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Praise for A Companion to Latin American History

“For many readers, this work will prove helpful in engendering a broader understand-
ing of the layers, complexities, and array of approaches in studies of Latin America.
Summing Up: Highly recommended.”
Choice

“Blackwell is to be congratulated on offering a comprehensive review drawing

together the disparate threads of the history of the many nations which make up the
southern half of the American continent. . . . For the undergraduate student or the
general reader seeking a handy overview to the history of the region the present
volume provides an excellent introduction.”
Reference Reviews

“This volume is an accessible and welcome contribution to the general field of Latin
American Studies. Overall, the volume is excellent with just the right mix of gener-
alization and particularity. This volume is smartly structured, well informed, and
written by top scholars in the field.”
The Americas: Quarterly Review of Inter-American Cultural History

“Up-to-the-minute syntheses of scholarly literature on a wide array of topics, clearly

and authoritatively presented. An indispensable tool for any student of Latin Ameri-
ca’s past and present.”
Reid Andrews, University of Pittsburgh

“This excellent collection reminds readers of the depth and highly developed nature
of Latin American Studies in the twenty-first century. Discussions of methods, his-
toriography, and recent trends provide a sophisticated introduction that is useful for
students and faculty in many different disciplines.”
Jeffrey Lesser, Emory University

“An impressive team, under able editorship, has put together a detailed, up-to-date
and comprehensive volume which conveys a wealth of information and does not ‘talk
down’ to the intelligent reader.”
Alan Knight, St Antony’s College

A Companion to Latin American History Edited byThomas H. Holloway

© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-13161-2
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A COMPANION TO
LATIN AMERICAN
HISTORY
Edited by

Thomas H. Holloway

A John Wiley & Sons, Ltd., Publication

This paperback edition first published 2011
© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Edition history: Blackwell Publishing Ltd (hardback, 2008)

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

A companion to Latin American history / edited by Thomas H. Holloway.
p. cm. – (Blackwell companions to American history)
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 978-1-4051-3161-2 (hardback : alk. paper) ISBN 978-1-4443-3884-3
(paperback : alk. paper) 1. Latin America–History. I. Holloway,
Thomas H., 1944–
F1410.C727 2008
980–dc22
2007031624

A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library.

Set in 10/12 pt Galliard by Toppan Best-set Premedia Limited

Printed in Malaysia
1 2011
Contents

List of Figures, Tables, and Maps vii

Notes on Contributors viii

Introduction 1
Thomas H. Holloway
1 Early Population Flows in the Western Hemisphere 10
Tom D. Dillehay
2 Mesoamerica 28
John Monaghan and Andrew R. Wyatt
3 Tradition and Change in the Central Andes 42
Jeffrey Quilter
4 Portuguese and Spaniards in the Age of European Expansion 58
William D. Phillips, Jr. and Carla Rahn Phillips
5 Exploration and Conquest 73
Patricia Seed
6 Colonial Brazil (1500–1822) 89
Hal Langfur
7 Institutions of the Spanish American Empire in the Hapsburg Era 106
Susan Elizabeth Ramírez
8 Indigenous Peoples in Colonial Spanish American Society 124
Kevin Terraciano
9 Slavery in the Americas 146
Franklin W. Knight
10 Religion, Society, and Culture in the Colonial Era 162
Rachel Sarah O’Toole
11 Imperial Rivalries and Reforms 178
John Fisher
vi contents

12 The Process of Spanish American Independence 195

Jaime E. Rodríguez O.
13 New Nations and New Citizens: Political Culture in Nineteenth-century
Mexico, Peru, and Argentina 215
Sarah C. Chambers
14 Imperial Brazil (1822–89) 230
Judy Bieber
15 Abolition and Afro-Latin Americans 247
Aline Helg
16 Land, Labor, Production, and Trade: Nineteenth-century Economic
and Social Patterns 264
Aldo A. Lauria-Santiago
17 Modernization and Industrialization 285
Colin M. Lewis
18 Practical Sovereignty: The Caribbean Region and the Rise of US
Empire 307
Mary A. Renda
19 The Mexican Revolution 330
Adrian A. Bantjes
20 Populism and Developmentalism 347
Joel Wolfe
21 The Cuban Revolution 365
Luis Martínez-Fernández
22 The National Security State 386
David R. Mares
23 Central America in Upheaval 406
Julie A. Charlip
24 Culture and Society: Latin America since 1900 424
Robert McKee Irwin
25 Environmental History of Modern Latin America 443
Lise Sedrez
26 Women, Gender, and Family in Latin America, 1820–2000 461
Nara Milanich
27 Identity, Ethnicity, and “Race” 480
Peter Wade
28 Social and Economic Impact of Neoliberalism 494
Duncan Green

Index 512
Figures, Tables, and Maps

Figures
1.1 Location of major archeological sites of the late
Pleistocene period in the New World 12
3.1 Chronogram of Central Andean cultures and sites with
Rowe–Menzel and Lumbreras chronological systems 46

Tables
7.1 Audiencias of mainland Spanish America 110
17.1 Value of exports in selected Latin American countries
as a share of gross domestic product, c.1850–c.1912 289
17.2 Growth of exports in selected Latin American countries,
by value, c.1880–1913 289
17.3 Share of industry in GDP in selected Latin
American countries, c.1930 299

Maps
1 The Countries of Latin America 4
2 The Viceroyalty of Peru, c.1650 108
3 The Viceroyalty of New Spain, c.1650 109
4 Spanish South America, c.1800 190
5 The Viceroyalty of New Spain, c.1800 191
6 Latin America in 1830 209
Notes on Contributors

Adrian A. Bantjes is Associate Professor of Tom D. Dillehay is Chair and Distinguished

History at the University of Wyoming and Professor of Anthropology at Vanderbilt Uni-
author of As if Jesus Walked on Earth: Carden- versity. He has carried out extensive archeo-
ismo, Sonora, and the Mexican Revolution logical and anthropological research in Peru,
(1998) and articles on the political, cultural, Chile, the United States, and other countries.
and religious history of revolutionary Mexico. He also has numerous publications on topics
He is currently completing a book on revolu- ranging from the peopling of the Americas
tionary anti-religious campaigns. and the rise of early Andean civilization to the
spread of the Inca state.
Judy Bieber is Associate Professor of History
at the University of New Mexico. Her areas John Fisher is Professor of Latin American
of research specialization include slavery and History in the School of Languages, Cultures,
race relations in the Americas and Brazilian and Area Studies at the University of Liver-
history. She is the author of Power, Patronage pool. He has published extensively on Spanish
and Political Violence: State Building on a imperial policy during the Bourbon period,
Brazilian Frontier, 1822–1889 (1999). commercial relations in the Hispanic world,
and the processes that led to Peruvian inde-
Sarah C. Chambers, University of Minne-
pendence from Spain.
sota, has written widely on gender, ethnicity,
law, and politics during the transition from Duncan Green is Head of Research at Oxfam,
colonialism to independence. She has Great Britain. He is the author of several books
published From Subjects to Citizens: Honor, on Latin America including Silent Revolution:
Gender, and Politics in Arequipa, Peru, 1780– The Rise and Crisis of Market Economics in
1854 (1999) and co-edited Honor, Status and Latin America (2003), Faces of Latin America,
Law in Modern Latin America (2005). Her 3rd edition (2006), and Hidden Lives: Voices
current research focuses on family and politics of Children in Latin America (1998).
in Chile.
Aline Helg is Professor of History at the
Julie A. Charlip is Associate Professor of University of Geneva, Switzerland. She has
history at Whitman College in Walla Walla, published the award-winning Our Rightful
WA. She is the author of Cultivating Coffee: Share: The Afro-Cuban Struggle for Equality,
The Farmers of Carazo, Nicaragua, 1880– 1886–1912 (1995) and Liberty and Equality
1930 (2003), and co-author of Latin America: in Caribbean Colombia, 1770–1835 (2004),
An Interpretive History, 8th edition (2007), as well as several articles on race relations in
with the late E. Bradford Burns. the Americas.
contributors ix

Thomas H. Holloway is Professor of History include Argentina: A Short History (2003)

at the University of California at Davis. His and (with Christopher Abel) Exclusion and
works include The Coffee Valorization of 1906 Engagement: Social Policy in Latin America
(1975), Immigrants on the Land (1980), and (2002).
Policing Rio de Janeiro (1993). He has served
David R. Mares is Professor of Political
as President of LASA (2000–1), and Execu-
Science at the University of California, San
tive Secretary of CLAH (2002–7).
Diego, and was previously Professor at El
Robert McKee Irwin, Associate Professor of Colegio de Mexico. He has written and con-
Spanish at University of California at Davis, is sulted widely on interstate conflict, civil–
author of Mexican Masculinities (2003) and military relations, drug politics, and energy
Bandits, Captives, Heroines and Saints: Cul- policy. His latest book is Drug Wars and
tural Icons of Mexico’s Northwest Frontier Coffeehouses (2006).
(forthcoming 2007); and co-editor of Hispan-
Luis Martínez-Fernández is Professor of
isms and Homosexualities (1998), The Famous
History at the University of Central Florida.
41 (2003), and the forthcoming Diccionario
His books include Protestantism and Political
de estudios culturales latinoamericanos.
Conflict in the Nineteenth-Century Hispanic
Franklin W. Knight is Leonard and Helen Caribbean (2002) and Fighting Slavery in the
R. Stulman Professor of History at Johns Caribbean (1998). He is Senior Editor of the
Hopkins University. Among his publications Encyclopedia of Cuba: People, History, Culture
are Slave Society in Cuba during the Nine- (2003) and is currently writing a concise
teenth Century (1970), The Caribbean: The history of the Cuban Revolution.
Genesis of a Fragmented Nationalism (1978), Nara Milanich is Assistant Professor of
and The Slave Societies of the Caribbean (1997). History at Barnard College. Her lastest book,
He is currently writing a general history of The Children of Fate: Families, Social
Cuba. Hierarchies and the State, Chile, 1850–1937,
Hal Langfur teaches the history of Latin is forthcoming. Her work has appeared in the
America and the Atlantic world at SUNY American Historical Review, the Journal of
Buffalo. He is the author of The Forbidden Social History, and Estudios Interdisciplinarios
Lands: Colonial Identity, Frontier Violence, de América Latina.
and the Persistence of Brazil’s Eastern Indians, John Monaghan is Professor and Depart-
1750–1830 (2006) and editor of the forth- ment Head at the University of Illinois at
coming Native Brazil: Beyond the Cannibal Chicago and Adjunct Curator at the Field
and the Convert, 1500–1889. Museum. He has carried out ethnographic
and archival research on Highland Maya com-
Aldo A. Lauria-Santiago is Associate Profes-
munities of Guatemala and Mixtec-speaking
sor of Latino/Hispanic Caribbean Studies
groups in Southern Mexico, and is editor of
and History at Rutgers University. He is the
the Handbook of Middle American Indians,
author of An Agrarian Republic: Commercial
Ethnology Supplement (2000).
Agriculture and the Politics of Peasant Com-
munities in El Salvador, 1823–1914 (1999) Rachel Sarah O’Toole is Assistant Professor
and (with J. Gould) To Rise in Darkness: of the Early Modern Atlantic World at the
Revolution, Repression and Memory in El University of California, Irvine with research
Salvador, 1929–1932 (2007). interests in Andean colonial indigenous com-
munities and the African Atlantic. She has
Colin M. Lewis is Reader in Latin American
published articles in the Journal of Colonial-
Economic History at the London School of
ism and Colonial History (Spring 2006) and
Economics and Political Science, and Associ-
The Americas (July 2006).
ate Fellow of the Institute for the Study of
the Americas, University of London. He is Carla Rahn Phillips, Union Pacific Professor
currently working on a study of British enter- in Comparative Early Modern History at the
prises in the Argentine. His publications University of Minnesota, currently works on
x contributors

Spanish seafaring. Pertinent publications Lise Sedrez is Assistant Professor of History

include Six Galleons for the King of Spain at California State University, Long Beach.
(1986) and The Treasure of the San José: Death Her research interests include urban environ-
at Sea in the War of the Spanish Succession mental history, history of science, and modern
(2007). Brazil. She is working on a book on the
Guanabara Bay in Rio de Janeiro, and edits
William D. Phillips, Jr., Professor of History
the Online Bibliography on Latin American
and Director of the Center for Early Modern
Environmental History <http://www.csulb.
History at the University of Minnesota, has
edu/laeh>.
co-authored two prize-winning books with
Carla Rahn Phillips, The Worlds of Christopher Patricia Seed, Professor of History at the
Columbus (1992) and Spain’s Golden Fleece University of California, Irvine, wrote “The
(1997), and has edited Testimonies from the Conquest of the Americas” for the Cambridge
Columbus Lawsuits (2000). Illustrated History of Warfare, and two prize-
Jeffrey Quilter is Deputy Director for Cura- winning books, To Love, Honor, and Obey in
torial Affairs, Peabody Museum, Harvard, and Colonial Mexico (1988) and American Penti-
Curator for Intermediate Area Archaeology. mento (2001), as well as Ceremonies of Posses-
His recent research has focused on ceremonial sion in Europe’s Conquest of the New World
centers in Costa Rica, Moche art and archeol- (1995).
ogy, and excavation of a colonial period town Kevin Terraciano is Professor of History and
in Peru. His books include Cobble Circles and Chair of Latin American Studies at UCLA.
Standing Stones: Archaeology at the Rivas Site, He specializes in colonial Latin American
Costa Rica (2004) and Treasures of the Andes history, especially the indigenous cultures and
(2005). languages of central and southern Mexico.
Susan Elizabeth Ramírez teaches Latin His many writings on colonial Mexico include
American History at Texas Christian Univer- The Mixtecs of Colonial Oaxaca: Ñudzahui
sity. She is the author of To Feed and Be Fed: History, Sixteenth through Eighteenth
The Cosmological Bases of Authority and Iden- Centuries (2001).
tity in the Andes (2005), The World Upside
Down: Cross-Cultural Contact and Conflict in Peter Wade is Professor of Social Anthropol-
Sixteenth-Century Peru (1996 and 1998), and ogy at the University of Manchester. His pub-
Provincial Patriarchs: Land Tenure and the lications include Blackness and Race Mixture
Economics of Power in Colonial Peru (1986). (1993), Race and Ethnicity in Latin America
(1997), Music, Race and Nation: Música
Mary A. Renda teaches history and chairs the Tropical in Colombia (2000), and Race,
Department of Gender Studies at Mount Nature and Culture: An Anthropological
Holyoke College in South Hadley, MA. Her Perspective (2002).
work tracks the imprint of gender and racism
in US imperialism. She is the award-winning Joel Wolfe teaches Latin American History at
author of Taking Haiti: Military Occupation the University of Massachusetts at Amherst.
and the Culture of US Imperialism, 1915–1940 He is the author of Working Women, Working
(2001). Men: São Paulo and the Rise of Brazil’s
Industrial Working Class, 1900–1955 (1993)
Jaime E. Rodríguez O. is Professor of and the forthcoming Autos and Progress: The
History at the University of California, Irvine. Brazilian Search for Modernity.
His publications include The Independence of
Spanish America (1998) and La revolución Andrew R. Wyatt is a PhD candidate at the
política en la época de la independencia: El University of Illinois at Chicago. He is
Reino de Quito, 1808–1822 (2006); and, as currently conducting research on agriculture
editor, The Divine Charter: Constitutionalism terracing at the Chan site, an ancient Maya
and Liberalism in Nineteenth-Century Mexico farming village in western Belize, investigat-
(2005) and Revolución, independencia y la ing agricultural intensification and the role of
nuevas naciones de América (2005). farmers in the political economy.
Introduction
Thomas H. Holloway

This is a compendium of descriptive and interpretive material on the history of Latin

America, organized around coherent themes and periods commonly of interest
to Latin Americanist scholars and their students, as well as the interested public.
The essays are supported by the latest research, assessed and synthesized by trained
and experienced specialists, and presented in a sequence organized thematically
and chronologically. The standard meta-narrative for the region as a whole is repre-
sented here, with considerable illustrative material and case studies ranging widely in
time, space, and theme; they are accompanied by more than 1400 bibliographical
references and suggestions for further reading, grouped at the end of each thematic
essay.
The chronologically organized units in that overarching timeline include the
indigenous and Iberian backgrounds, conquest and colonization, the process of
independence, the establishment of new nations in the nineteenth century, the varied
processes by which the region modernized and developed through the twentieth
century. It is also common in surveys of Latin American history to focus specifically
on several case studies of major transformation, such as the Revolutions in Mexico
and Cuba; to consider the emergence of the United States as a dominant presence
in the economic and political affairs of the region; and to focus on other issues better
treated thematically than as divisions along the lines of geography and chronology
that still dominate historical scholarship and pedagogy.
In keeping with the comparative approach common to historical surveys of such
a diverse region of the world, there is no effort here to provide the national narrative
of each colonial region or independent nation. Inevitably, the specific experience of
some countries looms larger than others. Devoting separate essays to Brazil in the
colonial era and again in the nineteenth century is justified on the intellectual grounds
that Brazil’s colonial trajectory as well as its functioning constitutional monarchy from
independence in 1822 to 1889 merits separate consideration from Spanish America.
It is also meant to provide readers whose entry into Latin American history is mainly
via the Spanish-language regions with material that deals with the distinctive Brazilian
experience on its own terms.

A Companion to Latin American History Edited byThomas H. Holloway

© 2011 Blackwell Publishing Ltd. ISBN: 978-1-405-13161-2
2 introduction

Coverage

It is not the intent of this volume to provide complete coverage of the history of
Latin America. However completeness might be defined, or the degree to which it
is attained, it is always the result of a consensus among specialist scholars as well as
what the reader might be seeking or expecting. Historians recognize that “complete-
ness” is a chimera, and any assertion that it has been achieved is an illusion. The list
of chronological and thematic chapters in this volume is unavoidably idiosyncratic,
and in a sense personal. In developing it, I started with the lists of topics around
which I have organized my own yearlong undergraduate survey courses on Latin
America as those course syllabi have evolved over the past three and a half decades.
The list of chapters also reflects some of the directions the study of Latin American
history has gone in the recent past. An introductory survey course of thirty years ago
would have dealt with the Mexican and Cuban Revolutions, but there would have
been no unit on “Central America in Upheaval.” The relevance of that theme for a
volume such as this one emerged only in the late 1970s, with the Sandinista Revolu-
tion in Nicaragua and civil wars in Guatemala and El Salvador, and faded again in
the early 1990s. Central America had been there before, of course, but it came into
the meta-narrative more as a stage for US expansion in the early twentieth century,
with its Banana Empires and occupations by US Marines and the building of the
Panama Canal. At this writing, with Central America once again largely absent from
the daily concerns of the English-speaking academic world and its students, it becomes
imperative to recall the trajectory of that part of the world in the recent past. In a
similar vein, the National Security State dictatorships in several larger South American
nations date from the 1960s and 1970s, but what were topics of current events then
can now be treated with some historical perspective. We now have enough experience
with the neoliberal era, following the many changes of the late 1980s and early 1990s,
to include it here. A future edition will no doubt be able to deal with the shift to
what might be called the neo-Left, a political phenomenon that began to be felt in
the early 2000s and continues as I write this in early 2007.
Other topics represented here reflect emerging concerns of scholars, as well as the
societies to which they belong and from which their students are drawn. Three
decades ago there would not have been much to say in a chapter on the history of
women, gender, and the family in Latin America, because there was little academic
production that dealt with those themes. The same could be said for environmental
history. In a similar way, there is more here on the indigenous and Afro-Latin Ameri-
can experience than would probably have appeared in a similar collection compiled
three decades ago.
The reader will also find a variety of ways of approaching the themes treated in
these essays. Some tend to be more historiographical, some more narrative and
descriptive, and some more interpretive. While I have made no deliberate effort to
encourage such methodological diversity, neither have I attempted to push chapter
authors into a formulaic mold. The results present the users of the book with a range
of ways of dealing with the topics treated, thus enriching the practical value of this
collection. There are also occasional instances of apparent chronological and thematic
overlap. For example, the background to the Cuban Revolution or the Central
introduction 3

American conflicts of the 1980s must deal with the expansion of US influence in the
Caribbean, and a discussion of the Mexican Revolution must consider Mexico’s
relationship with its neighbor to the north. But US policies and influences in the first
half of the twentieth century also deserve treatment on their own terms.
A word about illustrations and maps: it is time for those working mainly with print
sources to accommodate to and recognize the existence of considerable amounts of
easily available visual material in digitized form, especially on the World Wide Web.
At this writing, one very useful “mother site” or “link farm” that constitutes a portal
to many other sites focusing on Latin America and its history is <http://lanic.utexas.
edu/>. Other entry points into this material include the list of “Useful Links” on
the website of the Conference on Latin American History <http://www.h-net.org/
~clah/index.html>, and the site of H-Latam, the online Latin American History
discussion forum <http://www.h-net.org/~latam/>. Through such websites and
internet search engines (Google.com and Yahoo.com are two in widespread use at
the time of this writing), it is possible to find many more maps and illustrative materi-
als than it would be possible to include in this volume. One of the issues users of the
internet face is the need to sort wheat from chaff, but the wheat is there, a few mouse
clicks away. An immense array of maps, portraits, data, depictions of historical events,
and – for the period since the mid-nineteenth century – photographs, is now available
for consultation online. Text searches also provide access to many historical docu-
ments, many of them in translation, as well as interpretive scholarship.
Regarding the bibliographies attached to each essay: these lists combine both the
titles specifically referenced in the text, together with suggestions for further reading
on the themes discussed and interpretative statements made in each chapter. Just as
coverage in the text cannot claim to be complete, the bibliographies do not claim to
be exhaustive. But they will provide the reader with an authoritative and up-to-date
entry into the voluminous intellectual resources currently available on many aspects
of the history of Latin America.

What’s in a Name?

What constitutes “Latin America” and its “history”? All three of these words merit
some consideration, to trace parameters for both the place (Latin America) and the
topic (history). It is not the result of some teleological process by which what is today
commonly termed Latin America came to be, for which we can identify a starting point
and visualize a neat and discrete evolutionary trajectory. And history itself needs to be
distinguished from other fields of scholarly inquiry. To begin such a discussion, it is as
useful as it is obvious to recall that these and similar descriptive labels are the products
of human mental activity, and did not emerge from natural phenomena or processes.
The region of the world now commonly referred to as Latin America existed long
before the term emerged as the mental construct that it is. And in the recent past the
validity of the label has come under fundamental question (Mignolo 2005), despite
the fact that it continues in academic and public discourse – and in the title of this
volume – as a shorthand label of convenience. In a companion to Latin American
history, it is thus appropriate to sketch both the origin and evolution of the label, and
what constitutes the history of the region of the world so designated.
110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30°

30°
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C
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ARGENTINA
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50°

120° 110° 100° 90° 80° 70° 60° 50° 40° 30° 20°

Map 1 The Countries of Latin America

Source: Cathryn L. Lombardi, John V. Lombardi, and K. Lynn Stoner, Latin American
History: A Teaching Atlas (Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press, 1983). © 1983.
Reprinted by permission of The University of Wisconsin Press.
introduction 5

We can assume that the indigenous peoples who lived in what is now called Latin
America in ancient times, whatever cosmological and descriptive notions they devel-
oped to locate themselves in time and space, probably did not have a conception of
territory and peoples stretching from what we now call Mexico to the southern tip
of South America. They located themselves in relation to other culture groups they
were aware of and the landforms and bodies of water they were familiar with, as well
as in relation to how they explained how they came to be – their “origin myths,” in
the condescending terms of Western anthropology. Indeed, the same could be said
for other peoples of the ancient world, including those who lived in what is now
called Europe, right through to the Age of Discovery roughly in the century from
1420 to 1520, the external manifestation of the European Renaissance. In the imagi-
nation of Europe, people and places in the rest of the world only began to exist when
they entered the European consciousness. That consciousness then proceeded to
categorize and compartmentalize regions, “races,” and cultures in ways convenient
for the purposes of European hegemony (Wolf 1982).
One of those compartments has become Latin America, which we need to define
more explicitly. Following the informal consensus among most historians, and most
of the historiography they have produced, there are several parts of the Western
Hemisphere that are not normally included in the rubric Latin America. Most obvi-
ously, these are Canada and the United States, despite the fact that a considerable
proportion of the population of the former speaks French, a neo-Latin language; and
despite the relevance of the latter in discussions of Latin America’s international rela-
tions, particularly in the twentieth century. Through the colonial era and up through
the taking of about one-third of Mexico by the USA as of 1848, what is now Texas,
New Mexico, Arizona, Nevada, and California, plus some territory beyond, figured
on maps as part of what we now call Latin America. The European-descended popu-
lations in those regions spoke primarily Spanish. In the more recent past immigration
and cultural assertion by people who trace their origins to former Spanish- or
Mexican-held territories makes the US–Mexican border less relevant in distinguishing
Anglo America from Latin America (Acuña 1972).
Also not treated here are the three Guianas (French Guiana, technically decolo-
nized by being designated an overseas department of continental France in 1946;
Suriname, formerly known as Dutch Guiana; and Guyana, known in the colonial era
as British Guiana and before that as Demerara), as well as Belize (formerly British
Honduras). Their historical trajectories have more in common with the non-Spanish
Caribbean islands than with Latin America, and historically they were never effectively
occupied by either Spain or Portugal. Haiti comes into the historical narrative of
Latin America especially because of its importance as a sugar-producing colony of
Saint-Domingue in the eighteenth century, as well as the resounding message sent
to other slave societies by its independence process, following an uprising of the slave
majority and Haiti’s establishment of the second independent nation in the Western
Hemisphere, after the United States of North America (Trouillot 1995; Fischer
2004). Similarly, Jamaica and all of the Lesser Antilles, from the Virgin Islands just
east of Puerto Rico to Trinidad just off the coast of Venezuela, as places eventually
colonized by European powers other than Spain and Portugal, do not figure in the
conventional definition of Latin America as such. These omissions hint at the usual
informal definition of what constitutes Latin America historically: Those areas of the
6 introduction

Western Hemisphere originally claimed (even if not completely or effectively occu-

pied) by Spain and Portugal, and where the dominant national language today is
either Spanish or Portuguese.
Geographers, it should be noted, giving priority to contiguous landmasses and
bodies of water rather than to historical processes or cultural commonalities, tradi-
tionally divide the Americas into two continents and two regions. The continents are
North America (from northern Canada to the isthmus of Panama) and South America
(from the Panama–Colombia border to the southern tip of Tierra del Fuego, an island
south of the Strait of Magellan). The subregions are Central America (from Guate-
mala to Panama) and the Caribbean (the islands from the Bahamas and Cuba in the
northwest to Trinidad and Tobago in the southeast). These different approaches to
regional divisions and groupings have led to confusion as frequent as it is superficial.
For example, Mexico might be placed in North America by geographers (and in the
names of such economic and political arrangements as the North American Free
Trade Agreement, NAFTA), but it is definitely part of Latin America for historians.
And Puerto Rico, an island of the Caribbean, is politically attached to the United
States, but is historically and culturally part of Latin America.
These considerations lead to a question central to the label itself: What is “Latin”
about Latin America? There are several historical and cultural issues that, in fact, make
the term quite problematic. The language of the Iberian groups engaged in conquest
and colonization was not Latin, despite the roots of the Spanish and Portuguese
languages in the Roman occupation of Iberia in ancient times. While Latin remained
the language of the Roman Catholic Church so central to the Iberian colonization
project, there is no apparent connection between church Latin and the label “Latin
America.” Christopher Columbus himself, mistakenly insisting until his death in 1506
that he had reached the eastern edge of Asia, used the term Indias Occidentales, or
the Indias to the West. That term lingers today, after being perpetuated especially –
and perhaps ironically – by British colonials, in the West Indies, the conventional
English term for the islands of the Caribbean Sea eventually colonized by Great
Britain, France, the Netherlands, and Denmark.
It is commonly known that the more general term “America” derives from the
name of Amerigo Vespucci (1451?–1512), another navigator of Italian origin who
made several voyages to the Caribbean region and along the coast of northern Brazil
from 1497 to 1502. Unlike Columbus, Vespucci concluded that Europeans did not
previously know about the lands he visited in the west, and he thus referred to them
as the New World. In a 1507 map by German cartographer Martin Waldseemuller,
America appears for the first time with that name. While the protocol of European
exploration usually gives primacy to the first “discoverer,” there would seem to be
some justification for naming the newly known landmass after the navigator who
recognized it as separate from Asia (Amerigo Vespucci) rather than for the first
European to report its existence, but who subsequently insisted that he had confirmed
a new way to reach Asia (Christopher Columbus) (Arciniegas 1990).
In subsequent centuries, Europeans and their colonial descendants applied the
term America to the entire Western Hemisphere (which half of the globe is called
“Western” and which is called “Eastern” is itself a convention of European origin).
That usage continues today in Latin America, where it is commonly taught that there
is one continent in the Western Hemisphere: America. The Liberator Simón Bolívar
introduction 7

famously convened a conference in Panama in 1826 to work toward a union of the

American republics. He included all nations of the hemisphere in the invitation, and
it would not have occurred to him to add “Latin” to the descriptors, because the
term had not yet been invented. When in 1890 the United States and its commercial
and financial allies around Latin America established the Commercial Bureau of the
American Republics, which became the Panamerican Union in 1910 and the Orga-
nization of American States in 1948, no terminological distinctions were made by
culture or language. In the modern era “America” has of course become the common
shorthand name of the nation that developed from the 13 English colonies on the
eastern seaboard of North America. This apparent appropriation by one nation of a
label that traditionally refers to the entire Western Hemisphere has been a recurring
source of puzzlement and occasional resentment among Latin Americans (Arciniegas
1966).
Historically, the first use of the term “Latin America” has been traced only as far
back as the 1850s. It did not originate within the region, but again from outside, as
part of a movement called “pan-Latinism” that emerged in French intellectual circles,
and more particularly in the writings of Michel Chevalier (1806–79). A contemporary
of Alexis de Tocqueville who traveled in Mexico and the United States during the
late 1830s, Chevalier contrasted the “Latin” peoples of the Americas with the
“Anglo-Saxon” peoples (Phelan 1968; Ardao 1980, 1993). From those beginnings,
by the time of Napoleon III’s rise to power in 1852 pan-Latinism had developed as
a cultural project extending to those nations whose culture supposedly derived from
neo-Latin language communities (commonly called Romance languages in English).
Starting as a term for historically derived “Latin” culture groups, L’Amerique Latine
then became a place on the map. Napoleon III was particularly interested in using
the concept to help justify his intrusion into Mexican politics that led to the imposi-
tion of Archduke Maximilian as Emperor of Mexico, 1864–7. While France had
largely lost out in the global imperial rivalries of the previous two centuries, it
still retained considerable prestige in the world of culture, language, and ideas
(McGuinness 2003). Being included in the pan-Latin cultural sphere was attractive
to some intellectuals of Spanish America, and use of the label “Latin America” began
to spread haltingly around the region, where it competed as a term with “Spanish
America” (where Spanish is the dominant language), “Ibero-America” (including
Brazil but presumably not French-speaking areas), and other subregional terms such
as “Andean America” (which stretches geographically from Venezuela to Chile,
but which more usually is thought of as including Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and
Bolivia), or the “Southern Cone” (Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, and Uruguay) (Rojas
Mix 1991).
Not until the middle of the twentieth century did the label Latin America achieve
widespread and largely unquestioned currency in public as well as academic and intel-
lectual discourse, both in the region (Marras 1992) and outside of it. With the
establishment of the Economic Commission for Latin America (ECLA, later adding
Caribbean to become ECLAC) under United Nations auspices in 1948, the term
became consolidated in policy circles, with political overtones challenging US
hegemony but largely devoid of the rivalries of culture, language, and “race” of
earlier times (Reid 1978). The 1960s saw the continent-wide Latin American
literary “boom” and the near-universal adoption of “Latin American Studies” by
8 introduction

English-language universities in the USA, Great Britain, and Canada. This trend
began with the establishment of the Conference on Latin American History in 1927
and was consolidated with the organization of the interdisciplinary Latin American
Studies Association in 1967. Despite the widespread and largely unproblematic use
of the term in the main languages of the Western Hemisphere since that era, regional
variations remain: In Brazil América Latina is commonly assumed to refer to what
in the United States is called Spanish America, i.e., “Latin America” minus Brazil.
While discussing the spontaneous creation of such collective labels, we need to
recognize that the terms “Latino” or “Latina/o” now widespread in the United
States have no basis in any specific nation or subregion in Latin America. Like the
latter term, from which it is derived linguistically, Latina/o is an invented term of
convenience – a neologism built on a neologism (Oboler 1995; Gracia 1999; Dzid-
zienyo & Oboler 2005; Oboler & González 2005). Whatever their origins, Latino
or Latina/o have largely replaced the older “Hispanic” or Hispanic American” within
the United States, although that English-derived term, problematic on several counts,
lingers in library subject classifications.
But there are other questions that need to be posed, in the age of identity politics
and the assertion of alternative ethnicities and nationalisms. By its historical and intel-
lectual origins and the claims of pan-Latinism, the term Latin America privileges those
groups who descend from “Latin” peoples: Spain and Portugal (but not, ironically
enough, the French-speaking populations of Canada or the Caribbean). By another
set of criteria, what is now commonly called Latin America might be subdivided into
those regions where the indigenous heritage is strong and native identity has reemerged
to claim political space, especially in Mesoamerica and the Andean region; Afro-Latin
America, especially the circum-Caribbean region and much of Brazil; and Euro-Latin
America, in which relatively massive immigration from 1870 to the Great Depression
of the 1930s transformed the demographic and cultural makeup of southern Brazil,
Uruguay, and Argentina (Rojas Mix 1991). In other words, Latin America as a term
ignores or claims dominance over other cultures in the region, which have recently
come to reassert their distinctive traditions, including a plethora of languages spoken
by tens of millions of indigenous people – none of which have any relationship to
Spanish or Portuguese (or Latin) beyond a scattering of loan words. The current
condition of peoples of indigenous and African heritage has a historical relationship
to conquest, colonialism, subjugation, forced assimilation, exploitation, marginaliza-
tion, and exclusion. Those are not processes to celebrate and use as the basis for
national or regional identity challenging the hegemony of the Anglo-Saxon “race,”
as was the thrust of pan-Latinism of yore. But they are the basis for claiming cultural
and political space – as well as territory and access to resources – within Latin America,
today and into the future (Monaghan and Wyatt; Terraciano; Knight; Helg; and
Wade, this volume).

bibliography
Acuña, R. (1972) Occupied America: The Chicano’s Struggle Toward Liberation. Canfield Press,
San Francisco.
Arciniegas, G. (1966) Latin America: A Cultural History. Knopf, New York.
Arciniegas, G. (1990) Amerigo y el Nuevo Mundo. Alianza, Madrid.
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