( R e t r i e v e d f r o m
https://literarydevices.net/folklore/). Folklore is oral
history that is preserved by the people of the culture,
consisting of traditions belonging to a specific culture.
These traditions usually include music, stories,
history, legends, and myths. Folklore is passed down
from generation to generation and is kept active by the
people in the culture.
The foregoing implies that folklore refers to the
tales people tell– folk stories, fairy tales, tall tales and
even urban legends. It is essentially passed down by
word of mouth, rather than being written in books,
although sometimes, people write down collections of
folklore in order to preserve the stories of a particular
community. The key here is that folklore has no
author; it just emerges from the culture and is carried
forward by constant retelling. Thus, in most rural
settings, children are gathered in a particular spot and
they are told interesting stories and it is mostly done in
the evening after the day's work when people are
relaxing before going to bed. So, it is not unusual at
this particular time of the day to find many children
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listen to folk stories. So, generally in Africa, children

gather around elders who tell them stories under
moonlight and sometimes, this could involve song,
singing and clapping of hands. The children are
allowed to participate by contributing to lessons learnt
from the stories and the children are encouraged to
adhere to the positive sides always. Most of the folk
stories that are very common in African communities
have themes that reflect on the various aspects of the
social life of the people generally.
Types of Folklore
There are many ways for cultures to express their
beliefs through folklore. Some of the ways are briefly
explained below:
a. Fables and Folktales: Traditional stories about
common people are the
basis for most forms of folklore. These folktales
typically involve a person or animal learning a
valuable lesson by obeying or in most cases, not
obeying cultural rules.
b. Fairy Tales: Fairy tales are folk tales that
include elements of fantasy stories, such as royalty and
magic. Fairy tales are traditional stories, intended
primarily for children, which recount human
encounters with supernatural beings such as fairies,
witches, ogres, and the like, often conveying a
cautionary message. Many such tales were compiled
by the Brothers Grimm in the 19th century. In the
modern era, fairy tales have served as the basis for
many Disney movies
c. Folk Songs: Cultures often put their stories

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from folklore to traditional music. They range from

everyday stories of common folk to heroic tales told in
ballad form. Folk songs are traditional songs,
anonymously composed and handed down orally,
about commonplace topics such as work, family,
community and everyday life. They may address
social or political issues and they may take the form of
ballads, love songs, or novelty songs. Folk songs are
usually played on acoustic instruments.
d. Folk Dance: If you have ever been to a cultural
festival or wedding, you have probably seen a folk
dance. They are traditional dances taught to each new
generation in a specific culture. These dances often
require large groups of people and are performed at
community gatherings and special events. A folk
dance (or ethnic dance) is any dance invented by the
common people of a particular region or culture that
has been handed down through tradition. Folk dances
are usually performed at social gatherings by people
who have learned the dances informally.
e. Jokes: A joke is a humorous story or anecdote
meant to provoke laughter through irony, wordplay,
the thwarting of expectations, the juxtaposition of
images, or other techniques
f. Ballad: A ballad is a traditional poem or folk
song that tells a story. It may describe a true love, a
heroic adventure, a scandal or a tragic death, to name
just a few of the most common subjects. Historical
examples of ballads date back to the Middle Ages. The
form is one way for important cultural narratives to be
preserved and passed down to future generations
(Emery, 2018; Your Dictionary, 2020).

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Purpose of Folklore
Folklore allows people to give meaning to their lives
and their surroundings. Because every culture has
different historical backgrounds and traditions,
folklore has a different definition to each culture. The
main purpose of folklore is to convey a moral lesson
and present useful information and everyday life
lessons in an easy way for the common people to
understand. Folk tales sugar-coat the lessons of hard
life in order to give the audience pointers about how
they should behave. It is one of the best mediums to
pass on living culture or traditions to future
generations (Literary Devices, 2020). This is in line
with Nwunneli (1983) who argues that the importance
of folklore lies in the fact that they are very effective
means of teaching morals and socialising the young
into internalising the important values and knowledge
of the society because within stories, narrators can
infuse information on morals, condemn evil and
commend goodness.
Many forms of folk literature have been
transformed into books and manuscripts, which we see
in the forms of novels, histories, dramas, stories, lyric
poems and sermons. Folk literature is, however, not
merely a carrier of cultural values; rather, it is also an
expression of self-reflection. It serves as a platform to
hold high moral ground without any relevance to
present day reality. Instead, writers use it as a
commentary or satire on current political and social
realities. In the modern academic world, folklores and
folktales are studied to understand ancient literature
and civilisations (Literary Devices, 2020). This
perhaps explains why Mede (1998) notes that folktales

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are part of Tiv mythology and explain certain

supernatural events and facts in life. Thus, they are
seen as vehicles for transmitting cultural information.
Folklore is also used as a vehicle for instruction,
socialisation and education. They are originally
structured to entertain. It can be used to promote
development and acceptable behaviour in society.
Since children are allowed to participate by
contributing to the lessons learnt from the stories and
children are encouraged to adhere to the positive sides
always.
The folklore medium plays a very important
role in the socialisation of children in African
communities because the medium is primarily used to
educate and inculcate the traditional social values into
the children, apart from entertaining them. For the old
people, the folklore medium serves as means of social
control, especially in reinforcing the traditional values
that have already been acquired. Such traditional
values include honesty, integrity, hardwork,
faithfulness, etc. (National Open University of
Nigeria, 2006).

2. Proverbs

Proverbs are brief, memorable sayings that offer

ethical direction in specific situations from generation
to generation. They are a feature of almost all cultures,
histo ically, as well as today. The proverb is tailor-
madre for primary oral cultures where, with no system
of inscription, what cannot be remembered is lost, but
even in contemporary literary cultures new sayings
continue to be coined. A parable is a more expansive

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cousin to the proverb. It is a short narrative fiction that

expresses a moral or religious lesson. Like the proverb,
parables are memorable and inspire listener
participation: applying the parable to situations in
one's daily life (Encycopedia.com, 2020).
Proverbs arise out of the experience and
observation of repeated patterns in daily life. Proverbs
are useful in contexts outside of their time and place of
origin, most often serving to inculcate traditional
values of self-control, hard work, and cautious speech.
They are, however, also capable of subverting
traditional wisdom. A proverb which though of rather
recent coinage, reflects traditional values, Life is short,
play hard is subverted by Life is short, pray hard
(Encycopedia.com, 2020).
More than a thousand languages are spoken in
Africa, and proverbs have been found in every African
language studied so far. African proverbs often employ
animal metaphors and point out the foibles of human
conduct: "The higher the ape climbs the more he shows
his tail" (Yoruba proverb). Historically, proverbs have
been the most important expression of human wisdom
and knowledge of nature, psychology and reality for
the traditional cultures of Africa. They cover topics
such as family relationships, luck and survival by one's
wits in a harsh environment. They are used for
teaching and correcting the young and for consoling
the suffering (Encycopedia.com, 2020).
Proverbs are witty sayings said in verse, prose
or song that are meant to deliver strong messages.
They communicate time tested truths about human
endeavours, life situations, morals and values. So,
proverbs are apt sayings, linguistic expressions meant

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to heighten or embellish one's manner of expression

(National Open University of Nigerian 2006). Babs
(1974), quoted in Mede (1998), as cited in National
Open University of Nigerian (2006) notes that
proverbs are used to “bring out clearly, the meaning of
obscure points in conversations and arguments. They
are indirect modes of communication which is yet
more effective than direct speech. Knowledge of
proverbs is a sign of wisdom and is a preserve of the
old, although, close association with elders can enable
youths acquire such knowledge; proverbs are in
addition loaded with morals (Akpan, 1977; National
Open University of Nigeria, 2006).
A proverb is a tool used in public speaking.
Akpan (1977), cited in National Open University of
Nigerian (2006) asserts that proverbs are used mostly
among elderly persons in the village, and that it is a
restrictive form of communication because only
people who share a common frame of reference can
decode the messages in proverbs. Proverbs are tied to
culture and exist in many cultures. Proverbs have
intricate meanings, which can only be decoded by
people who are well versed in the language with which
it is spoken (National Open University of Nigeria,
2006). The use of proverbs in communication is
largely confined to elders in communities, rather than
the young ones. In order to be able to decode the
meanings which are embedded in proverbs, one must
have a thorough knowledge of the language with
which it is spoken. There are different types of
proverbs and for whom they are meant to address their
issues. There are those that address male issues, female
issues, or both (National Open University of Nigeria,
2006).

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Proverbs are used as means of communication

in villages. Proverbs are used to convey some types of
information in the village – information on social
values, cultural practices, environment of the other
town and other miscellaneous information. In most
villages, the elderly people use proverbs to tell stories
and to drive home their points in any argument.
Proverbs are mainly used to express feelings or
thoughts which meanings cannot be adequately
expressed through simple words. They are also used to
substitute words that are regarded as too big/deep to be
expressed in simple terms (Otasowie, 1981; Akpan,
1997). Essentially, they are used to obscure sensitive
issues or to obscure delicate words or statements. As it
is said in Yoruba “Owe lesin oro, bi oro ba sonu, owe la
finwa.” This means 'proverbs are vehicles through
which words that could otherwise have been lost are
recovered” (National Open University of Nigeria,
2006).
Proverbs are also used to buttress points and to
draw analogy to past, present and future events. This is
because proverbs are believed to have their origin from
specific past events or particular circumstances that
are very significant. So, proverbs are recognised
channels of communication amongst Africans
(National Open University of Nigeria, 2006). They
carry distinct meanings depending on the context that
it is used. In Africa, it is generally regarded as a
powerful tool for correction or advice instead of using
whips. It is used as a means of correcting someone or
people, a tool for advice, especially during ceremonies
such as marriage, burial and so on (National Open
University of Nigeria, 2006).

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3. Parables

A parable is a short allegorical story designed to

illustrate or teach some truth, religious principle or
moral lesson. It is a statement or comment that conveys
a meaning indirectly by the use of comparison,
analogy or the like.
A parable teaches a moral or spiritual lesson.
Thus, it is seen as a brief, succinct story, in prose or
verse that is told to illustrate a religious, moral or
philosophical idea in rhetoric. As captured in the
National Open University of Nigeria (2006), a parable
describes how the decision event occurs when the
listener sees juxtaposition of parabolic content with
their own contemporary self-understanding. The
purpose of a parable is to strengthen people's spiritual
understanding by presenting what we believe in the
language of what we know to confirm both our beliefs
and knowledge. So, a parable is a fictitious story from
which a moral or spiritual truth may be drawn and from
the above definition, the origin of parable might be
traced to Christianity or the Greeks (National Open
University of Nigeria, 2006). The features of parables
include the following:

a. It is the simplest form of narrative; sketches a

setting and describes an action and its results. It
often involves a character f a c i n g a m o r a l
dilemma or making a questionable decision and
then suffering the consequences of that choice.

b. It involves placing two, at least, apparently

dissimilar ideas or concepts in comparison with
one another. One idea becomes an analogue for

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the other. Only one of the concepts or idea will

be directly addressed in the parable, but the
other will be present by implication.

c. It relates a single, simple and consistent action,

without extraneous detail nor distracting
circumstances.

d. A parable is like a metaphor that has been

extended to form a brief, coherent fiction. The
parallel meaning of parables is unspoken and
implicit, though not secret.

d. It is longer than proverbs.

e. It employs the use of symbolism i.e. the use of

one thing to present another.

f. It is a short narrative used to teach a moral or

religious lesson.

g. It is favoured in the expression of spiritual

concepts (Culled from National Open
University of Nigeria, 2006).

The purpose of parables is to focus and

strengthen one's spiritual understanding. Parables
provide guidance and suggestions for proper action in
life, teach morals, communicate age long concepts and
used in sending warning signals motivate people. For
instance, in the Holy Bible, they were used to arouse
interest and stimulate curiosity about the teachings of
Jesus Christ. By shrouding what critics see as
controversial ideas in the cloak of parables, Jesus
Christ conveyed messages without prejudice. The

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knowledgeable people grabbed the meaning in the

Parables of Jesus Christ and felt the rebukes He hid in
them. Luke Chapter 15 of the Holy Bible was
dedicated to parables (parable of the lost sheep, lost
coin and prodigal son). Perhaps the most famous of all
Jesus' parable is the Prodigal Son in verses 11-32 of
Luke chapter 15 (National Open University of Nigeria,
2006).
Some Yoruba Proverbs, Idioms and Parables

1. Ile eni lati je ekute onidodo: Literally, it means

it is in your house you eat a rat with abdomen.
The proverb means you do not put your dirty
details out there. This can be used if you want to
tell someone that a family secret should not be
let out, especially if it is not palatable.

2. Owo po lowo mi: Literally it means I have a lot

of money but as a proverb it means you are
broke. This can be used when someone is
requesting for money and you do not have
enough.

3. Ti o ba nidi obirin oki je Kumolu: Literally, it

means if there is no reason, a woman does not
bear Kumolu, but as a proverb it means there is a
reason for someone's behaviour. This is often
used when there is a sudden change in
someone's attitude.

4. O re ota mi: Literally, it means my enemy is

sick, but as a proverb it means the individual is
not well. This is used when someone is ill and is
being asked about his health.

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5. A tori Oja ja, Oja ni talo ja ni ekule ohun:

Literally, it means we are fighting for Oja and
Oja is asking who is fighting at his backyard, but
the proverb means we are trying to defend you,
yet you are against us or you are complaining
about what we are doing to defend you. For
instance, this can be used by someone trying to
defend you from an evildoer and yet you are
against the person or you are complaining about
what the person is doing to defend you.

6. Ogbe eru ele ru so ori, ofa ti e lowo: Literally,

this means you are carrying someone's else load
on your head while holding yours on your hand.
The proverb means you are giving undue
attention to someone's plight without taking
care of your own problems. It is the same with
saying crying more the bereaved. For example,
this can be used by a child struggling to be
admitted into a university, instead of the parent
helping, they are busy going all out to help
another person's child to get admission into the
university while neglecting their own child.

7. Aje ke lana omo ku leni, tani ko mope aje to

ke lana lo kpa: Literally, it means a witch cried
yesterday and the child died today, who does not
know it is the witch that cried yesterday that
killed the child. The proverb means a person is
responsible for someone's plight. This can be
used in a situation where Mr. A quarreled with
Mr. B and Mr. B threatened to deal with Mr. A
and the next day Mr. A was involved in an
accident and it is believed Mr. B is responsible
for it.

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8. Ti isu eni ba ta, afo wo bo je: Literally, it means

if your yam is ready, you cover it and eat. The
proverb means when you are blessed you do not
display it to the world. This can be used for
example as an advice to someone who just
acquired a new asset and wants to show it off on
social media.

9. Ma fi bread ko mi lomi obe: Literally, this

means do not use your bread to finish my stew.
The proverbs means do not deceive me with
your outlook or your words. For Example, this
can be used as a response by a lady to a guy who
is poor but has dressed lavishly in order to
deceive the girl into thinking he is rich and
accept his proposal.

10. Bami na omo mi kode inu olomo: Literally,

this means help me beat my child is not from the
heart of the parents. The proverb means parents
are only pretentious when they tell outsiders to
feel free to discipline their children, but deep
down they do not want outsiders to discipline
their children on their behalf. This can be used
for example, when a mother instructs the
teacher to flog her child if he misbehaves, but
comes in to the school to complain bitterly about
the teacher flogging her child.

11. Pa kere ti won fi na iya ile obe loke fun iyawo:

Literally, this means the cane used to beat the
senior wife is up there waiting for you the
younger wife. The proverb means the younger

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wife will also receive the same bad treatment the

senior wife got. This is used when a man marries
a new wife and the new wife is behaving rudely
to the older wife.

12. Nko eni o dimeji ki inu bi yan: Literally, this

means your thing cannot become two and you
will be angry. The proverb means there is joy in
abundance. This is used for example, when a
man wants to take in a second wife and the man's
family wants to break the news to the wife.

13. Mi o le sare keke ki kolu motor: Literally, this

means I cannot run from jamming a tricycle
only to jam a car. The proverb means I cannot be
running from a little problem only to land
myself in a bigger problem. This can be used for
instance, a man who didn't want to marry a good
girl from the city probably because he thinks
city girls are wild went and married a naive
village girl only to find out she is a prostitute
who can't even bear him a child.

14. Ti iya nla ba gbe ni shonle, kekere a gun ori e:

Literally, this means if a big fight throws you on
the floor the smaller ones will climb you. The
proverb means when you are faced with life
challenge even people who are not up to your
status will want to take advantage of you. As an
example, this can be used by a woman who was
jilted by her rich lover only for her gateman to
use that as an opportunity to propose to her.

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15. Ale fina sori orule sun: Literally, it means you

cannot sleep with the roof on fire. The proverb
means you cannot ignore an issue that poses
danger. For example this can be used by a
politician vying for a political position who
needs the urgent attention of his political party
when he realises that his secret which can pose a
danger to his political ambition has been let out
of the bag.

Igbo Proverbs, Idioms and Parables

1. Ura ga-eju onye nwuru anwu afo. A dead person shall have all the sleep
necessary.
2. Gidi gidi b? ugwu eze. Unity is strength
3. Ch?? ewu ojii ka chi d? Make hay while the sun shines
4. Otu onye tuo izu, o gbueochu Knowledge is never complete: two heads
are better than one.
5. Ihe ehi h ?r? gbalaba oso ka okuku Fools rush in where angels fear to tread.
huru na-at? onu

6. Oge adighi eche mmadu Time and tide wait for nobody.
7. E lewe ukwu Egbue ewu. A buxom waist that makes her
man(husband) kill a goat for her when he
looks at it.
8. Ebe onye dara ka chi ya kwaturu ya. Where one falls is where his god pushed him
down.
9. Ihe di woro ogori azuala na ahia. What was secret is revealed in the market
place.
10. Ewu nwuru n'oba ji abughi agu A goat that dies in a barn was never killed
gburu ya. by hunger.
11. A ma ka mmiri si were baa n'opi Who knows how water entered into the stalk
ugboguru? of the pumpkin?

12. A chuo aja ma a hughi udele, a mara If the vulture fails to hover at the end of a
na ihe mere be ndimmuo. sacrifice, then you know that something
happened in the land of spirits
13. Si kele onye nti chiri; enu anughi, Salute the deaf; if the heavens don't hear, the
ala anu.ala earth will hear.
14. Nwunye awo si na di atoka uto, ya The female toad said that husband is so
jiri nuta nke ya kworo ya n'azu. sweet that when she got married, she carried
her husband permanently on the back.
15. Ugo chara acha adi(ghi) echu echu A mature eagle feather will ever remain
pure (Chinonye, 2020).

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Hausa Proverbs, Idioms and Parables

1. A buggi karfe da saura'n zafi, in ya fuche sai a

wahalla: Strike while the iron is hot, you will
suffer if you allow it to get cold (Do not lose an
opportunity when it is ripe. Taking right
decisions at the right time is crucial else you lose
the chance which you may not regain).

2. A dade a nayi saikaskiya, karya fure take

bata yaya: Truth lasts longer while falsehood
does not last long (It is used in the case of
proving how truthful a person is).

3. A yi, a gamma, ta fi takamma, gobe a koma:

To do, to finish, is better than “do not care, come
back tomorrow.” (Takamma, swagger: it comes
to mean here not to work hard so as to show
independence and disregard for authority.
Never put off till to-morrow what you can do to-
day).

4. Asa zuchia ta chi, shi ya kawo ji'n yungwa: To

make the heart eat is to bring a feeling of hunger
(Wishing for a thing makes one feel the want of
it).

5. Ba a hada gudu da susar katara: It is

impossible to race more than your speed.

6. Ba a shan zuma sai an shah harbi: Success

comes after tears (This is all about telling people
that nothing comes easy. If you want to achieve
anything, you have to work hard).

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7. Ba domin tsawo akanga wata ba: The moon is

not seen because of great stature (It is by no
merit of yours that you have done that. Anyone
can do it).

8. Babu nesa ga Allah: There is no such thing as

distance where God is concerned.

9. Barewa tayi gudu danta yayi rarrafe: Like

father like son.

10. Da wasa ake fadawa wawa magana: A word is

enough for the wise.

11. Dan'uwa rabin jiki: Blood is thicker than

water.

12. Fawa biu tana bata hankali'n kuda: Two

pieces of meat confuse the mind of the fly
(To hesitate between two things, two courses).

13. Ganni ya fi ji: Seeing is better than hearing (To

be able to say that you have seen a thing with
your own eyes is better than only to know by
hearsay).

14. Gurgu ba shi koiya gurgu taffia: The blind

leading the blind.

15. Duniya labari ce: Limitation is the sincerest

form of flattery(Culled from Wordpress.com,
2020).

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CHAPTER TWELEVE
MYTHS AND LEGENDS
INTRODUCTION

Myths and legends are the traditional stories which

hold special significance to a group or culture. They
are passed down through the generations by word of
mouth. Folk tales, myths and legends are all kinds of
stories which were originally shared in spoken form.
Usually taking the form of an allegorical tale, myths
and legends often feature mythical creatures and
heroes. This is why there are often many variations of
the same core story between different cultures. One
example is the tale of Little Red Riding Hood which
has been rewritten many times with a number of
different endings. Both historical truth and
imaginative stories were shared by word of mouth, and
so the two would sometimes intertwine. Children will
learn all about myths and legends in primary school
(Twinkl.com, 2018).

Myths

A myth is a traditional story, usually featuring gods and

heroes which purports to give a cosmic explanation of
a natural phenomenon or cultural practice. Myths are
part of a community's cultural fabric, conveying

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essential (if not literal) truth and influencing other

stories and beliefs.
A myth is a symbolic narrative, usually of
unknown origin and at least partly traditional, that
ostensibly relates actual events and that is especially
associated with religious belief. It is distinguished
from symbolic behaviour (cult, ritual) and symbolic
places or objects (temples, icons). Myths are specific
accounts of gods or superhuman beings involved in
extraordinary events or circumstances in a time that is
unspecified but which is understood as existing apart
from ordinary human experience. The term mythology
denotes both the study of myth and the body of myths
belonging to a particular religious tradition (Bolle,
2020).
Myths are stories derived from traditions or
legends, which have a deep symbolic meaning and
usually involve a lesson which will be helpful to the
listener or reader. Myths are a subset of stories that are
fictional, believed by a large portion of the
membership and explain some natural or social
phenomenon. The use of myths in the workplace may
be to motivate employees to reach an impossible
standard to be similar to the idealised worker (Frentz,
2016). It is described as a traditional, typically ancient
stories dealing with supernatural beings, ancestors or
heroes that serve as fundamental types in the
worldview of people in a society. Thus, the purpose of
a myth is to account for the origin of something,
events, actions, culture, practices, etc. and to also
aspects of the natural world. Lombardi (2019) notes
that many cultures have their own versions of common
myths that contain archetypal images and themes; one

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common myth that spans multiple cultures is that of a

great flood.
The foregoing implies that a myth is a
traditional story which describes the origin of the
society or the world as the case may be. Myths are used
to explain the origin of a people, their culture, tradition
and their core values. Thus, every society has its own
myths. In Nigeria and in Africa as a whole, there are
different cultures and people have their ways of doing
things; thus, the myths explain how these ways of life
originated thereby making the upcoming generations
to understand such ways of life among the people. It is
an attempt to explain mysteries, supernatural events
and cultural traditions of a people. In most cases, a
myth might even be the gods and other supernatural
beings.

Mythological Figure (Source, Bolle, 2020)

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Legends
Legends are stories which are thought to be based on
true events, but have developed fictional elements,
which have deep significance to the culture from
which they originate. The foregoing shows that a
legend is a traditional tale handed down from earlier
times and believed to have a historical basis. It is a
story that is believed to be historical in nature or that
which has historical antecedents. However, even
though it is has a historical basis, it does not have
substantiation. Towing the same line, the Teachers'
Resources (2019) notes that a legend is a semi-true
story, which has been passed on from person-to-person
and has important meaning or symbolism for the
culture in which it originates. A legend usually
includes an element of truth or is based on historic
facts, but with 'mythical qualities.' Legends usually
involve heroic characters or fantastic places and often
encompass the spiritual beliefs of the culture in which
they originate.
It is a traditional historical tale or collection of
related tales popularly regarded as true, but usually
containing a mixture of fact and fiction. They may
explain an event or provide a moral lesson.
Sometimes, legends contain fantastical elements or
embellishments that are highly improbably or outright
false. Thus, the legend can be seen as anything that
inspires a body of story or anything of fame or lasting
importance. Thus, it is seen as a semi-true story which
has been passed from person-to-person and has
important meaning or symbolism for the culture in

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which it originates. A legend is, therefore, presumed to

have some basis in historical fact and tends to mention
real people or events. Historical fact morphs into a
legend when the truth has been exaggerated to the
point that real people or events have taken on a
romanticised, 'larger than life' quality. Below are some
images of African Myths and Legends:

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CHAPTER THIRTEEN
NAMES AS COMMUNICATION CHANNELS
In Nigeria and Africa at large, names are important
channels of communication as the names people bear
pass a lot of messages about them. Some people are
given names according to the circumstances
surrounding their birth. Names are what people are
known with and are called; thus, from culture to
culture, names communicate and tell stories about
people and events/ceremonies at the time of
christening.
Children are parents'/families' bundles of joy
because they are rewards from God. So, when children
are born, some families organise naming ceremony
where friends and well-wishers are invited to celebrate
with them for new born children. Although, all cultures
in Africa bear and use names, naming vary from people
to people. In some cases, elaborate parties are thrown,
while in others, simple parties are held depending on
the circumstances of a child's birth, family
tradition/religious beliefs, social life of the parents of
the child and their level of income. The level of income
is a debatable variable as some people who can barely
feed even throw elaborate naming ceremonies. Some
even borrow money to organise naming ceremony
(National Open University of Nigeria, 2006).
More than identification, names communicate
and provide a lot of information about their owners

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such as the bearer's position in the family; the

circumstances surrounding the birth of the bearer;
parental/family situation; family hopes, desires,
expectations and aspirations; financial situation; links
with departed family member ancestors and a way of
keeping records (i.e. historical accounts). Essentially,
names tell stories about people and reveal a person's
place of origin; that is, the part of Nigeria/Africa the
person originates. This is very common among the
Hausa people of Nigeria. Abdullahi Jibia for example
is the name of a man that comes from Jibia (a town in
Katsina state) and Sada Mashi, the name of another
man that comes from Mashi, a town also in Katsina
state (Akpabio, 2003; Olusanya & Olurode, 1994;
Doob, 1966, cited in National Open University of
Nigeria, 2006). Names could also show the day the
child was born, for example market days, local week
days, etc. Names are also given to show whether the
child was born during harvest time, planting season
and war times amongst others. Others reflect the birth
order of a new-born child. An example is the name
Obianuju and Obiangeli names from the eastern part of
Nigeria, which means a child that was born in the midst
of plenty and a child that has come to enjoy wealth
respectively (National Open University of Nigeria,
2006).
Again, apart from the main function of
identification, it is the evidence of the origin of a
person; it tells the circumstances surrounding the birth
and it could imply the type of trade by which the family
is known. In Ondo State, for instance, most names start
with the prefix “Akin-“ (which means bravery)
because they are believed to be very brave and “Ogun-
“ (the god of iron), which depicts reverence for a deity

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associated with the Ondos and Ekitis. In fact, history

has it that when Ogun came down from heaven, he
landed at Ire-Ekiti (National Open University of
Nigeria, 2006). Olusanya & Olurode (1994), cited in
(National Open University of Nigeria, 2006) note that
apart from the identification function of names, they
serve as links with departed members of the family and
a system of record keeping; for instance, Yetunde
among the Yorubas mean dead mother has come back
again. Doob (1966), cited in National Open University
of Nigeria (2006) states that it may suggest
circumstances relating to the child's birth or
appearance; it may express a hope concerning parental
disappointment; it may reflect feelings of the mother;
or it may even be a brief adage.
It has been argued, especially, by spiritual heads
that names have spiritual implications and that is why
most people normally change their names. The belief
is that names have effects on what the bearer would
become or how the bearer will behave. According to
National Open University of Nigeria (2006), names
can also reveal the source(s) of their bearers. For
instance, in Yoruba land, Esubiyi means Satan has
given birth to this one (child). Also, Ogunbiyi and
Ifabiyi mean Ogun and Ifa have given birth to these
ones respectively. That probably explains why some
Christians, who become aware of the spiritual
implications of these names; that is, attachment to
idols, change them to Oluwabiyi or Olubiyi, for short,
meaning God has given birth to this one. In all the
cases above, the names (i.e. Esubiyi, Ogunbiyi and
Ifabiyi) reveal the idols that were consulted before the
bearers were born (National Open University of
Nigeria, 2006).

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Africa's Naming Traditions

Having discussed some of the names and their
meanings in select tribes, it is evident that there are
some situations that determine the naming of children
in Nigeria and Africa at large. Such factors as
identified by Arthur (2016) are briefly discussed
below:
1. Events surrounding Birth
Among several ethnic groups, picking out names can
be influenced by positive or negative circumstances
the family finds itself in around the time a child is born.
Often, such names are complete sentences. See
examples of such names below:

Ayodele (joy has come home) is a unisex name

for a baby whose birth brought happiness to
his/her Yoruba parents in Nigeria.

Yetunde or Yewande (mother has come back)

is a Yoruba name given to a girl whose
grandmother or other female relative died
before she was born.

Adetokunbo (crown/wealth has come back

home) is a unisex Yoruba name often given to a
child born abroad.

Ajuji (born on a rubbish heap) is a Hausa name

given to a baby after those born before it failed
to survive. It is believed that giving the child a
"terrible" name will deceive evil spirits into

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thinking the child is not loved and as a result,

allow it to live.

Kgomotso and Pumza (comfort) are given to

babies born shortly after a death or tragedy in
Sesotho and Xhosa families in South Africa.

Kiptanui and Cheptanui are often given to

babies whose mothers may have suffered
extreme difficulties during childbirth among the
Kalenjin ethnic group in Kenya.

Kimaiyo and Jemaiyo are names sometimes

given to baby boys and girls whose births
coincide with men drinking locally brewed beer
(Maiywek) among the Kalenjins.

Misrak (east) was given to an Ethiopian baby

girl whose father was in Japan at the time she
was born.

Lindiwe (we have waited) is an isiZulu name

often given to a baby girl after a long line of
boys.

2. Emotional Warnings
Some names, especially in Zimbabwe, reflect the
mood or circumstance of the family at the time of birth.
Some of them serve as warnings or rebukes. Examples
of such names are:

Nhamo means misfortune

Maidei asks the question "What did you want?"

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Manyara tells someone "You have been

humbled”

Yananiso means bringing the family together

Gospel Mavutula from Malawi was originally named

Misery, but decided it was too negative and changed it.
He was born at a period when his parents were
miserable. His parents, both teachers, had been
experiencing pressure at work and problems with their
neighbours and this influenced his birth name. And
across the continent in Ghana's Volta region, a couple
belonging to the Ewe ethnic group had decided to stop
having children, but their last daughter unexpectedly
came along. To show that the child was somehow a
mistake, they decided to name her Melevevio, which
translates as "not necessary

3. Celebrity Culture
The Luos in Kenya are known for adopting famous
names for their children. Quite a number of mothers
named their baby boys Obama in 2008 after Barack
Obama, the son of a Luo man, was elected US
president. And when he visited the country in 2015,
one mother reportedly named her child Airforceone.
Churchill and Clinton are also quite popular in Luo-
speaking areas of western Kenya. One couple already
had to defend their decision to name their son Donald
Trump Otieno. The parents told the Nairobi News they
chose to name their child after the US president-elect
because they liked the billionaire's principles. But
naming children after people in the news is certainly
not unique to the Luos or Kenya.

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4. Order of Birth
In many African cultures, there is no need for someone
to explain whether they are the eldest or youngest of
their siblings. This is because their names can reveal
that much. This is especially true of twins. If you meet
a Ugandan boy or man called Kakuru or Wasswa, he is
likely to be an elder twin. The younger male twin is
usually called Kato. These are names specially
reserved for twins. Similarly, the Kalenjins in Kenya
refer to the first born as Yator (first to open the way)
and the last born Towett meaning last.
The Yorubas call the first twin Taiwo (taste the
world) and the second Kehinde (came after). In Ghana,
the unisex names Panyin and Kakra, which basically
mean older and younger, are used for twins.

5. Day-born Names
Even before parents select a western or religious name
for their child, the baby already has a name. Among
some Ghanaian ethnic groups like the Akan, Ga, Ewe
and Nzema, a name is automatically assigned based on
the day the child is born. These day names correspond
to the day of the week someone is born and so by
default, everybody has one - though the name may not
necessarily appear on official documents.

Monday - Kojo (male), Adwoa (female)

Tuesday - Kwabena (male), Abena (female)

Wednesday - Kwaku (male), Ekua (female)

Thursday - Yaw (male), Yaa (female)

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Friday - Kofi (male), Efua (female)

Saturday - Kwame (male), Ama (female)

Sunday - Akwesi (male), Akosua, (female)

These day names can vary slightly, depending on the

ethnic group.

6. Faith-based Names
Many parents express their religious beliefs through
names but some practice this further than others. Edem
Adjordor, from Ghana, believes there is a higher power
than black magic and so through his three-year-old
son, he sends a strong message to those he considers
spiritual enemies. Xolawubo, which means the creator
(God) is greater than voodoo is the middle name of his
three-year-old son. Though his Dutch wife and in-laws
find it difficult to pronounce the name, its meaning is
all that matters to them. Across the continent, several
local names have religious links. Among the Igbo and
Yoruba ethnic groups in Nigeria, a name that starts or
ends with Chi, Chukwu or Oluwa has some kind of
reference to God.

Olusegun means God conquers (Yoruba, Nigeria)

Hailemariam means the power of Mary (Ethiopia)

Mawufemor means God's way (Ewe ethnic group in

Togo, Ghana, Benin)

Makafui means I will praise God (Ewe ethnic group in

Togo, Ghana, Benin)

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7. Day and Night

Among some groups in eastern and southern Africa,
certain names are selected, depending on the time of
the day or season a child is born.

Kibet means day and Kiplagat means night (Kalenjin

in Kenya)

Mumbua and Wambua means rainy season for boys

and girls (Kamba in Kenya)

Olweny means time of war (Luo)

Yunwa means hunger or time of famine (Hausa)

While the Luos are very specific; thus, Omondi

(dawn); Okinyi (morning); Onyango (mid-morning);
Ochieng (sunny midday); Otieno (night) and Oduor
(midnight). Girls are given the same names, but
starting with an A instead of an O.

8. Meet the Ancestors

Respected elders of the family may be dead, but they
continue to live on through their grandchildren.
Parents often name babies after senior members of the
clan whether dead or alive. But it is considered
disrespectful to casually shout or call out the name of a
senior family member that has been given to a child, so
instead it is common to hear a child affectionately
called Ouma (grandma) or Oupa (grandpa) in southern
Africa. Similarly, in Senegal, a child who is named
after a grandfather tends to bear the grandfather's
nickname as well. So a baby boy often ends up being
called Vieux (old man).

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9. Rude Nicknames
Somalia has a unique system. Most people have three
names- the ones they were given, as well as that of their
father and grandfather. But many also have nicknames,
which are so common that they can find their way onto
official ID cards. These nicknames often pick on the
negative physical traits of the bearer, if he is male.
Some common nicknames for men include Langare
(limpy), Coryaan (handicapped), Lugay (one leg) or
Genay (missing tooth). Women, however, mostly get
flattering nicknames like Lul (diamond), Macanay
(sweet), Cod Weyne (rich voiced), Dahable (golden)
and Indho Daraleey (gazelle eyes) (Culled from
Arthur, 2016).

Yoruba Names and their Meanings

To the Yoruba people, a name is not just a word or an

identity. It is an embodiment of lineage, history and
family. As per the Yoruba custom, Yoruba kids are
named in a ceremony that is held seven days after their
birth. In ancient times, the names were found by
divination performed by traditional Ifa priests, called
Babalawo locally. But now, the names are suggested
by the ranking members of the family, which include
mother, father, grandparents or relatives. A private
ceremony, just for the parents and close family
members, is held where the child is bestowed the
name. A public ceremony, with entertainment and
feasting, is held by parents to celebrate the arrival of
the baby a few days after the private ceremony. Yoruba
names are classified into five categories – Oruko
Amutorunwa or destiny names, Oruko Abiso or
acquired names, Oruko Oriki or Panegyrics, Oruko

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Abiku, and Oruko Inagije or alias. Yoruba girls are

named after the circumstances in which their birth took
place, or as a reflection of the wealth, they bring to
their family. Modern or Christian parents use Christian
forms of traditional names, while Muslim Yoruba
parents give Arabic names with Yoruba phonetics to
their children (Mom Junction, 2020). See below some
Yoruba names and their meanings.

1. Enitan: A child with a history.

2. Anrolaoluwayo: We are seeing the Lord's

goodness and rejoicing.

3. Anuoluwabamise: The mercy of God has done

it for me.
4. Abiona: One who is born during a journey.

5. Adeshina: She opens the way.

6. Ajayi: Born face-down

7. Ige: Born feet first

8. Idowu: A child born after twins

9. Abiade: One who is born of royal parents.

10. Abiodun: One born at the time of festival.

11. Abidogun: One born before the war.

11. Abidemi: A girl born during the father's bsence.

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12. Adesanyan: My pains have been compensated

with the arrival of this child.
13. Remilekun: One who comes to stop the cry of
his parents.
14. Abosede: A female child born on Sunday.
15. Bisi: First born daughter in the Family.

Hausa/Fulani Names and their Meanings

Hausa is the main cultural group in the Northern part of

Nigeria, and almost all of the people practise Islam as a
religion. Actually, most Nigerians regard the Northern
part as Hausa, but this is not so. There are actually
some areas and tribes in the north whose people are not
Hausa (Ask.Legit, 2020). When it comes to names,
Hausa, like any other cultural group has its own list of
names. Long before Islam came to Hausa land, Hausa
people used to name their children just like other
Africans. For example, they gave names which could
be based on how they were born, their birth conditions,
climate situation and many other factors (Ask.Legit,
2020). When Islam came, many things were changed.
Hausa people started giving their children Arabic
names. For example, such names as Audu, Sani and
Habu are Arabic in origin, but they are Africanised by
the Hausa people. Nowadays, unlike the Yoruba
people, who give their children multiple names at
birth, the Hausa people always give their kids only one
name and it is usually an Arabic one. But they may take
other names while growing up (Ask.Legit, 2020). The

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popular male and female Hausa names and their

meanings are:

1. Balarabe: It means boy born on Wednesday

2. Danjuma: Means son born on Friday

3. Danladi: Means a boy born on Sunday

4. Danlami: A boy born on Thursday

5. Gaddo: It means an inheritor

6. Gambo: Means a child born after twins

7. Gowon: Means rainmaker

8. Rashidi: Means rightly guided, of true faith and

mature.

9. Tanimu: Means boy born on Litinnin or

Monday.

10. Mansurah: Means supporter, victorious.

11. Maimuna: Means fortunate, blessed.
12. Nabilah: Means noble, magnanimous.
13. Nafisah: Means precious, delicate and gem.
14. Na'imah: Means enjoying the bounty of God.
15. Rabi'ah: Means the fourth.

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Igbo Names and their Meanings

Naming a child is a very important decision for the
child's parents, as the name forms the basis of the
child's identity. The Igbo people, an ethnic group
native to the present-day south-central and South
Eastern Nigeria, bear names that are rich in meaning
and often with unique stories behind them, like many
other African native names (Bamidele, 2020). Every
mom-to-be is often excited with the baby on the way.
Different people use different criteria for naming kids.
Some consider the season, nature of birth and culture
among others. Igbo names for boys and girls take into
consideration the foregoing factors.
The Igbo language is spoken by people in the
Southeastern and parts of South-southern Nigeria. It is
a vibrant and rich language. Igbo names are no
different. Most Igbo names for girls have very deep
meanings. Some even tell very short stories. Names
like 'Ekwutosi' or 'Onukwube' often signify that the
child's parents had been the talk of the town. Another
name like 'Nkeiruka' signifies that the child was born
in tough times and that the parents are hopeful for a
better future. Some names are instructional in Igbo
land. The Igbos often give instructional Igbo names for
girls. Such names seem to be instructing the child on
the right path to take in life. For instance, a parent
might name the child 'Sopuruchukwu', 'Fechi' or
'Tochi' because they want the child to respect God or
Chukwu (which is the name the Igbos call God by)
(Pulse, 2020).
A child who is named 'Lotanna' or 'Jidenna' must
never forget his or her father. Twins do not have special
names, as is the case with the Yorubas. Parents use
their discretion or give names that start with the same
alphabet. A girl's name says a lot about her personality,

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history and destiny (Pulse, 2020). The child naming

traditions have not changed so much with the coming
of Christianity. Although many Christian parents
choose Igbo names for girls that include the name of
God (Chukwu or Chi), they still tend to hint at the
circumstances surrounding the newborn's conception
and birth. On rare occasions, some creative parents
also give praise names to their children. Names such as
'Ifenkili,' 'Omalicha,' 'Mma' and 'Ola' are some of the
most common praise Igbo names for girls. The names
signify that the child is precious and priceless.
Communities can go to war for such a child (Pulse,
2020). Below are some Igbo names and their meanings
1. Chimankpam God knows my need (This name is
given to both male and female
children born when God provides
an answer to a serious need in the
family).
2. Chiwendu God owns and controls life. (A
name given when a pregnancy was
threatened or the parents/ family
faced life challenging events prior
to the delivery of the child such as
lack, obstacles, attacks or battles).
3. Chimdi My God exists (A name given to
proclaim a divine intervention
amidst enemies' attacks and
challenges).
4. Nkechinyere Given by God (An expression of
God being in charge of the gender
of a child and as such any gender
given by God is right and
acceptable.)
5. Chukwuebuka God is mighty or great (This is a
name that expresses the
mightiness of God).

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6. Chikadibia God is greater than doctors (A

name given to show the
supremacy of God over Doctors'
art and science in human affairs).
7. Onyemaechi Who knows tomorrow or the
future (An expression of hope in
the future and a shift from the
present hopeless situation; where
an individual refuses to be
discouraged by the present ugly
situations).
8. Chidinma God is good (An expression of
thanks to God and mainly given to
females only).
9. Udodiri Let there be peace (A name often
given in a crisis filled situation
with an intention to seek peace).
10. Echebiri Stop worrying (Normally given in
the midst of calamities to stop
worrying).
11. Obiora The heart desire of the public or
everybody (A name given on the
arrival of a needed or highly
desired male child in a family).
12. Chibuzor God is the way (A name given in
the expression of God's leadership
or providence).
13. Maduforo There is still a human being (A
name given to a male child in a
period of consistent mysterious
deaths in a family or community).
14. Nwaugo A child of eagle (An expression of
beauty and purity as found in the
eagle and normally given to
beautiful girls at birth).
15. Amarachi God's grace (An indication or
expression of God's grace upon a
family or life)

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Jukun Names and their Meanings

Jukuns (Njikum) are an ethno-linguistic group or
ethnic nation in Nigeria. The Jukuns are traditionally
located in Taraba, Benue, Nasarawa, Plateau
Adamawa, Kano and Gombe States in Nigeria and
parts of North Western Cameroon. They are
descendants of the people of Kwararafa. Most of the
tribes in the North Central of Nigeria trace their origin
to the Jukun people and are related in one way or the
other to the Jukuns. Until the coming of both
Christianity and Islam, the Jukun people were
followers of their own Traditional Religions, Most of
the tribes, Alago, Agatu, Rendere, in Shendam and
others left Kwararafa when it disintegrated as a result
of a power tussle. The Jukuns are divided into two
major groups; the Jukun Wanu and Jukun Wapa. The
Jukun Wanu are fishermen residing along the banks of
the river Benue and Niger where they run through
Taraba State, Benue State and Nasarawa State. The
Wukari Federation, headed by the Aku Uka of Wukari,
is now the main centre of the Jukun people (Retrieved
from https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jukun_people
_West_Africa). Thus, the Jukun-speaking peoples
trace their ancestry to the rulers of the kingdom of
Kwararafa, a state which existed in Western Africa
from the 14th through to the 18th centuries.
Traditionally, Jukun society was governed by a
monarchy. See some Junkun names and their
meanings below:
1. Wunubo: Born during misfortune.
2. Wunukhen: Born during war.
3. Wunuji: Born in difficulty.

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4. Wanakyon: Born when parents are strangers.

5. Wachu: Born when it is raining.

6. Wapuje: Born during puje festival.

7. Wanyacho: Born on transit.

8. Besin: Born after grandparents are dead (male).

9. Fosen: Born after grandparents (female).

10. Mbatudi: Born after many died.

11. Wambo: Born during famine.

12. Bujujin: Born after many died.

13. Agyo: Born during breakfast.

14. Waze: Born when there is hatred.

15. Vyonken: Born when there is dispute between

relatives.

Esan (Ishan) Names and their Meanings

There are many Esan names for males, females and the
names that can be given to both male and female
children (unisex). Ishan and Esan can be used
interchangeably. The Esan people are an ethnic group
of South- South Nigeria who speak the Esan language;
it is one of the tribes in Edo state, Nigeria. Below are
Ishan names and their meanings:

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1. Akhere The younger tw.in

. 2. Ebhiremen What destiny gave to m.e
3. Eromosele Prayer has been answere.d
4. Ighodalo Looking forward/ I am looking
forward
5. Ojiemen My Ki.ng
6. Okalo First perso. n
7. Omodion Senior Chi.ld
8. Omoehi Child of Destin.y
9. Emuakhagbon: Keep your focus on tomorrow
concerning that thing you’re
doing today in that not to suffer
in old age.
11. Ebimienbhagbon: My life experience.
12. Abhulimhen/Abhulimen: Judgement is delivered
in my favour
13. Isimhenmhen/Isimemen: I prosper in a foreign
land
14. Okosun : Son of shrine.
.
15. Akhigbe: This one will not be killed.

Etuno (Igarra) Names and their Meanings

Igarra is a town located in the Northern part of Edo
state, Nigeria. It is the administrative headquarters of
Akoko-Edo Local Government Area of Edo state
which by God's grace is the oldest in Nigeria. Its
topography is mountainous and situated in the lee-
wind side of the kukuruku-hill with rocky terrain.
Igarra has both Christians, Muslims and

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Traditionalists. Igarra is a word corrupted from 'Igala'

who were inhabitants of Idah between the 12th and
14th centuries.
Igarra people are migrants from the Kwararafa
confederacy of the Jukun kingdom of Wukari in the
present Taraba state to Idah in the present Kogi state at
about the 12th century. They were led by Otaru Ariwo-
Ovejijoh. When the people of Igarra migrated to this
present place originally known as 'Etuno' (land of cows
or land of abomination), they met a group of dwarves
settling in the hills called the Anafuas. Most of them
were later exterminated by the Igarra people in warfare
while the rest became slaves. In Igarra, there are
numerous kindred each known as Unna. Members of
kindreds are males and females having one ancestral
blood relation called Anda (Family). Some kindreds
have over five thousand members while some have
less. There are fourteen (14) individual kindred in
Igarra; namely Andede, Eshinagada,
Eshinogu,Eshinavaka and Andiba kindred. They are
known as EZIEZUH (Sons of Tiger). They are the
descendants of OTARU ARIWO-OVEJIJO and the
ruling houses in Igarra. We also have the Eziodu,
Eziakuta and Ezioga Kindreds known collectively as
the Eziobe (sons of Hunter); while the rest which are
few in numbers are the Anona, Anonyete, Anoverewa,
Eshimozoko, Eziakozi and Anoseri. Each kindred is
non-political, non-religious and do not antagonise
another. Everything within a kindred is shard
according to men age group.
In Etuno, names are mostly given according to
the circumstances surrounding the birth of a child,
religious ground and many other considerations. Thus,
there are several native names. Before now, Etuno
people used to mainly give their children Yoruba
names and names from other related communities.
However, that practice has changed as the new
generation of parents are not in support of it and now
give their children Etuno names. Some Etuno (Igarra)

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names and their meanings are:

1. Umava: A male child born after the death of his
father.
2. Onyofu: A female child born on a market day.
3. Adeche: A male child born during festive
period.
4. Uba: A male child born after parents lost series
of children.
5. Opereku: A female child born after parents lost
series of children.
6. Oshomosh'omeyimi: God has done me well.
7. Ony'ove: Name given to a female child after the
death of the grandmother or any close female
older relative.
8. Onimi: A name given to a female child whose
parents were barren for a long time before she
was given birth to.
9. Okenyifun: She has come to give us joy.
10. Ony'eche: A female child born during festive
period.
11. Is'onimsi: The one I desire.
12. Ozaveshe: Child is wealth.
13. Uj'amoshi: My joy is full
14. Uj'amogun: My Joy is complete
15. Ofumishi: He is worthy to be called upon.

224
INDIGENOUS COMMUNICATION
MEDIA AND RURAL DEVELOPMENT
Indigenous media of communication may be seen as a
communication which involves all the social
conventions and practices, modes of and social
organisations whose chief concerns may not be with
communication but with other activities. Indigenous
mode of communication is perhaps the most important
way by which ruralites communicate among
themselves and in effect with others. In rural society,
this is for a large majority, the only means of getting
information about event outside. Traditional media of
communication i s a complex system of
communication which pervades all aspects of rural and
urban life in Africa.
It is complex in the sense that, it is not only one
system but a network of other systems which operate at
various levels of society. In reality, it is simple in its
operation and it depends on trust for its credibility
(Gomta, 2017). Indigenous media of communication
unlike the modern mass media are easily accessible by
the rural dwellers and the messages are conveyed to
them via the local languages and this can help in
bringing about sustainable development in the rural
areas.
Rural Development as a Concept
Development is the gradual process of bringing about
a social change in the society. Development leads to

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Media and Rural Development

beneficial change for the individual and the society at

large. Development as a concept is a multifaceted
change process, which brings about increased skills,
capacity and ability of a nation to utilise the resources
in the environment, for the upliftment of the quality of
life of the people (Rodney, 1974). Nwabueze (2010, p.
18) notes that:

Development cannot meaningfully take place

in isolation as policies, programmes and
plans aimed at achieving development goals
have to be communicated to the public,
especially those who would be affected by the
plans. People have to be mobilised to support
development efforts, policies and plans,
whether such efforts are being made by
government, individuals, communities or
corporate organisations. Attention of change
agents and stakeholders has to be attracted to
development needs of the people.

To, however, achieve this kind of development,

as asserted by Nwabueze, the role of communication
becomes imperative. Thus, Nwebueze (2010) avers
that communication is central to any human activity. It
becomes imperative to use development
communication or journalism to engender
development, both in the rural and urban areas. Rural
development is a concept that is used to describe a
strategy that is designed to improve the economic and
social life of the people in the rural areas. The United
Nations Development Programme (UNDP) sees rural
development as a process of socio-economic change,
involving the transformation of agrarian society, in

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order to reach a common set of development goals,

based on the capacities and the needs of the people
(Owo, 2007, p. 305).
To Anibueze (2005, p. 36), ''rural development
is a strategy that is designed to improve the economic
and social conditions of a specific group of people; that
is, the rural people.'' It involves extending the benefits
of development to the poorest, among those who seek a
livelihood in the rural areas. Rural development in
general, is used to denote the actions and initiatives
taken to improve the standard of living in non-urban
neighbourhoods, countryside and remote villages.
These communities can be exemplified with a low
ratio of inhabitants to open space. As earlier noted,
rural areas are such areas in a country that lack the
necessary social amenities and infrastructures that are
necessary for good living; thus, there is the need for
advancement and growth in these rural areas. The
process of bringing about this advancement and
growth in the rural areas is what is referred to as rural
development. Anaeto & Anaeto (2008, p. 1) observe
thus:
Rural development is a subset and an
important part of national development. The
idea and concern for rural development stems
from the fact that majority of the people in the
developing countries reside in rural areas.
And the fact that development of the nation
cannot be achieved without the development
of the rural areas. Even the developing
countries have recently come to realise that
unless the rural areas are well-developed,
hardly would any meaningful development
occur in these countries.

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The above assertion implies that rural

development is part of national development because
when rural communities are not fully developed, the
objectives of national development cannot be
achieved. No country can boast of development when
its rural communities have not been positively
affected. This perhaps explains why Moemeka (1985,
p .9) explains that ''rural community education entails
all activities like social, economic, educational,
political and cultural, which touch on the lives of rural
communities, knowledge of which is essential to
purposeful living and progress.'' Onabajo, cited in
Anaeto & Anaeto (2010) says that rural development
entails interventions aimed at improved productivity,
increased employment/incomes for the target groups,
as well as, minimum acceptable levels of food, shelter,
education, health and housing. Rural development
according to Anaeto & Anaeto (2010) is a subset and an
important part of national development. The idea and
concern for rural development stem from the fact that
majority of the people in the countries reside in the
rural areas. Rural development efforts attempt to bring
about self-reliance in the rural communities in a
country. New practices, ideas, innovations and
methods, are introduced and when the rural dwellers
accept these practices, it leads to economic gains.

The Role of Indigenous Communication Media in

Rural Development

The importance of indigenous media of

communication in rural development cannot be
overemphasised. Indigenous media can be used to

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bring about positive attitudinal change among the rural

dwellers. Through the use of indigenous media, the
rural dwellers can be better informed on important
issues in the society. The rural dwellers, as noted by
Anibueze (2005) need to be empowered with
knowledge of the fundamentals of population and
development. This is because the rural person becomes
a nuisance when he or she does not have access to
information; that is, basic information like modern
family needs, nutrition, women rights, child rights, etc.
The communication of news about rural areas is
important; it consists of gathering newsworthy
information about rural areas, packaging them in any
form of journalistic writing and presenting them
through indigenous media.
Communication through traditional means has
promoted peaceful co-existence, understanding and
self-awareness in rural areas. Communication plays an
important role in the process of rural development. The
communication bridges built between public
institutions, rural organisations and people generate
the opportunities to ensure share of knowledge and
experience needed for rural development (Ors, n. d).
The functions of communication in rural development
as noted by Ors (n. d) include the following: facilitate
the exchange of views and information between
farmers and rural organisations, to make contributions
to the implementation and coordination of the rural
development projects, to ensure that the innovations
are embraced and spread in rural areas, to raise
awareness in the rural areas to promote participation,
to support the activities for education and awareness
and to ensure cooperation and coordination among the
rural and agricultural organisations.

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Rural Africa according to Imoh (2013) is facing

a lot of developmental problems, ranging from
poverty, environmental degradation, gender inequality
and imbalance, illiteracy, lack of access to water and
basic sanitation, hunger, malaria, tuberculosis, HIV-
AIDS and high rates of maternal and infant deaths.
Thus, different communication channels must be used
to create enough awareness about the problems to rural
dwellers. This explains why Moemeka (2012, p. 134)
observes that, ''to mobilise for development the vast
illiterate masses of the rural area in Africa, extensive
change in knowledge, attitudes and behaviour are
needed.'' Indigenous communication media can be
used to engender rural development through the
following:

1. Informing the Rural Dwellers: The need to

inform the rural dwellers about trends cannot be
overemphasised. Through indigenous media of
communication, the rural areas get to know about what
is happening in the society. Information is very crucial
to the sustenance of any society; thus, one of the
purposes is to inform the people in the rural areas. In
most cases, people in the rural areas are often cut off
from the activities taking place in the society, but
through indigenous media of communication, the rural
dwellers will be in cognisance of the activities in the
society. They are, therefore, sources of cultural,
political, health and other educational and
enlightenment programmes for the masses, leading
them towards self- actualisation and national
development.

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2. Education: Education is the gradual process of

bringing about change in an individual. Rural
community education entails all the activities- social,
economic, educational, political and cultural, which
touch on the lives of rural communities, knowledge of
which is essential to a purposeful living and progress.
Rural education is important because education is a
prime motivation to action, which nourishes the blood
stream that runs through all aspects of rural
community development.

3. To promote Peace: Across many Nigerian

states, there are ethnic rivalries that have and are still
rendering many families homeless and children
orphans. In situations like this, the role of community
broadcasting becomes even more significant in
encouraging discussion of issues surrounding the
crises. Again, the fact that the practitioners are mostly
members of the community gives them an enlightened
insight to the historical antecedents of the area; as
such, their approaches to issues are passionate without
taking sides. While giving each disputing party access
to the media in order to express their views,
community stations can also proffer solutions based on
what residents identified as the way forward (Sanusi,
2010). A good example of this is evident in Radio Life
and Radio Kergheamahn, both in Liberia and Radio
Wanjei and Kolenten in Sierra Leone. These stations in
partnership with a group, Search for Common Ground
(SFCG) represent a strong voice for peace in the
communities they serve. To further influence peace in
their community, the staff of radio life particularly
focus on issues of corruption, partisanship,
transparency and political conflict (Sanusi, 2012).

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4. Promoting Dialogue and Reconciliation: The

only way to promote conflict resolution is to
encourage dialogue among the warring parties by
using community media. In all cases, the dialogue is
built around reconciling the warring parties to the
satisfaction of all. Development experts point out the
fact that peace is sine qua non for development. With
this assumption and desirous of propelling
development, indigenous communication media can
help communities achieve peace. The need for better
understanding among the people, for dialogue leading
to reconciliation has been recognised; indigenous
media promote peaceful coexistence among the rural
community members. Indigenous media of
communication can be used to engage marginalised
communities to participate in discourse and decision-
making at every level. Beyond encouraging good
governance through these indigenous media, series of
community consultations can take place between
indigenous communication works and rural
community members in relation to development
(www.newtactics.org, 2010). Certainly, traditional
communication has promoted intra-cultural, inter-
cultural and other communication over the years
leading to group and national unity. Yam and ekpo
festivals are examples of large traditional settings
which bring inter-cultural unity and communication
(Gompta, 2017).
5. To Combat Crime and Corruption:
Indigenous media of communication operators can
partner with local age grades to develop well-
packaged programmes that will sensitise community
residents on how to prevent crime in the community.

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These programmes will help to prevent sinister

activities, thereby ensuring safety of all in the
community. This role falls under the surveillance
function of the media which Dominick (2002)
describes as the 'warning' or 'beware' function of the
media. This function, according to Dominick, occurs
when the media inform us about threats from the
society that can affect our daily lives.

6. Stimulation of Economic Development:

Asamu (2006) attributes one of the reasons for ethnic
militia activities in most communities in Africa to
poverty and hunger; the function of the indigenous
media of communication in this regard, therefore, is to
tailor information-sharing towards skill acquisition,
entrepreneurship and available loan facilities for small
scale businesses. This is on the premise that when the
people are gainfully employed, they will be
economically independent. The best way to do this is
to introduce small scale businesses to the community
on programmes specially packaged to educate the
people on businesses like snail farming, soap making
and information on how to obtain loan from banks or
government agencies that provide loans for such
economic activities. This will go a long way in
diverting their minds from militia activities towards
wealth creation.

7. Rural Mobilisation: it mobilises the people at

the grassroots level towards community development
and national consciousness. Serious-minded and
mass-oriented programmes never succeed without the
active involvement of the practitioners within the
health the traditional system.

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8. Source of Entertainment: It is the dominant

source of entertainment through arts and cultural
festivals, musical shows, dramatic performances by
choral and masquerade groups and other musical and
theatrical groups.

9. Defines Culture: Many of the traditional

communication media are culture specific. Their mode
of communication goes a long way to defining their
culture and who they are. It also differentiates them
from other cultures. The effectiveness of the
indigenous media of communication in rural
development depends on the mode of their
communication. The people in rural settlement make
use of instrumental (for example, idiophones,
aerophone, iconographic, extra-mundane, visual and
institutional) as their effective tools of communication
(Gompta, 2017). Demonstrative mode of traditional
communication consists of music and signal and
iconographics in communication with the people.
Here we are made to believe that music is not just a
medium of entertainment, but a vehicle to spread ideas
and doctrines. Iconography is a mode of traditional
media of communication which consists of the use of
objects and flora media. It is a signification which the
object refers to a thing, event or concept. For example
the presentation of a bowl of kolanut and charcoal
means acceptance to some people, pigeon or fowl, egg,
white egg, feather, cowries, mimosa, flowers,
scriptures, etc. have specific meanings or ideas to
members of other communities. Extra-mundane mode
of traditional communication is a mode which is
believed to take place between the living and
supernatural or Supreme Being. On the surface it

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usually seems unidirectional; this includes

participants at religious crusades, prayer sessions,
rituals and other religious and pseudo- spiritual
activities, during this period, there is often a form of
feedback which may come through interpersonal
process, physical revelations or magical and other
wor ldl y v e r b a l i s a t i o n s ( Go mpt a , 2017 ) .
Obituary and in memoriam notice and tomb stone
messages are the graphic forms of this mode of
communication. Among some of the other well-known
forms are incantation chant, ritual, prayer, sacrifices,
invocation, conjuration, witchcraft, exorcism vision
and contemplation. Visual mode of traditional media
communication consists of the use colours and
dressing, appearance and general emotions and
attitudes. The user of visual communication has the
advantage of pictorial communication; that is, through
the use of the speed of Impact of the message and the
freedom of the visual information about linguistic
barriers associated often with written and spoken
language. Institutional mode of traditional
communication consists of the use of certain
traditional institutions symbolically. The most
important are marriage, chieftaincy tittle, secret
societies, shrines, mask and masquerades (Gompta,
2017).

235
AFRICAN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
IN THE CONTEMPORARY WORLD
Our early men communicated through birds, animals,
pigeons, smoking, etc. Through all these means, it was
difficult to reach people in far places. Indigenous
means of communication which are still useful in some
societies today were also used to exchange
information. These and many others were the means of
communication before the advent of newspapers,
radio and television and subsequently, information and
communication technology, which has finally brought
about a tremendous revolution in the communication
industry. In the olden days, people used horses and
donkeys to travel to distant places to deliver messages.
This was probably because the society was not as
complex as it is today. This made communication
easier.
Today, the society has become more complex
than before; thus, as the world was becoming more
complex, it became necessary to evolve better means
of information dissemination. Information and
communication technology has broken the complex
nature of the world, reduced and compressed the globe
into a miniaturised room through which people who
are in faraway places are automatically present with
you because you can reach them at will. People in the
world are now seen as neighbours, who stay in the
same vicinity. Events that happen around the world are
now present with us because we can easily access them

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in the Contemporary World

through information technologies. The information

technologies have brought about interconnectedness
between and or among the people of the world.
Today, we have internet where you can reach
people in different locations through E-mail,
Facebook, etc. All these, are pointers to the fact that the
world has been reduced to one small family through
the media of mass communication.
The global village phenomenon, according to
Idemili & Maamaa (2007, p. 211), cited in Asemah
(2011) ''is not a synonym for globalisation, but the
trend that makes the world a global village is only an
active actor in globalisation.'' Global village concept
has facilitated the process of globalisation, taking the
unprepared by surprise and leaving corporate
casualties in its trail. In the contemporary world,
different channels or media as the case may be are used
for communication. Such media and channels are
briefly treated below:
1. Internet
The internet, according to Agba (2002, p. 253) ''is the
most technologically advanced medium of
communication; it is a multimedia information
superhighway that facilitates business, sports, politics,
entertainment and other endeavours across
international boundaries.'' It is a technological
revolution of monumental capabilities. In fact, it is the
information revolution that has turned the world into a
“global village.” It is man's most ambitious attempt to
miniaturise the physical planet, earth. The internet
has made journalism very simple and interesting.
Many mass media organisations are on the NET. By
this, every of their edition could be accessed on the
NET. One does not need to go to America or England
to read the Washington Post or the London Times. This
has also afforded the Nigerian mass media the

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opportunity of being accessed worldwide via the NET.

One can read the dailies on the NET if only one has the
means. The internet has become a world-wide tool of
information dissemination and communication. It has
had profound impact on academic, social and business
communication. It has destroyed time, space and
geography. One of the features of the internet that
readily advertises its democratic potential is its
openness.
Anybody with a computer connected to the
information superhighway is a potential creator and
disseminator of information and can obtain
information from other sources without any barrier. It
allows equal opportunity for all participants to share
information. The internet is a vast library, holding vast
amount of materials from diverse sources-
government, corporate bodies, non-governmental
organisations, academic institutions, individuals on
almost all subjects, issues and interests. All these
materials are accessible theoretically by anybody. It is
established more or less as cooperative, non-
hierarchical and uncontrollable system of
communication. It is designed to facilitate the sharing
of information between individuals and among
groups. It is an interactive medium. The complex and
multifarious nature of the internet is described by
Morris & Ogan (1996, p. 42), cited in Asemah (2011)
thus:

Internet communication takes many forms;

from World Wide Web pages operated by
major news organisations to usenet groups,
discussing folk or music, to e-mail messages
among colleagues and friends. The internet's
communication forms can be understood as a
continuum. Each point in the traditional

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in the Contemporary World

model of communication process can, in

fact, vary from one to a few-many on the
internet. Sources of the messages can range
from one person in e-mail communication,
to a social group in a listserv or usenet group,
to a group of professional journalists in
World Wide Web page. The messages
themselves can be traditional journalistic
news stories created by a reporter and editor,
stories created over a long period of time by
many people or simply conversations, such
as in an internet Relay Chat group. The
receivers or audiences of these messages can
also number from one to potentially millions
and may or may not move fluidly from their
roles as audience-members to producers of
messages.

With its multifarious features and uses, the

internet provides a unique forum for anybody to be
both a producer and consumer of information. It
allows for the '''free'' flow of information without any
form of barrier currently suffered by the ''old'' media.
We have the World Wide Web (WWW) and the
electronic mail (E-Mail) as some of the features of the
internet. WWW involves a graphical-hypertext based
multimedia medium. This implies that it allows still
and motion pictures and text presentations, which can
be made to suit various dimensions. The World Wide
Web is a location on the internet.

2. Networking
Networking is a term that is used to describe a set of
communication links for connecting a collection of

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terminals, computers, telephones, printers or several

other types of data communication and data handling
devices. Basically, we can identify two types of
networks. They are the local area network and the
wide area network. The local area network serves a
limited geographical area while the wide area network
covers a wide geographical area. The benefits of
networking among others include:

i. Sharing files. It gives the users the opportunity

to exchange data and programmes among
themselves, thereby, avoiding keeping multiple
copies in many Pcs.

ii. Saving on capital-intensive equipment as it

allows use of printers, plotter sand
modems.

iii. Allowing one central administration to gain

access to programme.

iv. Security is enhanced as valuable information is

not stolen and an avenue is provided for a
means of backing up important data.

v. It uses communication among users (Keghku,

2005, cited in Asemah, 2011).

3. GSM
It is an acronym that stands for Global System Mobile
Communication. The message could be sent verbally
or through text messages. There are some camera and
video GSMs that can be used to take photographs of

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events using the multi-media system (MMS) or the

GPRS. The journalist can access the internet on GSM
handset. The journalist therefore, does not need to go
to a cybercafé or his office before accessing the
internet. The radio and television reporters have the
advantages of using the GSM. The radio reporter can
record his audio report and send it to his station
through the GSM, either using the MMS or GPRS
package. The television reporter can also use his
videophone to film an event and send the visuals to his
organisation (Biri, 2007, cited in Asemah, 2011).
Through GSM, people can communicate
internationally.

4. Satellite
Messages can be transmitted almost instantly by
satellite to millions of audience within a short time.
Satellite communication is highly sophisticated in the
sense that it can send long- range signals from one
place to another. Satellites are used in the global
village where the world is considered as a nation. The
emergence of satellites tends to breakdown the social
and ethnic barriers between people, by familiarising
everyone to everyone; they have made it possible for
the poor to see the rich, the black to see the white. The
new sophisticated form of communication has also
made distance shorter and interaction among nations
and individuals so close, they have formed the basis of
industrialisation and urbanisation.

5. Radio
Radio is an audio device of passing messages to a large
audience. Uyo (1987. p. 15) observes that the term

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''radio'' has its root in the Latin word, ''radius'' which

means ''a spoke, radius ray.'' It is essentially the
emission of rays or waves that bear signals called
programmes. The waves that are generated by radio
are received by the audience at the various
destinations with the aid of antennae with receiving
sets. Since no wire is connected to the radio set of the
receiver, it is also called wireless communication.
Radio entails sending messages through the process of
electromagnetism. In a situation whereby wires are
connected to the various radio sets, then it becomes
narrowcasting.

6. Television
It is an audio-visual device that is used for conveying
messages from a source to a large and heterogeneous
audience. In the lay man's definition, it means I can
hear and I can see. Television brings pictures and
sounds around the world into billions of homes.
People with television can sit in their homes and watch
the president make a speech or visit other countries.
The word television is from a Greek word ''tele'' which
means at a distance and Latin word ''visionis'' past
participle of ''visum'' which means to see. Combining
the two words, it means seeing at a distance. As a
medium of mass communication, television displays
the images of people and products. It is simply a
wireless communication. But in some advanced
countries, we have what we call Cable Antenna
Television (CATV).
Television programmes include action packed
drama: super story, sporting events, quiz, variety
shows, cartoons and films. Television is a popular

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means of communication; consequently, it has

become a major way of reaching people with
advertising messages. Television stations carry
hundreds of advertising messages. Today, even
politicians seeking political offices use television for
campaigns. Television stations send electromagnetic
signals called electromagnetic waves, the television
set converts these electromagnetic waves into pictures
and sounds.

7. Books
They are the oldest means of mass communication
but, newspapers are the first popular mass medium.
The word book has a German origin. The German
people first wrote on beechen boards and in German
the word for the beech is ''buche,'' from which we have
''buch'' which means a book. Books are normally
bound and covered in hard paper back or cloth. They
deal with a particular subject matter or topic of a
particular theme. They take longer time to produce.
Books may be broadly classified as general,
professional and educational. General Books include
trade books. They are called so because most of them
are sold to the public by the people who trade them via
book store. Trade books include fiction, especially
novels in paper backs, nonfiction, poetry, biography,
religion, how-to-do it books in various subjects such
as cookery and humour. Others are reference books
which include dictionaries, encyclopaedia, atlases and
similar books that require long expensive preparation.
In this class also are children books that are sold
through bookstore or to schools and libraries through
personal selling by loving sales men.

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Professional books are those written by experts

and specialists in their various professions. They are
produced at the suggestions of the book publishers and
are usually sold through direct mail as well as special
technical or campus book stores. Their prices are
always higher than those of general books.
Professional books include law books and medical
books, both of which require constant or frequent
updating.
Educational books clearly comprise of the
largest area of book publishing. What you are reading
now is an educational book. More specifically, it is a
textbook. Textbooks include books for elementary
and secondary or high schools, colleges, polytechnics
and universities. Textbooks are usually sold through
educational institutions or book store of colleges and
universities. Baran (2002, p. 117) says that ''books
have been seen as powerful cultural forces for the
following reasons: They are agent of social and
cultural change. They are important cultural
repository. They are important sources of personal
development. They are wonderful sources of
entertainment and escape; they are mirrors of culture.''

8. Newspapers
The newspaper is described as a collection of folded
printed sheet of paper published periodically, usually
daily or weekly for circulating news. The Nigerian
Newspaper Act (NNA) defines newspapers as any
paper containing public news, intelligence or the
occurrences of any remarks, observations or
comments printed for sale and published in Nigeria
periodically. Unlike books, newspapers are not bound,

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not stapled, they are just folded. It is a periodic

publication that reflects the events happening in a
society. It is described as a folded sheet of paper that is
produced periodically. This can be daily, biweekly or
fortnightly. The first newspaper in Nigeria was
published in 1859- Iwe Irohin by Henry Townsend.
There is a French word- nouvelles which through
imitation in Middle English becomes news. The
French also has a word paper, derived from the Latin
word ''papyrus,'' the material on which people could
write and print. News and paper together make up
newspaper; meaning, a paper published periodically
and that bears tidings or timely reports.

9. Magazines
They are collection of varied items of general interest
that show less concern for information on the
immediate day's events and more for interpreting and
correlating topics in a broader context.

Are the Indigenous Communication Channels still

Relevant in Today's World?

The question whether the indigenous communication

channels of communication are still relevant in our
contemporary society can be answered in the
affirmative. The indigenous channels of
communication are still used across many African
countries, Nigeria inclusive. The fact remains that the
indigenous channels cannot be wiped out by the
modern media of communication. The modern media
of communication have only come to improve on the
process of communication and not to destroy. This

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explains the process of mediamorphosis in the

development of communication. Mediamorphosis is a
concept that describes the changing process of mass
communication media. Thus, Fidler (1997) avers that
the emergence of new media rarely precipitates the
death of old media; instead, existing media forms
evolve and adapt to the changing communication
environment in a gradual process that is comparable in
some ways to the evolution of speeches.
Communication started long time ago, going
through the era of communicating with smoke, long
distance runners, to town criers, pamphlet,
newspapers, that is print, to electronic and presently,
we are in the era of information and communication
technology. In the olden days, our fore-fathers never
had access to radio and television broadcasting and
this was due to the level of development of the society
as at then. Today, the technology of communication
has been able to reduce the whole world to a global
village. We are in the computer age today; tomorrow it
may be something else. But that does not mean that the
indigenous channels of communication are no longer
relevant; they are still much relevant and still very
useful in African societies. In most African societies,
names, town criers, signals, music, songs, folk tales,
dance, myths, legends, age groups, festivals,
ceremonies, village meetings, masquerades, etc. are
still used as channels of communication. This implies
that despite the fact that we have modern
communication channels like internet, books, radio,
etc., indigenous channels of communication are still
very much relevant.

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The foregoing perhaps explains why Filder (n.

d) notes that instead of studying each form separately,
we should examine all forms as members of an
interdependent system and to note the similarities and
relationships that exist among past, present and
emerging forms. According to Fidler, by studying the
communication media as a whole, we will discover
that the new media do not arise spontaneously and
independently; they emerge gradually from
metamorphosis of old media. This implies that when
new media come into existence, the old ones do not
die, but rather, the old ones exist side by side with the
media. The emergence of the new media cannot
consume or obliterate the old ones because there are
times that you may need to supplement the old ones
with the new ones.
Osho (2011) notes that the uniqueness of the
African means of communication is embedded in their
originality, creativity, tradition and culture of the
people; these essentially make them highly effective
and enduring in the dissemination of information
personally, inter-personally and through group
communications. However, the enduring nature of the
African means of communication has actually made
them to subsist and relevant in the contemporary
world, despite the emergence of organs of mass
communication like books, newspapers, magazines,
radio, television, telex, facsimile, internet and the
social media (Osho, 2011). One continues to marvel at
the continued relevance of the African indigenous
media otherwise known as African indigenous media,
folk media or oramedia in the contemporary world,
despite the manifestation of Marshall McLuhan's

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theory of 'Global Village' in the contemporary world

(Osho, 2011a). McLuhan described how the globe has
been contracted into a village by electric technology
and the instantaneous movement of information from
every quarter to every point at the same time. In
bringing all social and political functions together in a
sudden explosion, electric speed heightened human
awareness of responsibility to an intense degree.
Osho (2011b) notes that oramedia are highly
effective than all other means of communication
because they are interactive, inter-personal, combine
verbal communications with non-verbal codifications
and they are simple, natural and less expensive. The
high content of non-verbal cues in the oramedia
actually makes them to be more effective because
non-verbal cues communicate the mind more than
verbal. When anybody wants to lie, it is non-verbal
that readily contradicts the verbal lies. Really, Hall
(1959), cited in Osho (2011) corroborates this position
that 'non-verbal codes speak louder than words and
shout the truth where words lie.

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COMMUNICATION THEORIES AND
AFRICAN COMMUNICATION SYSTEM
Understanding Theories and Communication
Theories
A theory is a set of assumptions, propositions or
accepted facts that attempts to provide a plausible or
rational explanation of cause-and-effect (causal)
relationships among a group of observed
phenomenon. In a broad sense, Brugger (n. d), cited in
Asemah, Nwammuo & Nkwam-Uwaoma (2017) sees
a theory as a coherent set of ideas and concepts of how
the world or parts of it can be explained or understood.
The simplest way to define theories is to say that they
are attempts to make sense of things. A theory offers
an account of what something is and how it works,
what it produces or causes to happen and what can
change how it operates. Put in another way, theories
are human constructions; symbolic ways we represent
phenomena. The fact that theories are human
constructions implies that they are neither objective
descriptions of reality or not necessarily true. A theory
may thus, be described as a system of interconnected
abstractions or ideas that condenses and organises
knowledge about the world. It may also be seen as any
more or less formalised conceptualisation of the

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relationship between variables; it is any generalised

explanatory principle (Wadsworth Media, n.d;
Asemah et al 2017).
Communication is the production and
exchange of information and meaning by use of signs
and symbols. It involves encoding and sending
messages, receiving and decoding them, and
s yn t h e s i s i n g i n f o r ma t i o n and me a n i ng .
Communication permeates all levels of human
experience and it is central to understanding human
behaviour and to nearly all public health efforts aimed
at fostering health behaviour change among
individuals, populations, organisations, communities,
and societies (Encycopedia.com, 2019).
Communication theory may, therefore, be
described as an attempt to explain and describe
precisely what communication is. The theory is an
explanation of a class of observed phenomenon.
Baran (2002) defines mass communication theories as
explanations and predictions of social phenomenon
that attempt to relate mass communication to various
aspects of our personal and cultural lives or social
systems. Communication theory is a set of constructs
linked together, relational statements consistent with
each other and that explain what happens in
communication. Communication theory is a set of
propositions that show the relationship between the
various variables that are at work in the
communication process. Theories are very important
in communication because they are the foundation
stones on which the practice of communication
operates. Communication requires very sound
theories for there to be an effective communication
process. Hence, Kurt Lewin's assertion that ''there is

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nothing so practical as a sound theory.'' Good theories

make for practicability of the phenomena
(events/activities) in communication (National Open
University of Nigeria, n.d, cited in Asemah et al
2017).

Functions of Communication Theories

The importance of communication theories cannot be

overemphasised; theories according to Lumen (n. d)
play the following functions:

1. The first function theories serve is that they

help us organise and understand our communication
experiences. We use theories to organise a broad range
of experiences into smaller categories by paying
attention to “common features” of communication
situations. Theories on gender communication help us
organise and understand the talk of the different
genders in a more simplified context so we can
understand general patterns of communication
behaviour. This helps us make appropriate decisions
in gendered communication situations.

2. A second function of theories is that they help

us choose what communicative behaviours to study.
Theories guide where we choose to look, what we look
at and how we look at communicative phenomenon.
Your theory guides how you approach your persuasive
attempts and what you look for to see if you were
successful or not.

3. A third function of theories is that they help us

broaden our understanding of human communication.
Scholars who study communication share theories

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with one another online, through books, journal

articles and at conferences. The sharing of theories
generates dialogue which allows us to further refine
the theories developed in this field.

4. A fourth function of theories is that they help us

predict and control our communication. When we
communicate, we try to predict how our interactions
will develop so we can maintain a certain level of
control.

5. A fifth function of theories is that they help us

challenge current social and cultural realities by
providing new ways of thinking and living. People
sometimes make the mistake of assuming that the
ways we communicate are innate rather than learned.
This is not true. In order to challenge the
communicative norms we learn; people use critical
theories to ask questions about the status quo of
human communication, particularly focusing on how
humans use communication to bring advantage and
privilege to particular people or groups. For example,
Tannen argues that when men listen to women express
their troubles, they listen with the purpose of wanting
to provide a fix, or give advice. Tannen argues that
many times, women are not looking for advice or a fix,
but rather empathy or sympathy from their male
conversational partners. With this understanding, it is
possible to begin teaching men new strategies for
listening in cross-gendered conversations that serve to
build stronger communication ties (Culled from
Lumen, n. d).

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Aims of Theories

The aims and objectives of theories are:

a. Description: The foundation of a theory is

description, which is a process of using symbols to
represent phenomena. Before we can figure out how
something works, we must first describe it. Thus, the
first task in building a theory is to identify features of
some phenomena and describe any variations in them.
Descriptions, of course, are not neutral reflections of
some objective reality; they are necessarily subjective
because what a theorist perceives and emphasises is
affected by personal background, sensory skills,
values, etc. Communication theorists begin by
identifying key features of communication and
describing how those features may vary. For example,
personal relationship is described as being made up of
five features: individuals, social contexts,
communication, relational culture and time (Wood,
2000, cited in Asemah et al, 2017).
b. Explanation: The second objective of a theory
is explanation, which is an effort to clarify how and
why something works. After describing what makes
up communication, a theorist asks how the parts
interact and work together. Communication theorists
want to explain why communication works as it does.

c. Prediction, Control and Understanding: A

third objective of theories is to allow us to understand
and or predict and control what will happen.
Prediction involves projecting what will happen to a

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phenomenon under specified conditions or exposure

to particular stimuli. Control is the use of explanations
and predictions to govern what a phenomenon
actually does. For some theorists, prediction and
control are primary objectives. Scholars who adopt
this position believe that a good theory is one that
allows us to forecast what will happen under certain
conditions and/or if certain other actions are taken.
Prediction is related to control in that we can control
outcomes, if we can predict what causes them. An
environmental scientist could construct a theory to
predict what will happen in wetlands areas if
commercial development takes place. Control would
be exercised by allowing or precluding commercial
development, adjacent to wetland areas. A
communication theorist might try to understand why
humans seem to like fairness in their relationships and
why they count certain exchanges as fair or unfair.
Different communication theories place more or less
emphasis on the objectives of prediction, control and
understanding. Prediction and control, on the one
hand and understanding on the other hand often
overlap.

d. Reform: Another goal of a theory is to reform.

At the outset of discussing this goal, we need to
recognise that not all theorists and not all theories are
interested in reform. Many theorists see description,
explanation, prediction and control, as the proper
goals of theorising. Emphasis on reform is a relatively
new trend in theoretical scholarship. Traditionally,
description, explanation and prediction were the foci

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of theory. That is because historically, theorising has

been regarded as an objective process in which a
theorist is and should be detached from what he or she
studies (Culled from Asemah et al, 2017).

Theories Applicable to Indigenous Communication

Semiotics Theory

The semiotic study began during the 19th century by a

Swiss linguist named Ferdinand de Saussure.
According to Reyes (2008), ''semiotics'' came from
the Greek word ''Semiotikon,'' which means ''sign'' as
well as the study of signs and their interpretation. She
also cited that Saussure described semiotics as
connection between an object (the signified) and its
linguistic representation (such as a word, the signifier)
and how the two are connected. According to
Saussure, languages are the most important system of
signs responsible for human communication and are,
therefore, the model for the study of other symbolic
systems (University of Waterloo, 2012, cited in
Emanuel and Guimaraes, 2012). The theory was
propounded by Roland Barthes. The theory is against
Marshall McLuhan's medium theory, which states that
the medium is the message. Thus, instead of Roland
Barthes seeing the medium as more important in
communication, he saw the content of the media as the
most important when it comes to the analysis of
communication. As noted by Ikpe (2012), Roland
Barthes insists that the content of the media makes a
profound difference on the message. According to
Barthes (1992), semiotics is the study of media images

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and the way they can be co-opted to serve alternative

ends. Although McLuhan, Barthes and Paul rejected
the simplistic hypodermic needle model of mass
communication, their theories do represent a return to
the concept, powerful media effects. Despite their
differences on crucial issues, each theorist believes
that the media have powerful effects because they
articulate, interpret and help to create a society's
culture; the media mediate culture.
Although, semiology or semiotics, as it is better
known in America, is concerned with anything that
can stand for something else. Barthes was interested in
seemingly straight forward signs that communicate
ideological or connotative meanings and perpetuate
the dominant values of society. Barthes initially
described his semiotic theory as an explanation of
myth which substituted the term “connotation” with
ideological package that signs carry wherever they go
and most students of Barthes regard connotation as a
better word choice to convey his true concern (Ikpe,
2012). Barthes claimed that every ideological sign is a
result of two interconnected sign systems. The first is
strictly descriptive; that is, the signifier image and the
signified concept combining to produce a denotative
sign. Mythic signs reinforce the dominant signs in the
society.

Diffusion of Innovation Theory

The concept of diffusion was first studied by the

French sociologist, Gabriel Tarde in the late 19th
century and by German and Austrian anthropologists

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such as Friedrich Ratzel and Leo Frobenius. The study

of diffusion of innovations took off in the subfield of
rural sociology in the Mid-Western United States in
the 1920s and 1930s. Agriculture technology was
advancing rapidly and researchers started to examine
how independent farmers were adopting hybrid seeds,
equipment and techniques. A study of the adoption of
hybrid corn seed in Iowa by Ryan and Gross (1943)
and that of P. Lazarsfeld, B. Berelson and H. Gaudet in
1944 solidified the prior work on diffusion into a
distinct paradigm (Anonymous, 2015).
The idea was developed into a theory by E. M.
Rogers in 1962. This implies that the theory was
proposed by E. M. Rogers in 1962. It originated in
communication to explain how, over time, an idea or
product gains momentum and diffuses or spreads,
through a specific population or social system. The
end result of this diffusion is that people, as part of a
social system, adopt a new idea, behaviour or product.
Adoption means that a person does something
differently than what they had previously; purchase or
use a new product, acquire and perform a new
behaviour, etc. The key to adoption is that the person
must perceive the idea, behaviour or product as new or
innovative. It is through this that diffusion is possible.
The theory traces the process by which a new
idea or practice is communicated through certain
channels over time among members of a social
system. The model describes the factors that influence
people's thoughts and actions and the process of
adopting a new technology or idea. Diffusion is the
process by which an innovation is communicated
through certain channels over time among the

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members of a social system; diffusion is a special type

of communication concerned with the spread of
messages that are perceived as new ideas. An
innovation is an idea, practice or object that is
perceived as new by an individual. The characteristics
of innovation as perceived by the members of a social
system determine its rate of adoption. Thus, diffusion
of innovation theory attempts to explain how an
innovation is spread and why it is adopted at both the
micro and macro levels of analysis.
The four main elements in the diffusion of
innovation process as observed by Asemah et al
(2017) are: innovation, communication channels,
time and social system. Individuals' innovativeness or
psychological factors such as communication needs
are analysed as micro-independent variables. At the
macro-social level, this theory assumes that social
systems, such as norms, can affect an individual's
adoption or use of an innovation. In terms of
communication channels, diffusion of an innovation
involves both interpersonal channels (micro) and
mass communication channels (macro). By utilising
both mass and interpersonal communication
channels, people can get information about an
innovation and perceive its usefulness. Therefore,
diffusion theory requires both micro-individual and
macro-social analysis (Anonymous, 2015).
However, certain factors inhibit the effectiveness of
the role of the media in the diffusion of innovation
process; these factors include:

Lack of Mass Media: Some societies are

known to have very few newspapers, while

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some parts of the same society may not even

receive message from their radio and television
stations.
Lack of Access to the Media System and
Message from Radio Stations: It is often the
case that many people cannot afford to buy
newspaper, not to talk of radio and television
sets.

The Code (language) of the Mass Media: Not

many can understand the mode of expression
of the mass media. For example, in Nigeria, the
national language is English. The literate ones
can only comprehend the newspaper printed in
English language.

Symbolic Interaction Theory

Symbolic interactionism is a social psychological
theory developed from the work of Charles Horton
Cooley and George Herbert Mead in the early part of
the twentieth century; the actual name of the theory
comes from Herbert Blumer, one of Mead's students.
According to this theory, people inhabit a world that is
in large part socially constructed; in particular, the
meaning of objects, events and behaviours comes
from the interpretation people give them and
interpretations vary from one group to another.
George Herbert Mead in 1934 contributed to symbolic
interactionism, but he never published his theory, but
Blumer, his student published it after his death. Thus,
Herbert Blumer who was Mead's student is today seen
as the proponent of the theory in 1969 (symbolic
interactionism). Blumer summarised the basic

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assumptions of symbolic interactionism from Mead's

earlier work. This theory suggests that people are
motivated to act based on the meanings they assign to
people, things and events. Meaning is created in the
language that people use both with others and in
private thought. The theory focuses on the ways in
which people form meanings and structures in the
society through interactions. Going by the theory, the
world is made up of social objects that are named and
have socially determined meanings. When people
interact overtime, they come to a shared meaning for
certain terms and actions and thus, come to understand
events in particular ways. People act based on
symbolic meanings they find within any given
situation. We thus interact with the symbols, forming
relationships around them. The goals of our
interactions with one another are to create shared
meaning. Language is itself a symbolic form, which is
used to anchor meanings to the symbols (Changing
Minds, 2015).
In this theory, Mead argued that as a society, we
strive to assign meaning and with this, we act toward
people and things on the basis of this meaning
(Griffin, 2009, cited in Bettwy, 2011). Meaning arises
from interaction with other people using symbols or
otherwise known as language. Thus, people try to
assign meaning to everything: spoken words,
handshakes, body language, etc. Blumer's second
premise is that meaning arises out of the social
interaction that people have with each other (Griffin,
2009). Meaning is then intertwined through the use of
language, otherwise known as symbolic

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interactionism. Blumer's final premise is thought: an

individual's interpretation of symbols being modified
by his or her own thought process. People then use a
technique Mead referred to as “minding” in which we
use inner dialogue to test alternatives and anticipate
reactions before responding. As noted by Ikpe (2012),
symbolic interaction theory is a wide ranging theory
that links language with perception, thinking, self-
concept and culture. The theorist regarded the ability
to communicate with words as the essence of human
beings. Thus, human beings when deprived of
communication may not be able to function
effectively. The foregoing shows that communication
is very important in every society as no society will
exist when there is no commu nication.
Communication is the whole essence while humans
are living. It is through communication that human
beings exchange ideas, feelings, notions, etc. Baran,
cited in Yaroson & Asemah (2008) notes that the
theory was borrowed from the psychologists. It
assumes that cultural symbols are learned through
interactions and then mediate those interactions. This
implies that people give meaning to whatever form of
interaction that they engage in and it is that meaning
that controls their behaviour. Communication as a
process of passing information between two or more
people is a symbolic behaviour, which results in
various degrees of shared meanings and values
between participants. Symbolic interaction is an
excellent way to explain how mass communication
shapes peoples' behaviours. For example, the
Nigerian flag, which is green, white and green, which
is assembled in a particular way, is representing not

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only Nigeria, but our values and beliefs. The Nigerian

flag has a meaning because we have given it a
meaning and it is that meaning that controls certain
behaviours towards the flag. As noted by Griffin
(2000, p. 54), the theory lays emphasis on three
principles:

a. Meaning: This constitutes social reality.

Meaning is simply seen as the construction of social
reality. This goes to say that people act based on the
understanding they have about them. The way and
manner you behave towards an individual is
dependent upon how you see that person. Thus,
humans act towards people or things on the basis of
the meanings they assign to those people or things. So,
as an individual, you see kings, people, issues, then
analyse and interpret them so as to have a better
understanding of them and on that basis you begin to
act toward them.

b. Language: This simply implies that language

is the source of meaning. This further implies that
meaning arises out of the social interaction that people
have with each other. Thus, when people engage in
any form of interaction or exchange of ideas, they
create a meaning. Put more succinctly, meaning is
created when people begin to interact. This perhaps
explains why Griffin (2000) argues that meaning is
negotiated through the use of language, hence, the
term symbolic interactionism. Thus, Griffin (2000)
noted that as human beings, we have the ability to
name things; we can designate a specific object
(person), identify an action (screen) or refer to an

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abstract idea, but usually the names we use have

logical connection with the object at hand. Symbols
are arbitrary signs. Interactionists state that the extent
of knowing is dependent on the extent of naming. The
foregoing implies that language is the means through
which we give meanings to things and people.

c. Thought: Through language, we refer to the

role of other; that is, we take the role of others. Thus,
an individual's interpretation of symbols is modified
by his or her own thought processes. Symbolic
interactionists as noted by Griffin (2000) describe
thinking as an inner conversation; this is called ''inner
dialogue minding.'' According to Griffin (2000, p. 56),
''minding is the pause that is reflective; it is the two
second delay, while we mentally rehearse our next
move, test alternatives, anticipate others' actions or
reactions. We do not need encouragement to look
before we leap. We naturally talk to ourselves in order
to sort out the meaning of a difficult situation.'' This
implies that human beings have the ability to think
about situations; they do not just take actions without
carefully thinking about such actions. This is perhaps
why the theory says that there is no way that a person
who has had almost zero human contact would be able
to develop a language or think through her process. As
human beings, when we do not have contact with
people, we will not be able to develop a language.
Charon (n.d), however, gave a five point idea for
understanding symbolic interaction theory:

i. Human being must be understood as a social

person. It is the constant search for social interaction

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that leads us to do what we do. Instead of focusing on

the individual and his or her personality or on how the
society or social situation causes human behaviour,
symbolic interactionism focuses on the activities that
take place between actors. Interaction is the basic unit
of study. Individuals are created through interaction;
society too is created through social interaction. What
we do depends on interaction with others earlier in our
lifetimes and it depends on our interaction right now.
Social interaction is central to what we do. If we want
to understand cause, focus on social interaction.

ii. Human being must be understood as a thinking

being. Human action is not only interaction among
individuals, but also interaction within the individual.
It is not our ideas or attitudes or values that are as
important as the constant active ongoing process of
thinking. We are not simply conditioned, we are not
simply beings who are influenced by those around us;
we are not simply products of society; we are, to our
very core, thinking animals, always conversing with
ourselves as we interact with others. If we want to
understand cause, focus on human thinking.

iii. Humans do not sense their environment

directly; instead, humans define the situation they are
in. An environment may actually exist, but it is our
definition of it that is important. Definition does not
simply randomly happen; instead, it results from
ongoing social interaction and thinking.

iv. The cause of human action is the result of what

is occurring in our present situation. Cause unfolds in

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the present social interaction, present thinking and

present definition. It is not society's encounters with
us in our past that causes action nor is it our own past
experience that does. It is, instead, social interaction,
thinking and the definition of the situation that takes
place in the present. Our past enters into our actions
primarily because we think about it and apply it to the
definition of the present situation.

v. Human beings are described as active beings in

relation to their environment. Words such as
conditioning, responding, controlled, imprisoned and
formed are not used to describe the human being in
symbolic interaction. In contrast to other social-
scientific perspectives, humans are not thought of as
being passive in relation to their surroundings, but
actively involved in what they do (Culled from
Asemah et al 2017).

The major assumptions of the symbolic

interaction theory according to Anaeto et al (2008),
cited in Asemah et al (2017) are:

i. Communication occurs through the creation of

shared significant symbols.

ii. Individuals develop self-concepts through

social interactions. Social concept is
constructed through communication and
interaction with others.

iii. Social activity becomes possible through the

role taking process.

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iv. The symbolic interaction theory posits that

mental events cannot be understood exceptin
the context of social interaction.

v. people give things meaning and the meaning

controls their behaviours towards those things.

vi. Humans act towards people or things on basis

of meanings they assign to those p e o p l e o r
things.

vii. Meaning and social reality are shaped from

interactions with others and that, some kind of
shared meaning is reached. The boundary
conditions for this theory is that, there must be
numerous people communicating and
interacting and thus, assigning meaning to
situations or objects.

Gate keeping Theory

It describes the regulation of the flow of information.

The theory was propounded by Kurt Lewin in 1947.
The theory assumes that the media select what to
emphasise and what to de-emphasise. It deals with the
processes and factors which influence the decisions of
media organisations to select or reject potential
newsworthy items for publication. The gate keeping
concept was first applied in the field of
communication by White D.M. Gate keeping is the
process of deciding on what should be made known to
the media audience and what should not be made
known to them. The term ''gate keeping'' according to

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McQuail (2005) has been widely used as a metaphor

to describe the process by which selections are made
in media works, especially decisions regarding,
whether or not, to allow a particular news report pass
through the gates of a news medium into the news
channels. McQuail further notes that the term has a
wider potential application, since it can apply to the
work of literary agents and publishers and many other
kinds of editorials and production works in print and
electronic media. Gate keeping applies to decision
about distribution and marketing of existing media
products. Put more succinctly, gate keeping refers to
the power to give or withhold access to different
voices in society and it is often a locus of conflict.
The gate keeping theory attempts to explain the
subjectiveness that goes with the news production
processes. It creates a link between the choices of
information that media give to the public to the powers
conferred on the gatekeepers, e.g. editors and
journalists. According to this theory, editorial
gatekeepers choose what news to use and how to use
them and these selection procedures inevitably result
in the reflection of the gatekeepers' ideologies and
organisational beliefs (McGregor, 1997). Gate
keeping is the process through which information is
filtered for dissemination, be it publication,
broadcasting, the internet or some other types of
communication. As an academic theory, it is found in
several fields, including communication studies,
journalism, political science and sociology. It
originally focused on the mass media, with its few-to-
masses dynamics. Gate keeping occurs at all levels of
the media structure - from a reporter, deciding which
sources are chosen to include in a story, to editors,

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deciding which stories are printed or covered and

includes media outlet owners and even advertisers.
Outside media organisations, individuals can also act
as gatekeepers, deciding what information to include
in an email or in a blog.
A message has to pass through many gates
(filters) before it reaches its audience. This means that
some media topics are chosen to be presented to
different audiences through different forms of media.
The gate keeper decides which information will go
forward and which will not. In other words, a gate
keeper in a social system decides which of a certain
commodity– materials, goods and information, may
enter the system. Important to realise is that gate
keepers are able to control the public's knowledge of
the actual events by letting some stories pass through
the system, but keeping others out. Gate keepers can
also be seen as institutions or organisations. In a
political system, there are gate keepers, individuals or
institutions, which control access to positions of
power and regulate the flow of information and
political influence. Gate keepers exist in many jobs
and their choices hold the potential to colour mental
pictures that are subsequently created in peoples'
understanding of what is happening in the world
around them. Media gate keeping shows that decision
making is based on principles of news values,
organisational routines, input structure and common
sense. Gate keeping is vital in communication
planning and almost all communication planning
roles include some aspects of gate keeping. The gate
keeper's choices are a complex web of influences,
preferences, motives and common values. Gate
keeping is inevitable and in some circumstances, it

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can be useful. Gate keeping can also be dangerous,

since it can lead to an abuse of power by deciding what
information to discard and what to let pass.
Nevertheless, gate keeping is often a routine, guided
by some set of standard questions. Thus, gate keeping
theory according to Uwakwe (2003), cited Asemah et
al (2017) examines how some materials are kept out of
public consumption while others are not; that is, how
some materials are found useful in the media and
others are not useful. The gate-keeping theory is
equally tied to news determinants-prominence,
currency, oddity, proximity and personal interest.
From the foregoing, gate keeping covers all
forms of media performances. The gate keepers have
to decide on the media content that should reach the
consumers. This explains why Asemah (2010) notes
that gate keeping entails the media men making
decision on what should be emphasised and what
should be de-emphasised. The gate keepers (media)
control our access to news, entertainment and
information through gate keeping. Thus, a gate keeper
is anyone or formally organised group, directly
involved in relaying or transmitting information from
one individual to another through a mass medium. The
gate keeper can be a film producer, an editor, feature
editor, advert editor, women editor, international
editor, photo editor, the reporter, script writer, etc. All
these and many others are the gate keepers in the mass
communication process. These gate keepers are the
check points that the message must pass through
before reaching the audiences. The media messages
pass through series of check points (gates) before
reaching the consumers. For example, before the news
story or feature story gets to the audience, several

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persons must go through them; in the process of going

through them, what you are doing is gate keeping. The
journalist is the first gate keeper in the case of news.
This is because the journalist is the one who goes out
to gather news items. Based on that, he decides on
what to cover and what not to cover. The journalist
covers whatever he wishes to cover and submit to his
editor who thereafter, edits the story by removing
irrelevant details, defamatory comments,
grammatical errors, etc. Thus, the gate keeper is seen
as any media person who can stop or alter any message
enroute to the audience.
Gate keepers have tremendous responsibilities
because they shape the media messages that reach us.
Gate keepers as noted by John (1997, p. 268), ''delete,
trim, embellish and otherwise, try to improve media
messages.'' John further notes that ''judgement is at the
heart of the gate keeping process, as hardly any
message, except live reporting, reaches us (audience)
in its original form.'' Along its path from its originator
to the eventual audience, a message is subject to all
kinds of deletions, additions and changes for
emphasis. With large news organisations, this process
may involve so many editors and many other persons
(John, 1997). According to John (1997), the first gate
keeper is the person who sees an event happen. This
person sees the event, selectively noticing some things
and ignoring others, then, followed by the reporter
who talks to his news source. The reporter may speak
to many sources, but he will still have to select out of
the many sources that he speaks to. The reporter
decides on which fact to pass across to his editor, he
decides on what to write, what shape, colour and
importance to give to the story. The reporter then

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passes the story to an editor who then decides on how

to edit the story. The editor decides on what to add or
remove. The process continues as it gets to proof
readers and sub-editor and continues, until it gets to
the audiences.

Interactional View Theory

Interactional view theory is a theory that stresses the

importance of communication in the society. It was
propounded by Watzlawick, Beavin and Jackson in
1967. The interactional view theory is also known as
the theory of pragmatics because of the dependence
on the particular situation at hand. The theorists
describe a typical family as an interconnected system,
which means that what happens to one individual in
the family system will automatically have impact on
any other person in the family. This is the view of the
system. Thus, the theory holds that the family is seen
as a system with sub-systems. This implies that it is
one thread that holds a family together. The family
cannot function effectively if there is no
interconnectivity among the various subsystems.
Thus, Griffin (2000, p. 152) enthuses thus:

Picture a family as a mobile suspended from

the ceiling. Each figure is connected to the
rest of the structure by a strong thread tied at
exactly the right place to keep the system in
balance. Sever a thread and the entire design
tilts in disequilibrium. The thread in the
mobile analogy represents the
communication rules that hold the family
together. Watzlawick believes that in order to

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understand the movement of any single figure

in the family system, one has to examine the
communication patterns among all its
members. He regards the communication that
the family members have among themselves
about their relationship as especially
important.

The above assertion shows that communication

is very important in every family. This is because
communication is the thread that binds the family
together because without effective communication
among family members, there will certainly be
disorderliness and disunity. This perhaps explains
why Ikpe (2012) argues that Watzlawick believes that
an excess or absence of overt talk about
communication is a symptom of a family in trouble.
According to Ikpe (2012), Watzlawick emphasises
using a therapist or a counsellor to help reframe family
communication. Watzlawick, however, developed
some axioms to explain his interactional view theory
of relationship. An axiom is a statement usually
accepted as true; whereas, a maxim is an established
principle or law of a science or arts. To maintain the
dysfunctional nature of communication, he puts up the
following axioms:
1. One cannot not Communicate: This implies
that communication is inevitable. Thus, there is no
society or family that can survive without
communication as it is through communication that
people exchange ideas, feelings and notions. Man
continuously communicates, whether muting,
standing, sleeping, etc. Therefore, every action in all

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terms of communication, whether verbal or

nonverbal, means something. One cannot not
communicate, therefore, implies that every behaviour
is a form of communication. Because behaviour does
not have a counterpart, there is no anti-behaviour; it is
impossible to not communicate; even if
communication is being avoided, such as the
unconscious use of non-verbal or symptom strategy;
that is a form of communication. Symptom strategy is
ascribing our silence to something beyond our control
and makes no communication impossible. Examples
of symptom strategy are: sleepiness, headaches and
drunkenness. Even facial expressions, digital
communication and being silent can be analysed as
communication by a receiver. The first axiom,
therefore, stresses the impossibility of not
communicating; it, therefore, states that all behaviour
is communication and you cannot not behave; it
follows that you cannot not communicate. Whether
or not we intend it, whether or not we even speak or
make eye contact at all; our behaviours send messages
and hence communicate something. This axiom
basically says that even if you are not actually talking
or perhaps, not doing anything, you are still
communicating. Even if you are attempting to avoid
speaking, you are still expressing nonverbally. Thus,
no matter how one tries not to communicate, there is
always some element of communication going on.
Even if one is sitting quietly, seemingly not
responding to, nor interacting with one's external
environment, one is still participating in an activity of
communication.

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2. Communication = Content + Relationship:

All communication includes, apart from the plain
meaning of words, more information. This
information is based on how the speaker wants to be
understood and how he himself sees his relation to the
receiver of information. Relationship is the command
part of the message or how it is nonverbally said.
Content is the report or what is said verbally. Being
able to interpret both of these aspects is essential in
understanding something that a communicator said.
The relational aspect of interaction is known as meta-
c o mmu n i c a t io n . Meta- c o mmu n i ca t io n i s
communication about communication. Relationship
messages are always the most important element in
communication. Basically, the content and
relationship make up a communication sequence.

3. The Nature of a Relationship Depends on

how both Parties Punctuate Communication
Sequence: Here, we refer to mechanical accuracy of a
speech; what one says, if not properly guided, may
destroy or mar the relationship. This, therefore,
implies that both the sender and the receiver of
information structure the communication flow
differently and, therefore, interpret their own
behaviour during communication as merely a reaction
to the other's behaviour (every partner thinks the other
one is the cause of a specific behaviour). To punctuate
a communication means to interpret an ongoing
sequence of events by labelling one event as the cause
and the following event as the response. In a situation
with communication, if one thing happens, something
else always happens. For example, a female in a

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relationship with a male is feeling depressed. The

male in the relationship with the female feels guilty.
One who observes this situation might ask, "Is she
depressed because of his guilt or is he guilty because
of her depression''? This implies that punctuation is
the way that interactants group their interactions. This
axiom describes how each person perceives or
punctuates a communication sequence.

4. Human Beings Communicate both Digitally

and Analogically: It is mostly related to the digital
content of communication within a relationship. This
implies that human beings communicate both
digitally and analogically. Essentially, digital
communication is comprised of words and analogue
communication is comprised of non-verbal forms. In
relationship to the previous axiom, digital
communication approximately corresponds to the
content, whereas analogic communication is used to
express the relationship aspect of communication.
Analogical communication represents things by
likeness (Griffin, 1997). Nonverbal communication,
for example, is classified as analogical by
Watzlawick. Digital communication refers to things
by name (Griffin, 1997). Language is considered to be
digital.

5. All Communication is either Symmetrical or

Complementary: Symmetrical interchanges are
based on equal power. Big men talk to big men results
in mutual respect. Complementary is based on
deficiencies in power; for example, in an organisation,
managers talking to a subordinate. If a message is

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powerful, it has an aspect of symmetrical relationship;

some mutual respect for another. This axiom focuses
on meta-communication with two main components
called symmetrical interchange and complementary
interchange. Symmetrical interchange is an
interaction based on equal power between
communicators.
In accordance to that, complementary
interchange is an interaction based on differences in
power. Within these two interchanges, there are three
different ways they can be used: one-up, one-down
and one-across. With a one-up communication, one
communicator attempts to gain control of an exchange
by dominating the overall communication. A one-
down communication has the opposite effect. A
communicator attempts to yield control of an
interaction or submit to someone. The final message is
a one-across communication. This communication
moves to neutralise a situation. This is also called
transitory if only one communicator is attempting this
style. When two communicators use the same style of
one-up, one-down or one-across, it is called
symmetrical. If they are opposing one another, it is
complementary. This axiom allows us to understand
how an interaction can be perceived by the styles a
communicator is using. Thus, symmetrical
relationships are those in which each party
reciprocates the other's behaviour, which creates
relational equality. On the other hand,
complementary relationships are unequal in that one
partner maintains a superior position, while the other
is inferior.

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Aerophones: These comprise media of the flute

family-whistle, reed pipes, horns and trumpet. They
produce sound as a result of the vibration of a column
of air. Apart from being used as musical instruments,
they are also used to announce the arrival and
departure of icons at gatherings.

Channels: In communication, channels mean the

medium/means through which the communication is
being passed/disseminated. We are regarded to be
multi channels communicators. We have different
channels through which we communicate both in the
urban and rural areas (settings) which help to proffer a
better result of what is being sent.

Colour Schemes: The use of colours conveys

different meanings. Among the prominent colours
used to communicate different meanings are red,
white, black, green, yellow, brown and turquoise. Of
all these colours, red, white and black convey a
universal meaning in the Nigerian society. Red
signifies danger; black is evil and white is love.
Combinations of these colours convey certain
significant meanings for the traditional society, as
well as in modern advertising.

Communication: It is at the core of our humanness.

How we communicate with each other shapes our
lives and our world. Human beings rely on their

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communicative skills as they confront events that

challenge their flexibility, integrity, expressiveness
and critical thinking skills. Communication involves
different forms which include the intrapersonal,
interpersonal, group, public, mass communication,
etc. All these are different ways/means through which
we interact, associate, communicate, relate, share
ideas, views, opinion, information, norms and values
with ourselves and others. Communication is
regarded as the life blood of human existence which
rapidly enhances unity that leads to the development
of our society at large.

Context: Communication always takes place in some

context or setting. Every communication starts from
somewhere, there must be a setting that helps to make
it real and natural and even acceptable.

Effect: In communication, as people communicate,

they are changed in some way by the interaction,
which in turn influences what follows. These effects
could be as a result of exchange of influence.
Communication always has some effect on you and on
the person or people with whom you are interacting
with. An effect can be emotional, physical, cognitive
or any combination of the three. Without all of these
elements communication can never be complete and
its effectiveness is withdrawn.

Extra-Mundane Communication: This is

communication between the living and the dead, the
supernatural or Supreme Being. It is not restricted to
the Nigerian traditional society alone, other African

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countries and beyond are involved in extra-mundane

communication. It is usually done through
incantation, spiritual chants, rituals, prayers, sacrifice,
invocation, séance, trance, hysterics or libation.
Cultural ritual performance evokes intensity of
emotion which may lead to a temporary spiritual
transmigration of the participants as in religious or
spiritual ceremonies. Such a performance conveys the
elements of a cultural celebration, dedication and
consecrations as witnessed in funeral rites and
marriages. Modern forms of extra-mundane
communication are found in obituary and in memorial
notices published in newspaper, radio, television and
so on.

Feedback: In communication, whenever we interact,

communicate with one or more persons, we receive
information in return. In communication we have
positive feedback and negative feedback.

Folkmedia: It has developed a rich pattern of

expression in all cultures. Some components of
folkmedia are festivals, plays, puppet shows and
folkdrama, storytelling, folklore, poetry, debates,
parades, carnivals, proverbs and parables.
It refers to traditional media based on sound, image
and sign language. It is expressed in the form of
traditional music, drama, dance and puppetry.
Bangladesh has inherited several rich, effective
popular and powerful folk media forms, which were
developed over the ages characterising cultural norms
of the people. Ingredients of folk media are given
special projection in the mass media and as such folk

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media are being used in development communication

(to bring about attitudinal and behavioural changes of
the people) and advertising.

Idiophones: These are self-sounding instruments or

technical waves which produce sound without the
addition or use of an intermediary medium. The sound
or message emanates from the materials from which
the instruments are made, and they could be shaken,
scratched, struck, pricked (pulled) or pressed with the
feet. In this group are gong, woodlock, wooden drum,
bell and rattle. The loud-sounding gong common
among the people of the Niger-Delta of Nigeria, the
wooden drum called “ekwe” among the Igbo of
eastern Nigeria are used to announce the
promulgation of laws and regulations, meetings,
arrangements for communal works and generally
spread “official” information to the community.

Listening: The act of listening does not often make its

way onto the list of types of communication. Active
listening, however, is perhaps one of the most
important types of communication because if we
cannot listen to the person sitting across from us, we
cannot effectively engage with them. Think about a
negotiation– part of the process is to assess what the
opposition wants and needs. Without listening, it is
impossible to assess that which makes it difficult to
achieve a win/win outcome.

Market Square: Market square serves as a

communication arena. Women who have picked
information from various places spread it around with
the word of mouth.

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Mebranophones: These are media on which sound is

produced through the vibration of membranes. They
include all skin or leather drums. These drums are
beaten or struck with well-carved sticks. Among the
various Nigerian traditional societies, skin or leather
drums of various sizes and shapes abound. The most
popular however is the Yoruba “talking drum” locally
called “dundun.” The “talking drum” is commonly
used during traditional ceremonies.

Messages: In communication, the message is the

communication itself. A message is the content of a
communicative act. Everything one does with his/her
body, or with other medium such as what we talk
about, the words we use to express the thoughts and
feelings, the sounds you make, your gestures, our
facial expressions and perhaps even our touch or smell
all communicate information, this is to tell you how
effective communication can be, it involves our every
second activity/actions. There is no communication
without a message being passed across.

Music: The significance of music in any society is

overwhelming. Itinerant musical groups sing satirical
songs, praise songs and can also use music to criticise
wrong doings of individuals in society. They describe
the physical or personality attributes of such
individuals, where they live or what they do for a
living.

Noise : In the context of communication, noise is

aenything that interferes with or distorts our ability to
send or receive messages. Noise could be due to

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semantic factors such as uncertainty about what

another person's words are supposed to mean.

Non-Verbal Communication: What we do while we

speak often says more than the actual words. Non-
verbal communication includes facial expressions,
posture, eye contact, hand movements and touch. For
example, if you are engaged in a conversation with
your boss about your cost-saving idea, it is important
to pay attention to both their words and their non-
verbal communication. Your boss might be in
agreement with your idea verbally, but their nonverbal
cues: avoiding eye contact, sighing, scrunched up
face, etc. indicate something different.

Objectifics: Media presented in concrete forms which

may have significance for a specific society only or
may be universal through their traditional association
with specific meanings. Objectifics include Kola-nut,
the young unopened bud of palm frond, charcoal,
white pigeon or fowl, white eggs, feather, cowries,
mimosa, flowers, sculptures, pictures, flags, etc. The
most common and perhaps most universal is the use of
flowers to covey love. In most Nigerian communities,
the presentation of kola nut to visitors shows that such
a visitor is loved and welcomed to his host's residence.

Positive Feedback: It could come from the

heterogeneous audience or rural dwellers as the case
may be; it enhances whatever behaviour is in progress.
I t encourages us to continue with our
information/attitude. In contrast, negative feedback
extinguishes behaviour; it serves as a corrective rather
than a reinforcing behaviour.

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Signals: These are the physical embodiments of a

message. Signals include fire, gunshots, cannon
shorts, smoke, drum (wooden or skin). Signals
generally attract attention. In Nigeria for example,
broadcasting stations begin transmission on daily
basis by first drawing the attention of listeners with
drum signals. Similar signals are also sounded at the
close of the day's transmission of programmes.

Signs: Any meaningful marks or objects or symbols

used to represent something are signs. They were
commonly used in time past during inter-tribal or
ethnic wars or invasion to convey non-verbal
messages. Sign language is used to communicate with
the deaf. During the colonial era, different
communities in Nigeria developed different sign
languages through which the presence of colonial
agents in the community was announced to the able-
bodied men. Immediately the sign alert was made, the
youths and other able-bodied men went into hiding to
avoid being used by the colonial government as forced
labour.

Symbolic Displays: These have the following

attributes, smiling, sticking out the tongue, winking
the eyes, expression of anger, disgust, happiness and
fear. All these convey meanings at different times and
in different traditional environments in Nigeria.

Symbolography: This simply means symbolic

writing or representation. They are used to convey a
message which is understood within the context of a
known social event and an accompanying verbal

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message. It is a descriptive representational device for

conveying meaning. Symbols usually carry along
with them connotative meanings which require an
interpreter who knows something about the system by
virtue of which the symbol has meaning.

Town Criers: They are also known as traditional

newsmen, newsvendors, news reporters,
correspondents, news agents, messengers
(emissaries), spokesmen (or women), envoys
(ambassadors), contact men, couriers, postmen,
broadcasters, heralds, etc. They employ all the forms
of communication in the performance of their duty.

Traditional Communication: can be defined as a

communication which involves all the social
conventions and practices, modes of and social
organisations whose chief concerns may not be with
communication but with other activities. Traditional
communication is perhaps the most important way by
which ruralities communicate among themselves and
in effect with others.

Verbal Communication: Verbal communication

occurs when we engage in speaking with others. It can
be face-to-face, over the telephone, via Skype or
Zoom, etc. Some verbal engagements are informal,
such as chatting with a friend over coffee or in the
office kitchen, while others are more formal, such as a
scheduled meeting. Regardless of the type, it is not
just about the words, it is also about the calibre and
complexity of those words, how we string those words
together to create an overarching message, as well as

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the intonation (pitch, tone, cadence, etc.) used while

speaking. And when occurring face-to-face, while the
words are important, they cannot be separated from
non-verbal communication.

Visual Communication: We are a visual society.

Think about it, televisions are running 24/7, Facebook
is visual with memes, videos, images, etc., Instagram
is an image-only platform, and advertisers use
imagery to sell products and ideas. Think about it from
a personal perspective– the images we post on social
media are meant to convey meaning– to communicate
a message.

Written Communication: Whether it is an email, a

memo, a report, a Facebook post, a Tweet, a contract,
etc. all forms of written communication have the same
goal- to disseminate information in a clear and concise
manner – though that objective is often not achieved.
In fact, poor writing skills often lead to confusion and
embarrassment, and even potential legal jeopardy.
One important thing to remember about written
communication, especially in the digital age, is the
message lives on, perhaps in perpetuity. Thus, there
are two things to remember: first, write well – poorly
constructed sentences and careless errors make you
look bad and second, ensure the content of the
message is something you want to promote or be
associated with for the long haul.

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297
Dreams, 167
Drums, 87
Iindex E
Encoding, 12
A
Accessories, 72
Aerophones, 96 F
Age Groups, 126 Facial Expression, 17
Ancestral worship, 164 Facial marks, 82
Appearance, 22, 69 Feedback, 14
Artefacts, 23 Festivals, 139
Folklore, 181
B
Beliefs, 37 G
Bell, 89 Gate keeping, 266
Body Language, 18 Gestures, 17
Books, 243 Gongs, 91
Business Distance, 20 Gunshot, 115

C H
Chants and Incantations, Haptics, 22
114 Harmonious colours, 67
Clothing, 70
Clouds, 32 I
Colours, 65 Intermediate Colours, 68
Communication is Internet, 237
Complex, 8
Communication is L
Dynamic, 7 Language, 38
Complementary Colours, Legends, 202
67
Correlation, 45 M
Magazines 245
D Market, 173
Decoding, 14 Masquerades, 130
Divination, 157 Membranophones, 101

298
Index

Message, 12 Symbol, 37
Mothers' Clubs, 126 Symbolic Interaction
Music, 104 Theory, 259
Myths, 199
T
N Tattoos, 83
Natural Phenomena, 168 Technology, 38
Networking, 239 Television, 242
Newspapers, 244 Tertiary Colours, 67
Non-verbal Town Crier, 134
Communication, 16
V
P Values, 37
Para-linguistic, 18 Verbal Communication, 14
Personal Distance, 19 Village Meetings, 128
Physical Appearance, 70 Visual Communication, 24
Poetry, 111
Potent Speech, 167 W
Primary Colours, 66 Woodblock, 92
Proverbs, 186 Written Communication, 23
Proxemics, 19
Public Distance, 21 X
Xylophones, 94
R
Radio, 241
Receiver, 13
Records, 84
Rivers, 179
Roads, 179
Rural Mobilisation, 234

S
Secondary Colour, 67
Social Distance, 20
Social gatherings, 177
Surveillance, 44

299

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