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MECHANICS OF OFFSHORE
PIPELINES
Volume I
Buckling and Collapse

Second Edition

Stelios Kyriakides
John Webb Jennings Chair in Engineering, Department
of Aerospace Engineering and Engineering Mechanics,
The University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX, United States

Edmundo Corona
Engineering Consultant, Albuquerque, NM, United States
Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
50 Hampshire Street, 5th Floor, Cambridge, MA 02139, United States
The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system,
without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further
information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such
as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website:
[Link]/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the
Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).

Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience
broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical
treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating
and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such
information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including
parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume
any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability,
negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas
contained in the material herein.

ISBN: 978-0-12-816859-2

For information on all Gulf Professional publications

visit our website at [Link]

Publisher: Charlotte Cockle

Acquisitions Editor: Katie Hammon
Editorial Project Manager: Sara Valentino
Production Project Manager: Prasanna Kalyanaraman
Cover Designer: Miles Hitchen
Typeset by STRAIVE, India
To the memory of our fathers,
Kyriakos C. Kyriakides
and Dr. Antonio Corona.
Preface to the Second Edition

Volume 1 of this book series, first published in 2007, deals with plastic
buckling and collapse problems of tubular structures. Most of the problems
considered such as tubes under external pressure, under bending, combined
bending and external pressure, and axial compression are classical plastic
buckling problems applicable to various engineering disciplines. In the
book, by the choice of geometries, material properties, and loading histories
the problems are specialized to offshore pipelines. Volume 2, dealing with
the unique problem of buckle propagation and its arrest in offshore pipelines,
was published in 2020. The two books share the same notation, are com-
plementary, and should be treated as companion volumes. During the
14-year period since the publication of Vol. 1, new problems and technical
challenges have appeared in the offshore pipeline scene. Their investigations
encouraged us to update Vol. 1 in a second edition by including several new
chapters and updating and expanding several of the existing ones.
New chapters treat problems such as pipelines installed by reeling that
undergo several cycles of plastic bending and straightening during the pro-
cess. Chapter 11 examines the effect of this cyclic bending on the pipe’s
mechanical performance under the operational loads encountered subse-
quently in deepwater. The use of carbon steel pipe lined with a thin layer
of a corrosion resistant alloy has become the choice product in the transpor-
tation of corrosive hydrocarbons for both onshore and offshore pipelines.
Chapter 12 addresses the response and limit states of lined pipe under bend-
ing and reeling. Chapter 13 examines how internal pressure changes the
bending behavior of pipe described in Chapter 8. These two chapters
together with Chapter 10 on combined bending and external pressure
represent a more complete expose of these important combined loadings.
Chapter 16 addresses how strain ratcheting induced by axial cyclic loading
of partially plasticized compressed tubes can lead to wrinkling and collapse.
Expanded chapters include Chapter 5 that initially dealt with the some-
what degrading effect of the UOE manufacturing process on the collapse
pressure of pipe cold-formed from plate. The chapter has been expanded
to include recent full-scale experiments and analyses on the significant
increase in the collapse pressure that results by finishing such pipe by
compression—UOC and JCOC pipe. Chapter 6 initially examined the effect
of dents on the collapse of pipe under external pressure. It is now expanded to

xi
xii Preface to the Second Edition

include the degrading effect of partial wall thinning due to corrosion and
wear on the collapse pressure. Some additions have also been made to the
chapter on plasticity to address the needs of some of the new topics.
For the new additions, I would like to thank in particular Rong Jiao, Ali
Limam, Yafei Liu, and Lin Yuan. Special thanks once more go to my coau-
thor Edmundo Corona for his continued support of the project and for his
friendship. I am grateful to a consortium of industrial sponsors and the Uni-
versity of Texas at Austin for their financial support of the work, and the
John Webb Jennings Chair in Engineering for supporting the writing of
the second edition.

Stelios Kyriakides
Austin, TX, United States
Preface

Although offshore oil and gas production was conducted throughout the
entire 20th century, the industry’s modern importance and vibrancy did
not start until the early 1970s, when the North Sea became a major pro-
ducer. Since then, the expansion of the offshore oil industry in many
parts of the world has been both continuous and rapid. This growth has been
coupled with a gradual movement to increasingly deeper waters, where
today production has reached approximately 7000 ft (2130 m) while
exploration is proceeding as deep as 10,000 ft (3050 m).
Pipelines, and more generally long tubular structures, are major oil and
gas industry tools used in exploration, drilling, production, and transmission.
Installing and operating tubular structures in deep waters places unique
demands on them. The high pressures and elevated temperatures of the
oil wells, the high ambient external pressures, the large forces involved dur-
ing installation, and generally the hostility of the environment can result in a
large number of limit states that must be addressed.
The technical challenges of the field have spawned significant research
and development efforts in a broad range of areas. For example, they include
improvements in line grade steels and innovations in the manufacture of
tubular products; development of several pipeline installation methods
and lay-vessels; establishment of the mechanical behavior and the modes
of failure of long tubes and pipes under various loads; and investigation of
new problems in fluid-structure and soil-structure interactions, issues of cor-
rosion, welding, fatigue, and many others. The field is so broad that covering
the progress achieved would require several books and monographs. The
goal of this book series is to present developments in the area of mechanical
behavior of pipelines and long tubular structures in general used in this
industry. The approach is problem oriented, encompassing the main limit
states encountered in practice. The background of each problem and scenar-
ios where it may be encountered are first outlined. Each problem is
then analyzed experimentally and analytically, first in simple terms and
then in more advanced ways. Each discussion finishes with design
recommendations.
Many of the problems discussed have been brought about by the
demands of this new frontier, while others are classical problems of inelastic
structural mechanics recast to the needs of the new applications. A prime

xiii
xiv Preface

example of the “new problem” category is the problem of buckle propaga-

tion under external pressure, together with its many related issues. Propagat-
ing collapse and its catastrophic effects were first brought to light around
1975 by researchers in the offshore pipeline industry. Since then, the under-
lying mechanism has been shown to be shared by several other structures and
a variety of material systems. This wider applicability of the underlying
mechanism has in turn attracted the attention of researchers from several
different fields. By contrast, the problem of plastic buckling and collapse
of a long cylinder under compression has had a 50-year life span, and can
be categorized as a classical problem. However, the design needs of modern
offshore as well as onshore pipelines have generated new investigations that
have produced new relevant insights into the problem.
I came to this field in 1976 through my work with Chuck Babcock at
Caltech on the propagating buckle and its arrest. Although we were able
at the time to establish from experiments the mechanics underlying the
problem, neither the numerical tools nor the computational facilities
available then were adequate for the needs of the problem. During
the next 20 years, improvements in both of these enabled researchers
to investigate many aspects of this problem in great detail. Thirty years
of exposure to the offshore industry has enabled me to get involved in
many other interesting engineering problems, often at their genesis. Sig-
nificant parts of the contents of the book come from either investigations
carried out by my research group at the University of Texas at Austin or
less formal arrangements with the industry. I am indebted to the industry
for their support through Joint Industry Projects as well as through indi-
vidual contracts. The support by the US Office of Naval Research of
part of the work is also acknowledged with thanks. The writing of this
book was supported in part by the College of Engineering at the
University of Texas at Austin.
The book is aimed at the practicing professional, but can also serve as a
graduate level text for inelastic design of tubular structures. Each chapter
deals with a specific mechanical problem that is analyzed independent, for
the most part, of others. Entry-level graduate school background in non-
linear structural and solid mechanics, and working knowledge of issues in
structural stability and numerical methods should make going through the
analytical developments easier. A class in plasticity would enhance the brief
chapter on metal plasticity at the end of Volume I. The mathematics used is
at a level that should enable graduates from 5-year engineering programs to
follow the formulations presented in detail.
Preface xv

The style of the work is one I have always found both necessary and most
rewarding: investigate the problem through a combination of experiments
and analysis. Solution of relatively new challenging problems requires
understanding that can only come from careful experiments. Having gained
an understanding of the underlying physics, one proceeds to analysis.
Because of the nonlinear nature of most of the problems addressed, analysis
is often supplemented by numerical modeling. The results of these com-
bined efforts can subsequently be distilled into more concise procedures
and guidelines for the design engineer. Wherever possible, numerical pro-
cedures are outlined in terms of custom formulations to help the reader gain
a deeper understanding into the problem. The insight gained from the
experiments presented, coupled with results from complementary numerical
efforts, should enable the interested reader to either reproduce the solution
procedures and results or solve similar problems using a nonlinear finite
element code. The experimental results included in each chapter should
be sufficient to evaluate or calibrate new numerical models. The experimen-
tal set-ups and procedures used are described in sufficient detail to enable the
execution of new experiments should the need arise.
Volume I addresses problems of buckling and collapse of long inelastic
cylinders under various loads encountered in the offshore arena. Several
of the solutions are also directly applicable to land pipelines. The fundamen-
tal nature of most of the problems makes them also applicable to other fields.
Examples include tubular components in nuclear reactors and power plants,
aerospace structures, automotive and civil engineering structures, naval
vehicles and structures, and others. Volume I is coauthored with Edmundo
Corona, with whom I have cooperated for more than 20 years. He was
instrumental in the original work on bending and combined bending and
external pressure, as well as in the writing and upgrading of various versions
of the computer program BEPTICO. I am indebted to Edmundo for his
long-term interactions, friendship, and wise counsel.
Volume II deals with various aspects of the problem of buckle propaga-
tion and arrest in offshore pipelines and related problems.
Many of the results presented have originated from studies performed
over the years in cooperation with several outstanding graduate students.
Their contributions are reflected in the references at the end of each
chapter. I would like to thank in particular Theodoro Netto, Heedo
Yun, Gwo-Tarng Ju, and Ken Liechti for their input in some of the chapters.
Thanks are also due to Liang-Hai Lee, who reproduced several numerical
results using modern finite element codes. Additional help received as well
xvi Preface

as photographs and drawings provided by individuals are acknowledged in

the text. Special thanks go to Rob Cook for his help in generating several of
the figures and Jason Kyriakides for proofreading the book. Much of the
artwork and CAD figures were patiently produced by Jason Kyriakides.
His work truly enriches the text and for this I am very grateful. Despite
the generous input we have received from all mentioned and our best
personal efforts, typos and some, hopefully minor, errors surely remain.
The authors would be grateful if readers let us know of any typos and errors
they come across.
Over the years, I have had the pleasure and privilege of interacting with
many university colleagues and many researchers and engineers from indus-
try. Although too many to list by name here, I would like to acknowledge
interactions with university colleagues Professors Charles Babcock
(deceased), John Hutchinson, Nicolas Triantafyllidis, Theodoro Netto,
Andrew Palmer, and Chris Calladine. I am grateful to Carl Langner and Ser-
ghios Barbas for keeping my compass directed in the practical direction
through numerous exchanges over many years. Other industrial colleagues
with whom I have interacted include Ralf Peek, Pedro Vargas, David
McKeehan, Frans Klever, Roberto Bruschi, Raghu Madhavan, Duane
DeGeer, Gwo-Tarng Ju, Heedo Yun, and Richard Verley. I also thank
my colleagues in the Department of Aerospace Engineering and Engineer-
ing Mechanics at the University of Texas at Austin for providing a fertile
atmosphere for learning and intellectual growth for my graduate students
and myself. To all those not mentioned I ask their understanding and
forgiveness. I assure them that I am no less thankful for their contributions
to this body of work.

Stelios Kyriakides
Austin, TX, United States
Contents

Preface to the Second Edition xi

Preface xiii

1. Introduction 1
1.1 Offshore Pipeline Design Considerations 9
1.2 Buckling and Collapse of Structures 12
1.3 Buckle Propagation in Offshore Pipelines 17
References 19

2. Offshore Facilities and Pipeline Installation Methods 21

2.1 Offshore Platforms and Related Production Systems 22
2.2 Offshore Pipeline Installation Methods 45
2.3 The Mardi Gras Project 66
References 69

3. Pipe and Tube Manufacturing Processes 75

3.1 Steelmaking for Line Pipe 76
3.2 Plate Production 81
3.3 Seamless Pipe 90
3.4 Electric Resistance Welded Pipe 100
3.5 Spiral Weld Pipe 103
3.6 UOE Pipe Manufacture 104
3.7 JCO Forming 110
References 112

4. Buckling and Collapse Under External Pressure 115

4.1 Elastic Buckling 116
4.2 Plastic Buckling 121
4.3 Nonlinear Formulation 127
4.4 Factors Affecting Pipe Collapse 132
4.5 Representative Seamless Pipe Imperfections 149
4.6 Conclusions and Design Recommendations 162
References 163

5. Collapse of UOE/UOC Pipe Under External Pressure 165

5.1 Collapse Pressure of UOE Pipe 166
5.2 Prediction of Collapse Pressure of UOE Pipe 171

v
vi Contents

5.3 Improvement of Compressive Properties by Heat Treatment of

the Pipe 173
5.4 One-Dimensional Model of UOE Pipe Forming 177
5.5 Two-Dimensional Models of UOE/UOC 181
5.6 Large-Diameter Pipe Finished by Compression 202
5.7 Conclusions and Recommendations 210
References 211

6. Collapse of Dented and Corroded or Worn Pipes Under External

Pressure 213
6.1 Dented Pipes 214
6.2 Denting and Collapse Experiments 215
6.3 Modeling of Denting and Collapse 220
6.4 Universal Collapse Resistance Curves for Dented Pipes 226
6.5 Corroded or Worn Pipes 232
6.6 Uniform Wear Experiments 233
6.7 Modeling of Collapse 241
6.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 248
References 249

7. Buckling and Collapse Under Combined External Pressure

and Tension 251
7.1 Elastic Buckling 254
7.2 Plastic Buckling 256
7.3 Nonlinear Formulation 257
7.4 Collapse Under External Pressure and Tension 258
7.5 Additional Parametric Study 265
7.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 267
References 268

8. Inelastic Response, Buckling, and Collapse Under Pure

Bending 269
8.1 Features of Inelastic Bending 270
8.2 Bending Experiments 274
8.3 Formulation 283
8.4 Predictions 290
8.5 Parametric Study 296
8.6 Summary and Recommendations 300
References 301
Contents vii

9. Buckling and Collapse Under Combined Bending and

External Pressure 303
9.1 Features of Inelastic Bending of Tubes Under External Pressure 304
9.2 Combined Bending-External Pressure Experiments 305
9.3 Formulation 314
9.4 Predictions 316
9.5 Factors That Affect Collapse 319
9.6 Collapse of UOE Pipe Bent Under External Pressure 335
9.7 Conclusions and Recommendations 342
References 343

10. Inelastic Response Under Combined Bending

and Tension 345
10.1 Features of Tube Bending Under Tension 347
10.2 Combined Bending-Tension Experiments 348
10.3 Formulation 357
10.4 Predictions 360
10.5 Parametric Study 363
10.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 366
References 368

11. Effects of the Reel Vessel Installation Method on Pipe

Structural Performance 369
11.1 Introduction 369
11.2 Experiments 372
11.3 Experimental Results 377
11.4 Modeling 386
11.5 Numerical Results 391
11.6 Conclusions and Recommendations 407
References 409

12. Liner Buckling and Collapse Under Bending and Reeling

of Lined Pipe 413
12.1 Introduction 413
12.2 Manufacture of Lined Pipe 415
12.3 Numerical Analysis of Liner Wrinkling Under Pure Bending 420
12.4 Parametric Study 432
12.5 Liner Wrinkling Under Reeling 438
viii Contents

12.6 Simulation Results 441

12.7 Parametric Study 453
12.8 Conclusions and Recommendations 461
References 463

13. Buckling and Collapse Under Combined Bending

and Internal Pressure 467
13.1 Introduction 467
13.2 Experiments 469
13.3 Analysis 478
13.4 Effect of Small Dents 489
13.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 505
References 507

14. Plastic Buckling and Collapse Under Axial Compression 511

14.1 Features of Axial Plastic Buckling 512
14.2 Axial Buckling Experiments 515
14.3 Onset of Axisymmetric Wrinkling 527
14.4 Evolution of Wrinkling 532
14.5 Non-Axisymmetric Buckling and Collapse 546
14.6 Parametric Study 552
14.7 Summary and Recommendations 554
References 556

15. Combined Internal Pressure and Axial Compression 559

15.1 Combined Axial Compression-Internal Pressure Experiments 560
15.2 Onset of Axisymmetric Wrinkling 569
15.3 Evolution of Wrinkling 572
15.4 Parametric Study 575
15.5 Summary and Recommendations 577
References 579

16. Wrinkling and Collapse of Tubes by Axial Cyclic Loading 581

16.1 Introduction 581
16.2 Axial Cyclic Loading Experiments 583
16.3 Analysis 601
16.4 Numerical Results 607
16.5 Conclusions and Recommendations 618
References 620
Contents ix

17. Elements of Plasticity Theory 623

17.1 Preliminaries 624
17.2 Incremental Plasticity 635
17.3 The Deformation Theory of Plasticity 640
17.4 Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening 645
References 655
Books on Plasticity 657

Appendix A: Mechanical Testing 659

Appendix B: Plastic Anisotropy in Tubes 671
Appendix C: The Ramberg-Osgood Stress-Strain Fit 677
Appendix D: Sanders’ Circular Cylindrical Shell Equations 679
Appendix E: Stress-Strain Fitting for the Dafalias-Popov Model 683
Appendix F: Stress-Strain Fitting for the Tseng-Lee Model 687
Appendix G: Glossary and Nomenclature 691
Appendix H: Units and Conversions 697

Index 699

For additional information on the topics covered in the book, visit the companion site: [Link]
[Link]/books-and-journals/book-companion/9780128168592.
CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Contents
1.1 Offshore Pipeline Design Considerations 9
1.2 Buckling and Collapse of Structures 12
1.3 Buckle Propagation in Offshore Pipelines 17
References 19

Pipelines constitute a major means of gathering and transporting a variety of

commodities, ranging from oil, natural gas and chemicals to water, sewage,
etc. Their use has expanded with time because they are more energy effi-
cient than competing means of transportation. Although they require signif-
icant initial investment, they have a lifespan of up to 40 years and require
relatively minor maintenance. Oil and natural gas pipelines are usually the
longest, often crossing country and sometimes continental borders. Such
major projects require investments of billions of dollars, and in addition
can be contentious. Local resistance is often tied to environmental and safety
issues. International and geopolitical complications arise from tensions either
between countries along the route or between them and the country of ori-
gin or destination. Furthermore, in today’s climate of tight energy supply,
pipelines are often entangled in geopolitical affairs. Consequently, such
pipeline projects require long and careful planning and negotiations with
many interest groups. One example is the Trans-Alaska pipeline, a 48-inch,
800-mile crude oil land pipeline that connects Prudhoe Bay on Alaska’s
North Slopes to the Valdez terminal in southern Alaska (see Table 1.1).
The line crosses arctic regions that are environmentally sensitive as well as
earthquake prone. As a result, the project took a decade of planning, engi-
neering work, and political negotiations. It was completed in 1977 at a cost
of $10 BIL. A second example that has been discussed since the 1980s is the
Medgaz pipeline which brings Algerian natural gas to Spain, completed in
2008 (Table 1.1). Primarily because of political reasons the route chosen
has the pipeline crossing the Mediterranean Sea in water depths exceeding
7000 ft (2130 m). Another very politicized major project is the pipeline

Mechanics of Offshore Pipelines: Volume I Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc.

[Link] All rights reserved. 1
Table 1.1 Examples of major land and offshore pipelines and some operational details.
Trans-Alaska Trans-Mediterranean Blue Stream MEDGAZ

Type Land Land/Offshore Land/Offshore Land/Offshore

Product Crude oil Gas Gas Gas
From–to Prudhoe Bay, Alaska—Valdez, 1. Hassi R’mel Oil Fields— 1. Stavropol, 1. Hassi R’mel Oil Fields,
Alaska Cape Bon, Algeria Russia—Dzhub- Algeria—Beni Saf,
ga, Russia Algeria
2. Cape Bon, Algeria— 2. Dzhubga, 2. Beni Saf,
Mazarra del Vallo, Sicily Russia—Samsun, Algeria—Almeria, Spain
Turkey
3. Mazarra del Vallo, 3. Samsun, 3. Almeria,
Sicily—Mortelle, Sicily Turkey—Ankar- Spain—Albacete, Spain
a, Turkey
4. Mortelle,
Sicily—Favazzina, Italy
5. Favazzina—Bologna,
Italy
Length 1287 km 1. 920 km 1. 370 km 1. 550 km (Algerian
onshore)
2. 160 km 2. 774 km 2. 200 km (offshore)
3. 352 km 3. 501 km 3. 300 km (Spanish
onshore)
4. 44 km
5. 1051 km
Capacity Actual in 2006 800,000 bbl/d 30 BIL Nm3/a 16 BIL Nm3/a 16 BIL Nm3/a
Continued
Table 1.1 Examples of major land and offshore pipelines and some operational details—cont’d
Trans-Alaska Trans-Mediterranean Blue Stream MEDGAZ
Internal pressure 1180 psi 1. 75 bar, 100 bar
2. 250 bar
3. 75 bar
Operation date 1977 1983 2003 2011
Dt 48 0.462 in and 0.562 in 1. 48 in 1. 56 in, 48 in 2. 24 1.170 in
2. 20 in (3) 2. 24 1.254 in (2)
3. 48 in 3. 48 0.563 in
4. 10 in, 20 in (3)
Grade X60, X65, X70 2. X65 2. X65 2. X70
Maximum water Not applicable 2. 1970 ft (600 m) 2. 7054 ft (2150 m) 2. 7087 ft (2160 m)
depth 4. 1181 ft (360 m)
Special features • Crosses arctic and • Deepest offshore • Deepest offshore –
earthquake-prone areas pipeline, 1982 pipeline, 2003
• Designed to withstand • Crosses uneven sea bed
8.5 Richter scale and earthquake-prone
earthquake areas
Cost $10 BIL $3 BIL $2.5 BIL 2. $0.75 BIL
Continued
Table 1.1 Examples of major land and offshore pipelines and some operational details—cont’d
Jansz & Gorgon
Baku-Ceyhan Mardi Gras Independence trail Projects

Type Land Land/Offshore Land/Offshore Land/Offshore

Product Crude oil Oil/Gas Gas Gas
From–to Baku, Azerbaijan—Ceyhan, 1. Na Kika/Thunder- Independence Hub, Mississippi Canyon 1. Jansz Field to
Turkey horse-MP260 Block 920, Gulf of Mexico—Tennessee Barrow
2. Thunder Horse- Gas Pipeline, West Delta Block 68, Gulf Island—
SP89E of Mexico Northwest
Australia
3. SP89E-LOOP, LA 2. Gorgon Gas
4. Holstein/Mad Dog/ Fields,
Atlantis-SS332 and to Barrow
Beaumont Island—
5. Holstein/Mad Dog/ Northwest
Atlantis-SS332 and Australia
Neptune
Length 1760 km 1. Okeanos (Gas) 137 mi 1. Jansz
100 mi 180 km
2. Proteus (Oil) 70 mi 2. Gorgon
3. Endymion (Oil) 70 km
90 mi
4. Caesar (Oil) 115 mi
5. Cleopatra (Gas)
115 mi
Capacity 160 Mbbl/d 1. 500 MMscf/d 850 MMscf/d 825 MMscf/d
2. 580 Mbbl/d
3. 750 Mbbl/d
4. 450 Mbbl/d
5. 500 MMscf/d
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