Syllabus

APPLIEDCHEMISTRY
COURSEOBJECTIVES
fabricating and manufacturing deyices f
There are numerous number materials are used in assessment of natural ro
the comfort of life. The selection, characterization and suitability
technicians
materials essentially requires principles and concepts of Applied Chemistry for
understand.
On successful completion of this course content will enable technicians to
certain and analyses and propertiesof natural rawmaterials require for producing economical
and eco-friendlyfinished products.
COURSE OUTCOMES
After undergoing this course, the students must be able to :
Solve various engineering problems applying the basic knowledge of atomic structure
and chemical bonding.
Use relevant water treatment method to solve domestic and industrial problems.
" Solve the engineering problems using knowledge of engineering materials and
properties.
o Use relevant fuel and lubricants for domestic and industrial applications
* Solve the engineering problems using concept of Electrochemistry and corrosion.
COURSE CONTENT

Unit 1 :Atomic Structure, Chemical Bonding and Solutions (1lperiods)

Rutherford model of atom, Bohr's theory (expression of energy and radius tte
omitted ), and hydrogen spectrum explanation based on Bohr's model of alom,
Heisenberg uncertainty principle, Quantum numbers - orbital concept. Shapes of s. p
and d orbitals, Pauli's exclusion principle, Hund'srule of maximum multipieity Autbau
rule, electronic configuration.
4 C'oncept of chemical bonding cause of chemical bonding, tvpes of bos
bonding (NaClexanple), covalent bond (H,F, HFhybridization in BeCh, B. c
of NH. HX0 due i
NHs, H0), coordination bond in NH4+, andanomalous properties
hydrogen onding, and metallic bonding. concentrabn
of
the
Solutidea of solute, solvent and solution, methodsto expres erventage.
mass
ou molarity (M = mole per liter), Molality. Normality. Ppa,
soluDe peiventage and mole fraction.
()

Unit 2: Water (11periods)

Graphical presentation of water distribution on Earth (pie or bar diagram).
Classification of soft and hard water based on soap test, salts causing water hardness,
unit of hardness and simple numerical on water hardness.
water
o Cause of poor lathering of soap in hardwater, problems caused by the use of hard
in boiler (scale and sludge. foaming and priming. corrosion etc), andsolidsquantitative
(TDS)
measurement of water hardness by ETDA method, total dissolved
alkalinity estimation.
exchange
(i) Water softening techniques - soda lime process, zeolite process and ion
process.
filtration.
(iü) Municipal water treatment (in brief only)- sedimentation, coagulation,
sterilization.
(iii) Water for human consumption for drinking and cooking purposes from any water
sources andenlist Indian standard specification of drinking water (collect data and
understand standards).
Unit 3:Engineering Materials (1lperiods)
Natural occurrence of metals - minerals, ores of iron, aluminium and copper, gangue
(matrix), flux, slag, metallurgy - brief account of general principles of metallurgy.
aluminium from bauxite
& Extraction of - iron from haematite ore using blast furnace,
along with reactions.
non-ferrous with suitable
* Alloys - definition, purposes of alloying, ferrous alloys and
examples, properties and applications.
* General chemical composition,composition based applications (elementary idea only
details omitted):
Port land cement and hardening, Glasses Refractory and Composite materials.
simple
o Polymers- monomer, homo and co polymers, degree of polymerization, and
reactions involved in preparation and their application of thermoplastics
thermosetting plastics (using PVC, PS, PTFE, nylon - 6, nylon-6,6
and Bakelite),
rubber and vulcanization of rubber.
(1lperiods)
Unit 4: Chemistry of Fuels and Lubricants
values (HCV
o Definition of fuel and combustion of fuel, classification of fuels, calorific
and LCV), calculation of HCV and LCVusing Dulong's formula.
(octane and cetane
* Proximate analysis of coal solid fuel. Petrol and Diesel - fuel rating
numbers).
Chemical composition, calorific values and applications of LPG, CNG, water gas, coal
gas, producer gas and biogas.
lubricant, classification
" Lubrication function and characteristic properties of good
lubrication, physical
with examples, lubrication mechanism - hydraulic and boundary cloud and pour
properties (viscosity and viscosity index, oiliness, lash and fire point,
(v)

onty) and chemtcal properties

(coke number, total acid number. saponificats
pomt
value) of lubricants.

Unit 5 : Electro Chemistry

(12 periody
reduction and redox reactions.
Electronic concept of oxidation,
Farada
Definition of terms: electrolytes, non-electrolytes with suitable examples.
laws of Electrolysis and simple numerical problems. Industrial Application of
Electrolysis :
. Electrometallurgy
. Electroplating
Electrolytic refining.
Application of redox reactions in electrochemical cells
:
. Primary cells - dry cell,
e Secondary cell - commercially used lead storage battery, Fuel and Solar cels
Introduction to Corrosion of metals -
Definition, types of corrosion(chemical and electrochemical), H2 liberationand 02
absorption mechanism of electrochemical corrosion, factors affecting rate of
corrosion.
Internal corrosion preventive measures :
. Purification, alloying and heat treatment and External corrosion preventive
measures:

(a) Metal (anodic, cathodic) coatings, (b) Organic Inhibitors.

LIST OF PRACTICALS
(Perform any Ten Laboratory Practicals)

A. Volumetric and Gravimetric Analysis :

1. Preparation of standard solution of oxalicacid or potassium permanganate.
2. To determine strength of given sodium hydroxide solution by titrating against staniar
Oxalic acid solution using phenolphthalein indicator.
3, Standardization of KMn04 solution using standard oxaie acid and determine e
percentage of iron present in given Hematite ore by KMn04 solution.
4, Iodonetric estimation of copper in the copper pyrite ore.
5. Volumetric estimation of total acid number (TAN)of given oil.
6. Volumetric estimation of :
(at Total hardness of given water sample using standard EDTA solution
(b) Alkalinity of given water sample using 0.01M sulphuric acid.
7. Proximate analysis of coa :
(a) iravimetric entimation of moisture in given coal sample.
(b) Gravimetris estimation of ash in given eoal sample.
(vii)

B. Instrumental Analysis:
8. Determine theconductivity of given water sample.
colorimeter.
9. Determination of the iron content in given cement sample using
calorimeter
10. Determination of calorifievalue of solid or liquid fuel using bomb
viscometer.
11. Determination of viscosityof lubricating oil usingRedwood
point apparatus.
12. Determination of flash and fire point of lubricating oil using Abel's flash
electrode.
13. To verify the first law of electrolysis of copper sulfate using copper
electrochemical cell (Daniel cell).
14. Construction and measurement of emf of
15. To study the effect of dissimilar metal combination.
1
ATOMICSTRUCTURE

Syllabus :
Rutherford's model of atom, Bohr's theory (expression of energy and radius to
be omitted), and
Heisenberg's uncertainty
hydrogen spectrum explanation based on Bohr's model of atom,
orbitals, Pauli's exclusion
principle, Quantum numbers- Orbital concept, Shapes of s, p and d
configuration.
principle, Hund's rule of maximum multiplicity Aufbau rule,electronic

() JJ. Thomson, in 1879, discovered the existence of electron in an atom. dulonst

(iü) E. Goldstein, in 1886, discovered the existence of proton in an atom.
(iii) Chadwick, in 1932, discovered the sub-atomic particle called neutron.
(iv) Comparison of Electron, Proton and Neutron
Proton Neutron
Property Electron

1. Mass 1. 1/1840 of H atom 1. Equal to 1 atom 1.Equal to l atom of

|(Negligible) of H(1 u) H(1u)
positive | 2. Neutral Or no
2. |Relative charge 2. Unit negative(-1) or 2. Unit
|1.6x10-19 (+ 1) charge
|1.6x 10-19 (0charge)
coulomb
colulomb

3. Radius 3. 2.8 >x 10-13 cm 3. Nearly 10-13 cIm 3. Nearly 10-13 cm

4. Symbol 4. le or -je 4. p or Ip 4. n or on

5. Location in atom 5. JOutside the nucleus 5. INucleus of atom 5. Nucleus of atom

6. Number in atom 6. Equal to proton 6. Equal to electron 6. Equal or not equal
to p ore

Rutherford's a-Ray Scattering Experiment

The aim of Rutherford'sa-ray scattering experiment was to test the Thomson's plum pudding
model.
E. Rutherford (1871-1937) was born at Spring Grove on 30 August 1871. He is famous for his
work on radioactivity and the discovery of the nucleus of an atom with the gold foilexperiment.
He got the Nobleprize in chemistry in 1908. He is known as the Father of Nuclear Physies.
Applied Chemistry Atomic Structure 3
2
particleswere made to fall
on a thin gold foil. Drawback or Limitations of Rutherford's Model :
Fast mov ing aipha having 2 units of
charged particle Rutherford's atom failed to explain stability of the atom Neils Bhr pnted ct that
Alpha (a)particle is a positively
mass. Rutherford's atom should be highly unstable due to cont1nuous loss in energy
has 4 units of
positive charge and it
Ány charged particle, like clectron moving in a circular path arund thie nucleus, wAsid uamcergo
apartole
acceleration. As aresult, it would rad1ate (lose) energy and ultimnately fall into the miess Ir thts wry..
the atom should be highly unstable and would not have existed in the prewt furm Bst the atom
auitestable. In other words, Rutherford's atom should collapse but it is WIUng becase auDs do not
-Nucleus
collapse and arc quite stable.
E. Rutherford Thus, Rutherford's model was rejected because it could not explan the wabtlty of tm
Gold foil 1.2. Bohr's Model of Atom
Scattering of a-particles by a gold foil
Neils Bohr (1885-1962) was born in Copenhagen on 7 0ctober 1885. He was appornted professo
of physics at Copenhagen University in 1916. He got the Nobel prize for his work on he structore
of aton in 1922.
a-particle is actually a helium ion, He +.
as follows : In order to overcome the drawbacks of Rutherford's model of atom.
The a-particle scattering experiment gave quite expected results
Neils Bohr in 1913 put forward the following postulates about the model of an
(a) Most of the a-particles pass through the gold foil in straight lines. This proves that there is atom:
lot of empty space in the atom.
(b) Some of the a-particles are slightly deflected while a few are deflected through large angles. (i) Electrons revolve around the nucleus in circular paths called orbits or
This large deflection shows that: stationary states.
Thus. the (ii) While revolving in different orbits, the electrons do not radiate
) There is a central part in the atom with very high mass. This is called nucleus.
whole mass of an atom is centred at its nucleus. energy.
() Since positively charged a-particles are repelled by the central part of the atom, this (iii) So long as electron revolves in a particular orbit, it neither emits nor
shows that central part, called atomic nuclei of the atom, is positively charged. absorbs energy. Hence, these orbits or shells are called energy levels. Neits Bohr
1.1. Rutherford's Nuclear Model of Atom (iv) The energy levels are numbered as 1, 2, 3. 4. etc. starting

Nucleus
from the nucleus of the orbit. These numbers I, 2, 3, 4, etc.
Based on the observations and conclusions
are called principal quantum numbers. These energy levels are also designated s K.L. M.
of the a-particle scattering experiment, Rutherford N, ... etc. shells. NS h e l 4
put forward the nuclear model of atom as under
(v) When an electron jumps from one energy level to the
()There is a positively charged small centre
in an atom called the nucleus. It contains
Radiation Radiation
emitted
A other, the energy is emitted or absorbed in the form of
emitted
protons. Almost entire mass of an atom e bundle of energy called quanta or photonof energy. ces
resides in the nucleus. Moving
Radiation
electron (vi) The energy of photon, E= E -E, where E, and E,
(iD The electrons revolve in extra nuclear emitted are the energies of the orbits in the final and initial
part around the nucleus at very high states.
speeds in circular paths called orbits. Radiation
(vii) The angular momentum of an electron of mass m, Fig. 12:Energy levels in an atoN
(ii) The size of the nucleus is very small in emitted

comparison to the size of the atom. Fig. 1.1:Falling of Electron into the nucleus moving in a circular orbit of radius r and velocity vis
(iv)The rad1us of nucleus is about 10-13 to an integral multiple of
10 cm whereas the radius of total atom 2n nh
is 10 cm. Hence, most of the atom is empty space. Thus m,vr =

(v) An atom is elcctrically neutral because the number of number of

protons is equal to the where n is principal quantum number.
clectrons.
APplea Gnemistry
Atomic Structure

Merits of Bohr's Theory :

Rutherford's ndel because
Bohr's model is better than 4

)texplains the stability of the atom. Panhorn serientrard)

He, Li2+
thc line spextrum of hydrogen and similar ions like
Ni Itcan explain energies of electron Balmer series
orbits and the values of
(ii) k helns in find1ng cut the radi of various re n iolet (visibie)
Drawbacks ef Bohr's Model n 2
atomcontaining more than one electro
(Dh could not explain the spectra and energy of
( ) tcoukd not explain the relative brightness of the
spectral lines.
(i) Bohr's idea of fixed circular orbits has lost its significance in the light of Heisenberg's
Energy
uncertainty principle. Lyman series (ultraviolet)

1.3. Line Spectrun of Hydrogen Atom

On passing an electric discharge through a discharge tube containing hydrogen gas at low
pressure, some lhght is emitted. If this light is passed through aprism, it splits up into aset of five lines.
This spectrum is called line spectrum of hydrogen.
Emission lines observed in hydrogen spectrum
Fig. 1.3:Energy level diagram for H-atom showtng various
S. Ne. Series Region of spectrum transitions responsible for the observed line spectruT
Lyman 2. 3,4, ........ Ultraviolet
where n=2,3, 4, 5,..and
2 Balmer 2 3.4, 5, ....... Visible R=Rydberg constant =1.097 x 10 n
3. Paschen 3 4, 5, 6, .... Infrared Balmer series : Excited electrons in H atom fall from higher energy leves io secod energy
level in this series of lines. These lines are seen in Visible region.
4 Bracket 4 5,6, 7, ...... Infrared
Pfund 6,7, 8, ..... Infrared Balmer v=R

The spectral emission lines can be expressed by the general formula : where n =3, 4, 5, 6,...
Paschen series : Excited electrons in H atom fall from higher energy level to thrd energy levet
in this series of lines. These lines are observed in infrared region of spectrum
cm -!
Paschen V =R
where m and n are positive integers and n < n. RH is Rydberg's constant whose value 1s where n =4, 5, 6, 7,...
109677 cm-!
Brackett series : In this series of lines, excited electrons in H atoms fall from higher cnergy
Energy level diagram for H-atom : The energy emitted in the transition of a single electron levels to fourth energy level. They too are observed in infrared region.
from an initial stationary state of energy, E, to a final stationary state of Bracket V
relation: energy, E, is given by
where n =5, 6, 7, 8,...
E = hv = E, -E,
Lyman series: When excited electrons in H atoms fall from higher Pfund series : Where excited electrons in H atoms fall from higher energy level, the series of
level, the series of lines observedare known as Lyman energy levels to first encis lines observed are called Pfund series. They are also observed in infrared region.
and represented as: series. They are observed in ultraviolet reg
1.4. Helsenberg's Uncertainty Principle
Werner Heisenberg in 1927discovered an important consequence of the wave partiee duality
of matter and radiation. It is called uncertainty principle.
Applled Chemlstry 7
6 Atomlc Structure

ncertainty Principle :
Acording o Heiscnberg's positionand
the
According to Heiscnberg's uncertainty principle, mAv As
mKAsure smultaneUsly both
IH isnet posshle clectrn curalelv. .:. Uncertainty in velocity,
M i of an 4T. mA
the position of an object like 6.6 x 10 kg m'1
It r s the unenainty in momentum, then Heisenberg's
clatron and the ucetanty in its 4x
22
x 10- kg x10 m
under :
mathematically as
uncertainty pnple can be expressed 7
6.6 x 7 -34+2+5 ms
h
Ar. Av > =0.525x I0-27 ms =5.25 x 162 m
AL. mr2
4Tm Werner Heisenberg (1901-1976)
He got Noble prize in Example 3. Calculate the uncertainty in the position of a dust particle weighing mg if its
Hence. position and velocity of an objcct cannot be ms. Given h = 6.6 x 10-4 kg m
Physics in 1932. uncertainty in its velocity is 5.5 x 10
semaliancsly known with certainty. 1
Here, J is uncertainty in pos1tion in metres and Av is uncertainty in velocity in ms Solution: Mass of dust particle, m= mg = 1000 g= 10 10x1000
-kg i9*kg
IfAsvery small, the uncertainty in deternining the position ofthe fast moving electron would
he ven large and vIce-versa. Hence, more accurate we measure the position of a particle, the lese According to Heisenberg's uncertainty principle :
h
accurateBv we can measure its momentum and vice-versa. Ar X mAv=
4T
We know that Bohr's model is used to calculate the radius of orbit and hence the position of the 6.6 x 10 kgm's
electron But it is not possible accord1ng to Heisenberg's principle. Therefore, Heisenberp's Ax =
4T X mAv
uncertainty principle is against the Bohr's model of atom. As a result, the scientists develoned a 4xx10kgx55x 10-20 ms
7
Quantum Mechanical or Wave Mechanical Model of atom. 6.6 x 7 x
10-34+6+20,m
6.6 x 7 x 10 m
Numerical Problems based on Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle 4x 22 x 5.5 4x22 x5.5
21× 10 m 21x 10 x 10- m 2100 x10-n
Example I.Calculate the uncertainty inthe velocity of a cricket ball weighing 150 gram if 220
220 220 x 10
uBcertainty in its position is 10 cm (| Å, Planck's constant, h = 6.6 x 10 ke m ' s .
=9.54 x 10 m
I50 15
Solution: Mass of cricket ball, m= 150g= kg = kg =15x 10 kg 99.99%. Calculaie the
1000 10 Example 4. An electron has a velocity of 50 ms accurate upto
locating its position. (Mass of electron=9.1 x10 kg, h =6.6x 1e s)
Ucertainty in position, Ar =1¢= 10 cm = 10-l0 m
uncertainty in

Applying Heisenberg's Uncertainty Principle: Ar. mAv = Solution:By Heisenberg's uncertainty principle, Ar. mAv = 4n
4 Here, m=9.1 x 10- kg, h=6.6x 10-34 Js
Av= 6.6 x 10 kg m s Since accuracy in velocity = 99.99%, the uncertainty in velocity is 100- 99.99
= 9%
4r Xmx Ax 22
Av= 50 msx0.01_sx 10
-1
4xx5 x10- kgx10-10 m 100
ms
6.6 x 7 x 10 -34+2+10 ms
6.6 x 10
s
Ar= X
4x 22 x I5 =3.5 x 10-24 ms-! 4 mAv 4 x 3.14 x9.I x 10-3I kg x5x L0- ms
Example 2. Lncertainty in the position of a moving 6.6 x10-34+31+3 kem's-! 6.6 x I
the uncertainty in its velocity. bullet of mass 10 P is 10 ms. Calcuzte -l 4x3.14 >x 9.I x5
4x3.14 x 9.lkg x5 ms
Solution: Mass of bullet = l0g= 10 - 1.15 x 10- m
1000 kg =10 kg. Ar= 1o-m
hemistry Atormle Structure
1.5.Orbital Concept
Avming Aabr Nmakel of atom the electrons evolve around the nucleus on fixcd circula
The shapes of d-orbitals are doahte
paths cailei erbit shells energy evels. Thesc orbits arc named as K, L Mand N ctc. startite
from the nutous Th hits re also numhred as 1, 2. 3 and 4 ctc. starting from thc nucleus. The dumb-bell ike. The shapes of forhitals re
complicated
quantum mumbers.
umbs re calii principal Spherical Node : The region, where the
has a total number of orbitals as n
A ncnelguantm nunher, n probability of find1ng the electron is close to
under:
An erhital can be defincd as zero, is called spherical node or simply node.
electron is maximum, is calle
The regen in spare, nbere the probability of finding an An orbital has n--1 spherical nodes.
orbinel.

There ar f NS of orbitals. These are s. p, d and orb1tals. These names are derived
hass of sntrum as shurT.prial, difuse and fundamental respectivcly.
Ther muy be ones. three p. five dand seven forbitals in an orbit.
An artal can have maximum wO electrons. Therefore, s, p, d and forbitals can L
muNiMU 26 lê and 14 ciectrons respectively. These electrons are paired electrons.
K.Ad and orbitals can have 1. 3. 5and 7 as maximum number of unpaired electrone Fig. 1.5: Shapes ai porbitatls
Rly
Maximum number of orbitals and electrons in different shells
1s orpst

Principal Quantum No. of Types of Orbitals Maximum number Node

Number, n Orbitals, n d of electrons, 2n
2x1 =2
4 3 2x22 =8
3 9 1 3 2x3 = 18
2s orbital
4 16 3
2x4' =32
Flg. 1.6: Boundary surface diagramfor 2 orbitat
It shew that:
"Hrst ortt (m=l) has onlyl=lorbital which is called s-orbital. Distinction between Orbitals and Orbits
Secrd orbit (n = 2) has 2 = 4 orbitals which inciude 1s and 3p Orbitals Orbits
orbitals.
"Thnd rbat i =3) has 3 9orbitals which include 1s, 3p Orbits are weli-defnot r a r paths around
and Sd orbitals. 1. Orbitals are the region in space around the 1.
. Furth orbit (n=4)has 4 = 16 orbitals which nucleus where there maxumnum the nucleus of an a N b c te cexoa
include 1s, 3p, Sd and 7f orbitals. probability of finding an clectron. revoBve.
1.6. Shapes of s,p and dOrbitals 2. Orbitals have different shapes. s-orbital is 2. All orbitS are cHear and c hke a pe.
beals havc defnste shapes. The shapes of spherical, p-orbitals are dumb-bell shaped.
butary surlace 2s-orbiai s bigger than s-orbitals are spherically symmetrical. 3 An orbital can have maximum two 3. Maximuun uno of ciexES n arbt s
isorbital. electrons with opposite spin. given by ZawheNhe urnber of rtat.
The shapes of p-urbitals are dumb-bell like. The
Cauh ot akusg X. Y dZ-axIs The three p-orbitals are oriented perpendicuia 4 Orbits sre At draoeL
All orbitals excepts-orbital are directional. 4
rese he oFslatn akong thesep-orbitals are designated as p,. p, and p, orbitals Wn
axis
10
Applled Chemistry
Atomic Structure
p-orbitals
Distinction betwecen sand
p-orbitals 1. Magnetic Qusntum Numher : Itdetermines fhe magnetie oriestatins of an htaí. ie., the
NOrbiias direction of orbital with respect to the maynetic field in whshpaced s densd by m nd s
1. These are dumb-bellshaped. value depends upon the value of / becaIse magnetism is drse tes angalr momets permstted
These are snhercal
These ar on-dirtonal 2. These are directional. values are -to +l inchuding zero When I=2. then m-2, -1,9, A, " 2 Thus. total posehle vaues
An orbit has three p-orbitals. These are p,p, of mare equal to 2l+ L. For example :
An orbit has onc -orhital. 3.
and p, orbitals. Values of Iand m Total nysbet f ortitals {2# 1)
4 Ansorthtal has maxmumtwo cltrons. 4. p-orbitals of an orbit can have maximum 6 |=0, then m=0 Cne otbtal
electrons. |=1, thcn m=- 1,0, 1 Three p r t a
These do mot take part in bond 5. These take part in t bond formation.
formatn 1=2, then m=- 2, - 1,0, + l,+2 Frve d ottais

Vaue ofnthem is zero 6. Value ofl in them is 1. l=3, then m= -3, - 2, - 1, 0, + 1.+ 2. +3 Seven f orbtals

It means that s sub-shell has only one orbital and p. d and f ub-sheR have 3. S and T orbais
1.7.Quantum Numbers and their Significance (UPBTE 2015, 16) respectively.
In onder to ident1fy a college student, we should know :(i) Name of place/city where college is 4. Spin Qunatum Number : It determines the orientafion of spin So t ndicates fe chocke
dircchos
in which electron revolves. It is denoted by s. It has two permtted values 12 nd-2for
situated (ü) Name of college. (ii) Class of student, (iv) Roll number of student.
Thus. we can identify a student by knowing four things namely city, college, class and roll and anti-clockwise spin of electron. Generally. clockw1se direction is indicated byy ,amd
number Similarly, to describe an electron, we require to know four numbers. ort.
anti-clockwise direction is expressed by
The mumbers, with the help of which the energy of electron, its angular momentum, the
shape of orbital of the electron and spin of electron can be expressed, are called quantum
BbeTs. Quantum numbers and their significance
Quantum Designation Values Roie
So. the state of an electron in an atom is specified by some numbers known as quantum Number
numbers. Each atomic orbital is, thus, designated by four quantum numbers namely principal,
azimuthal. magnetic and spin quantum numbers. In other words, quantum number is the Principal 1,2, 3, 4, ... n It jdenifies maan shell deteRNS
dentafication number of an electron. energy of orbital.
L. Principal Quantum Number : It identifies energy of shell. It Angular 0, 1,2,3. ...(n-1) It determines shape of orbusis
determines size and energy
of orbital. It is denoted by n. Its possible values are I,2, 3,4, ... .They represent K, Magnetic -1, ... 0... +l It detemines onentato of obais
L, M and N shells
field.
respectivety. Numer of orbitals in nth shell is given by n.
Greater the number of quantum number, more is the energy of electron. Spin +1/2or -/2 Itdesernbes spun onentatO f ciecoes
2. Secondary, Angular or Azimuthal Quantum Number : It Distribution of electrons in different quantum aembers
identifies sub-shell. It
determines the shape of the orbital. It is denoted by 1. The permitted values of lare 0. 1.2, etc.
upto Principal Secondary or Spin Q. Ne
-LSo total poss1ble values of / are equal to n, and /can have zero value unlike n. The values of las MagneticQ. Ne. (m)
Q. No. (n) Azimuthal Q. lectrwS
0, 1, 2and 3 indicate s, p, dandforbitals respectively. For example
n=l, then /=0
No. (!) s=*;s=
ls orbital -
1. K-shell 0(ls)
n=2. then /=0, I 2s, 2p orbitals
n=3, then = 0, I, 2 3s, 3p, 3d orbitals 2. L-shell 0(2s)
n=4 then =0, I, 2, 3 4s, 4p, 4d, 4f orbitals I(2p) +1,0, - |
n 4and /= 3, then the electron will be in 4 forbital.
12 Applled Chemlstry
Atomic Structure 13
3. M-shell 0(3s) 2
3 0.10. Name the orbitak for which
I(3p) +1.0, -I 6
(a) n =3, I = 0, (b) n 2, I 1, (d)n5,f =2
2(3) +2, + 1, 0, -1,-2 10 (18) Ans. (a) 3s (b) 2p
4. N-shell 0{4s) 1 0.11. Write the values of allthe possible magnetic quzstum sumbers for seesadary qusstum
+1,0, - 1 3 3 6
number l=3. ILPETE 2)
i(4p)
Ans. For l= 3, m= +3, + 2, + 1, 0, - 1,-2, - 3.
2(4d) +2, +1, 0, -1,-2 5 10
0.12. Give the quantum numbers of all the four electrons dested as 34 LPBTE 2015)
3(4f) +3, +2, + 1, 0, -1, - 2,-3 7
14 (32) Ans. For 3d electrons, n 3,l=2, m=-2, -1,0. +1, +2

Questions Based on Quantum Numbers

For each value of m, there are two values ofsas s = + 2 and s - 12.
o.13. Write all the four quantum numbers of the electron ín the ostermost shefl of rubidus
Q..Write the possible values ofm for an electron with /=1. (atomic no. = 37) atom.
Ans. When =l, m=-.0,+1.
Ans. 12 Rb with atomic number 37 has electronic configuration as 2. 8, 18. 8. 1. shows that he
Q2 What values of magnetic quantum numbers, m are permitted for an electron having outermost electron in Rb atom belongs to 5 energy level. So. for the electros n hst shell of
angular momentum quantum number value = 2?
(UPBTE 2023) nubidium, the value ofn =5. Since it is the only electron in Sth shell. tism sorbital for
Ans. The values of mpermitted for =-2, - 1, 0, + 1, +2. which /=0. Also m= 0 and s = + 1/2.
Q3. What values are permitted for the angular momentum quantum o.14. Write allthe values of quantum numbers of the electrons of the elermest kavig t o
number, Ifor an
electron with principal quantum number, n = 4? number 4.
Ans. The values of angular quantum number, / for n = 4 are 0, 1, 2, 3. Ans. The electronic configuration of the element with atomic number 4 is 2. 2 So thre reo
0.4. Write all the values of (i) azimuthal, I and (ii) electrons each in Ist and 2nd energy levels. Hence, two electrons ie n Ls and 2 s orbetais
magnetic, m quantum numbers for n =2.
Ans. For n= 2, values of l= 0to 2-1. So l=0, land Thus :
m=-1, 0, + 1.
Q5. Write the possible values of / and m for an electron
in 3p orbital.
Ans. =3, l=0 to 3-1 = 0, 1, 2, so l=1 for 3p electron (UPBTE 2016) 1 0 +I2
and m=-1,0, + 1. (For each value of m,
there are two values of sas s = + 1/2 ands=- 1/2) -12
Q.6. An electronis in 3d orbital. Write n, l, m and s 2 +12
values for it.
Aas. The clectron is in 3d orbital. Therefore, n= 3, l= 2 0 -I2
n-1 =2, m=-2, -1,0, + 1,+2 and for
cach value of m, there are two values of sas s = +
1/2 and s=-1/ 2. Q.15. Write all the possible values of all the quantum numbers for =3.
0.7. An electron is in 4 f orbital. Explain its n,
I, m and s quantum numbers. Ans.
Ans. = 4, l= n-1=4-1=3, m=-3, -2-1, 0, + 1, + n=3
-12.
2, + 3and for each electron, s = +1/2 and
0.8. Expiainthe values of quantum numbers for
an electron having maximum energy in 3s |=1
orbitai of sodium aton.
As, The electron with mnaximum energy in sodium is m =0 m=-1 m=-2
in 3s orbital. Its electronic configuration is
3s. Son= 3. Since clectron is in 3s, the value of l
=0. Hence m=0and s= + 1/2 or-1/2.
Q.9. What are the values of mand lfor (i) 3p, (ii) 4d orbitals? S=

Ans. (i)For 3p, orbital, the value of n= 3and / = 1. 2 electrons 6 electrons

(ii) For 4d orbital, n= 4 and l= 2. (s-orbital) (oorbitals) (ortais}

Hence, ifn= 3, the maximum electrons in M-shell are2+6+ 0 =8.

14 Applied Chemistry
Atomic Structure 15
1.8. Aufbeu Principle
the increasing order of their energics. An orbital can have maximum two electrons with oppoite vgin
Elvtrons ane filkd mvanus utitals in Thus, orbna
highestencrgy willbe filled laet
having kowest energ lle filed first and the orbital with Thus, the electronic configuration of florine At no 9) can be shwea under
F(9)

2s 2p, 2p, Zp.

1.10. Hund's Rule of Maximum Multiplicity
4p
Pairing of electrons in the orbitals belonging to the samep, d ox f sbshe does wot take
spin.
place until each orbital in that sub-shell has got an electros with parallet
. 2 . 2 .2y.2p.
5 For example : Nitrogen (atomic no. 7) has electronic configuration
more
and not ls.25,2p, 2p, 2p:. It isalso a fact that the half fled and Falty fied orbras are
stable than others.
1s

1.11.Electronic Configuration of Elements

S SCWS s
Fig. 1.7: Order of filling electrons in orbitals The distribution of electrons of an atom of the element in its varvous orbe zis
wneasaty by
The order of increase of energy of orbitals can be calculated with the help of n +l electronic configuration. The electronic configuration of different elemeis can be
rules as Exclusion principle and Hund's ruke.
under: using Aufbau principle, Pauli's
(a)The lower the value ofn + lfor an orbital, the lower will be its (a) Distribution of Electrons in Different Orbits (Shells)
energy. In case of 4s and 3d
The arrangement of electrons different shells of an atom
was proposed by Bohr nd Bary in
orbitals : arrangemes of eiectrons n
1921. According to Bohr-Bury scheme, following rules are followed for
value ofn + /for 4s orbital =4+0=4 the various shells of an atom:
value of n+ Ifor 3d orbital 3+2=5 nerzy shet of the
(i) The maximum number of electrons which can be accommodated n ny
Thus, 4s orbital will ill before 3d orbital. formula 2n where, n is the serial number of the shell or energy vet , 4 . .
atom is given by the
(b) Incase two orbitals have the same n +/values, the one etc. starting from the nucleus.
with lower n will be filled first. So in
2p(n +l=2 + |= 3) and 3s(n +l=3+0= 3), 2p will ffll ()
Max. ne. of clectrees
before 3s orbital. Serial no, of orbit Shell
Order of increasing energies of orbitals and hence the order in
which the orbitals are filled is: n=1 K 2xI =2
Is< 2s<2p< 3s<3p< 4s < 3d<4p <5s<4d <sp
...
1.9. Pauli'sExclusion Principle n=2 L 2x2=8
No twe electrons in an atom can have n=3 M 2x3=18
the same set of four quantum numbers.
For example : If an electron in an atom has a set of four guantum n=4 2x4= 32 and so dn
numbers as n =2, l= I, m=1
nd s = I/2, then no other electron in this atom will have
the same set of all the four quantum numbers
ecause value of swill differ being cqual to -1/ 2. (ii) In a stable atom, the outermost orbit can accommodate maximua 8 eectrons and the ast but
In other words, Pauli's exclusion principle can be defined as: one (penultimate) orbit can have maximum I8 eiectrons.
Applled chemlstry Atomlc Structure
16
electrons in first orbit, clectrons
maxnum 2 cltons.
After fill1ng of two start Ne 2
(iüi) Frst orbit has 8 clectrons, they start entering the third 10 Neon
When second orbit has orbit.
occupiing sevond (obit. 8, I.
has electronic distribution as 2, 11 Sodium Na 2
For example, Na (2 = | )
to 2n,the outermost orbit has
clectrons filled according
two electrons 12 Mangnesium Mg 2 2 i .2p.3,
(iv) Whcn the orbity h¡ve
orbit may have 9 electrons. Aluminium Al 2
and the last but one is 2, 8, 9, 2.
13
electonic distribution in scandium (Sc = 21)
For example : the 14 Silicon 2 4
electrons
(b) Teexpress the position of under:
shelis and sub-shells is expressed as 15 Phosphorus 2
The position of electrons in different
such as 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. is written.
()Frst of all. principal quantum number
2 6
16 Sulphur
are written.
(ü) Then svmbols of sub-shells such as s, p. d, f Chlorine CI 2 8 7
(ü) The number of electrons in an orbital is written on upper nght side. For example : two et 17
orbital of second shell _6
is wTitten as 2s.This indicates that there are two electrons in s 18 Argon Ar 2

(wo p six) indicates that there are six electrons inp orbitals of second shell. Similarly 2S
19 Potassium K 2
third orbit.
(three d five) means that there are five electrons in d orbitals of
(c) Filing of electrons in different orbitals 20 Calcium Ca 2 2

Electrons are filled in orbitals according to the following rules : 21 Scandium Sc 2 8 9 2

@According to Aufbau principle, elcctrons are filled in order of their increasing energies. [Ar] 4s° 34'
Orbital with lower energy is filled first. 10
22 Titanium Ti 2 2
(i) Accord1ng to Pauli's exciusion principle, an orbital can have maximum two electrons with
opposite spin. 23 Vanadium V 2 8 2
(üi) According to Hund's rule, the pairing of clectrons in orbitals having equivalent energy will
take place when they have got one electron each. 24 Chromium Cr 13 ,2'p
Table 1.1 :Electronic Configuration of First Thirty Elements 25 Manganese Mn 13 2 s,2s*p
At
Electronic Configuration 26 Iron Fe 2 |4 2
No.
Element Symbol InOrbits
In Orbitals 27 Cobalt Co 2 2
K M
1 28 Nickel Ni 2 16
Hydrogen H
2 Helrum He 2 Cu 2 8 18
29 Copper
3 Lithium
I.?, 2+! 30 Zinc Zn 2 2 is.2sp°. p°4
4 Beryllium Be 2 2
Is, 25
5 Boron 2 3 Keep in Memory
Carbon
is',2s, 2p} Exceptions : Exceptional electronic configuration of chromium, copper and salver are due bo the
i',2', 2p;, 2p), fact that half illed and completely filled orbitals have lower energy and hence, are extra stabie
7
Nitrogen N 2 (0) The electronic configuration of chromium (Cr =24) is 2, 8, I3. Iand not 2, &I2 2 Hence
Oxygen 2
Is, 2s',2p,. 2p, 2p: the correct electronic configuration of chromium, Cr is Is,2sp.isp4s. n thS
6

Fluorine F
is', 2s,2p;. 2p,. 2p: way, allthe five d-orbitals have one electron cach and acquire half filled state which s more
stable.
2
is, 2', 2pi. 2p. 2p:
plied Chemlstry
18
and I not 2, 8, 17, 2.
(2= 29) is 2, 8, I8, 1 Atomlo Structure
4.! In this Hence the
configuration of copper
19
(ü) The cectronic 3spal0,
confguration of copperis Is, 2sp", way, all five The compounds or ions, which have one or more upaired eectrons, are paramagnetic
coret cletronc filled 3d Ratre
each and copper atom has completcly orbilals which and form coloured salts,
dorbitais have ruo clectrons
makes n mre statNe.
2, 8, 18, 18, I and not 2, 8, 18, 17, 2. The compounds or ions, which have all the electrons paired, are iamagnetie in rtare nd Sorn
onfiguration of silver(Z=47) is Hence colourless or white salts.
(iêi) The electronic 1s?,2s'p°. 3s-p°a", 4spl0
configuration of silver is 5s in
the corrtcatnonK stable. Questions based on Electronic Configuration
completely filled making it more
whah all the 4d orbitals are
inElements Example 1. M shell of an element has 5 electrons. Whatis the stomic s9mber f he
1.12. Finding Unpaired Electrons is known as
element? (LPETE 201)
The distrnbution of electrons in the orbits and orbitals of elements electronie Solution :K,Land Mshells of theelement have 2. 8 and5electrons Hence it has4*+5- 15
configuratien The distribution of electrons in the valency shell of element is called valency shell
distribution of electrons.
element shows the
coafiguraion Hence, the electronic configuration of an the distrib Atomicnumber of element =Number of electrons = 15
valency shell configuration shows
clectrons present in an atom of the element whereas
of clectrons in the ncomplete outer shell of the atom of
the element. Example 2. One element has atomie number 24. How many electrons are in K, L. Mand N
The valency shell configuration of elements helps in finding the unpaired electrons inthe atome shells? PBTE 2016
and ions. For example : Solution : The electronic configuration of the element with atomic number 24 is 2. 8. 3.
Hence it has 2, 8, 13 and Ielectrons in its K, L, Mand Nshells respectively.
)The electronic configuration of titanium, , Tiis Is, 2sp°, 3sp°d, 4s or [Ar] 3d² 42
Example 3. The electronic configurationof three elements is as under :
There are rwo unpaired electrons in TÉ atom. Also, Ti* has 2 unpaired electrons in 3d
orbitals. () is!

(ü) The clectronic configuration of chromium z4Cr is Is', 2s-p°, 3sp°d', 4s.There are S (i) 1s,2sp, 3s!
unpaircd electrons in its 3d orbitals. The outer electronic configuration of Cr* ion is 3d. (ii) 1s,2s'p°, 3s?p°, 4s2
Hence. Cr ion has 4 unpaired electrons. Calculate the atomic mass, atomic number and valency of these elements.
(ii) The electronic configuration of manganese, 2s Mn is 1s,2sp, 3sp°d,4s. The outer Solution:
configuration of Mn jon is 3d. Hence, it has 5 unpaired electrons. ) The element with electronic configuration Is' has I electron in its onty one shel! Hence :
(iv) The electronic configuration of iron, 26 Fe is is, 2sp, 3sp°, 48'. Hence, there are 6 Atomic number = No. of efectron = 1
clectrons in 3d orbitals of Fe or Fe ion. The distribution of six 3d electrons as This element is hydrogen. Its atomic mass is I, atomic number is I and vaiency s 1.
! 1 1 I shows that ferrous ion, Fe* has 4 unpaired electrons. Also, ferric ion, (ii) Electronic configuration = ls,2sp°, 3s'
Fe(3d)has Sunpaired electrons.
Total number of electrons =2 +2+6+1=l|
() The clectronic configuration of nickel, Ni is 1s²,2sp,3sp4,452. The outer Atomic number of element = No. of electrons = ||
electronic configuration of Ni* ion is 3d". It can be written as|T!]1 It shows The element with atomic number ll is sodium. Its atom1c mass is 3. hhas IciectRR S
that Ni ion has 2 unpaired electrons.
outermost shell. So its valency is one.
(i) The electronc configuration of copper, Cu is 1s, (ii) Electronic configuration =1s²,2sp, 3sp, 48
2sp3spa,4s. The outer
configuration of cuprous ion, Cu is 3d". It has all the five 3d orbits with Total number of clectrons = 2 +2+6+2+6+2= 20
Hence, Cu ion has zero unpaired electron. electron paiS.
Atomic number = No. of clectrons = 20
The electronic configuration of cupric ion, Cu* (3d) The element with atomic number 20 is calciumn whose atomic masS is 40. k has eeOS m
can be expressed as 1!|1!1!THD
In shows that Cu on has I itsvalency shell. Hence, valence of the element is 2.
unpaired electron.
Applied Chemistry
20
potassine
Write the electronic configurations of nitrogen, phosphorus and
Example 4.
respectively.
with atomic numbers 7, 15 and19
nitrogen is 7.
Solution:Atomic number of
electronic configuration is 2, Sor ls', 2s, 2p,. 2p,.2p.
Its
Atomic number of phosphorus is 15.
configuration is 2, 8, 5 or Is, 2s'p°, 3s,3p. 3p,, 3p.
Itselectronic
electronic configuration is 2, 8, 8,
Atomic number of potassium is 19. Its
s²,2s'p.3s'p°,4s'.
Example5. Writethe electronic
configurations of the elements having atomic numbers 10
16,21, 24 and 30 respectively.
Solution :
Electronicconfigurations of elements
Electronic configuration
Atomic
In orbitals
number In orbits

10 2, 8 1s,2s,2p. 2p, 2p:

16 2, 8, 6 iS, 2sp°,3s,3p;. 3p 3p:
21 2,8,9, 2 is, 2sp°,, 3s²p°al,4,²
24 2, 8, 13, 1 1s²,25 p, 3sp°,4s'
2, 8, 18, 2 e l s , 2sp,3s2p°al0,4s
30

Summary
Important Points to Keep in Memory
particles present in an atom.
1. Electrons, protons and neutrons are the three fundamental
2. In 1897, JJ. Thomson discovered electron as a constituent of atom.
3. Rutherford discovered nucleus of an atom.
atom and mast ofits mass lie s
4. According to Rutherford's model of atom, the positive charge of the extra-nuclear part which S
the nucleus. Much smaller and negatively charged electrons lie in the
an empty space.
5. In 1913, Bohr proposed planetary model for atom. According to Bohr :
central stationa
(a) The electrons move in definite circular paths of fixed energy arvund a
nucleus.
(b) The electrons can change their orbit by absorbing or emitting a photon or energy equal
difference ofenergies of the orbits, Thus :
E= Ez - E
6 Bokr's model expluined the stability of atom and the line spectrum of hyxirgensuveal
could not explain the spectra of atoms other than hydogen.
Atomic Structure 21

2. AnOrbital is the rgion in spacewhere there is maximum probability of finding an ele tron
A Number of orbitals in an orbit, i.e., n" shell = n where, n isprincipal quantum number.
9. Accondingto Bohr-Bury scheme, maximum number of electrons in nth shell is 2n.
10. For a givenvalue of n, azimuthalquantum number, l=0ton -1. Thus, I =0, 1, 2,3 indicate s, p. d
and f orbitals respectively.
1. For a given value ofl, angular magnetic number, m=-ito +lincluding 0.
12. For a given value of m, spin quantum number,s = +
22
13. The shapes of diferent orbitals are different. An s-orbital is spherical. p-orbitals are dumb-bell
shaped d-orbitals have clove leaf shape. forbitals have eight lobed shape.
14. According to Aufbau Principle, the electrons
lule.
in an atom are filled in the increasing order of their
energies which is determined by n +
J5. According to Pauli's Exclusion Principle, no two electrons can have all the four quantum numbers
as same.

16. According to Hund's Rule, the pairing of electrons in orbitals takes place only if they have got one
electroneach. Thus, before pairing, each orbital is first singly occupied with same spin.

Exercise
Long Answer Questions
1. (a) Explain Rutherford's model of atom. Give its limitations.
(b) What are the main postulates of Bohr's model of atom? In what ways was Bohr's model
better than the Rutherford's model? What are the drawbacks of Bohr's model of atom?
(UPBTE 2019)

2. Explain all the quantum numbers. Write the possible value of I and m for an electron in 3p
orbital. (UPBTE 2016)
d.
3. Define quantum number. Give the quantum numbers of all the four electrons denoted as
(UPBTE 2015)
(i) 2p(ü) 4d
4. What are quantum numbers? List the permissible quantum numbers for elecrtrons(UPBTE 2010)
(ii) 5f.
5. What is secondary quantum number? Write the values of all the possible magnetic quantum
(UPBTE 2022)
numbers for secondary quantum number =3.
6. Definc an orbital. Draw the shapes of s and porbitals. Differentiate between an orbit and an
orbital.
7. What is Aufbau Principle? What are n + rules? Which of the fuollowing orbitals will be filled
first?
(a) 2p or 3s (b) 3d or 4s
Hint :(a) Asper rule 2, 2p will be filled first, (b) As per rule , 4s will be tilled tirst.
. (a) Stale and explain Heisenberg's principle. How does it change our coept of cletos in
atoms and of Bohr's model?
22 Applied Chemistry
(b) On the basis of this principle, show that elcctron cannot exist within the atomic nuc
Given that radius of nucleus = 10 m, h= 6.6 x10 s kgm's-! and mass of elcctron
=9,1 xI0 kg.
Hint : By Heisenberg's uncertainty principle :
Ar x mAv= Av=
4n 4 X n Ar

6.6 x 103 kgm s =5.77 x 10 m/s

-14
4 x 3.14 x 9.1 x 10 -31 kg x 10 m

nucleus.
This being higher than velocity of light, the clectron cannot exist in
Short Answer Questions
1. What is azimuthal quantum number? Write the values of azimuthal quantum number for s. n d
and f subshells. (UPBTE 2024)
2. Explain Aufbau principle andmagnetic quantum number. (UPBTE 2024)
3. State Aufbau principle. (UPBTE 2023)
4. What is secondary quantum number? Write the values of all the possible magnetic quantum
numbers for secondary quantum number /= 3. (UPBTE 2022)
5. Write the electronic configuration of the elements having atomic number 24 and 29.
(UPBTE 2024)
6. Explain :(i) Pauli's Exclusion Principle, (ii) Hund's Rule.
Very Short Answer Questions
1. Writethe names of three fundamental particles of an atom. Name the neutral particle of
an atom.

Ans. The fundamental particles of an atom are electrons, protons and neutrons. The neutral
particle of an atom is neutron.
2. Compare the mass of a proton with that of an electron.
Ans. The ratioin the masses of proton andelectrons is :
1.672 x 10-27 kg
= 1836
9.1 x 10 -31 kg
Hence, a proton is 1836 or nearly 2000 times heavier than an electron.
3. Deseribe breifly Rutherford's model of an atom.
Ans. According to Rutherford's model of atom:
(a) The positive charge of the atom and most of its mass lies in the nucleus.
(b) The extra nuclear part is empty space. It contains the much smaller and negatively charg
electrons.
4. Onwhat basis was the Rutherford's model rejected?
Ans. Rutherford's modelwas rejected because it could not explain the stability of the atom.
5. Howdoes the energy of a Bohr orbit vary with the principal quantum number, 'a?
Ans. The energy of a Bohr orbit increases with an increase in the value of the principal quantut
umber, n, Actually, it becomes lesser and lesser negative.
Atomic Structure 23

6. What are the shapes of s, p and d-orbitals?

Ans. The shape of s-orbital is spherical. The shapc ofp-orbital is dumb-bell ike. The shape of
d-orbitals is clover leaf type. The shape of f-orbitals is complicated.
7. Describe the shape of a 2s orbital. Howis it different from that of a 1 sorbital?
Ans. The shape of 2s orbital is spherical, similar to the 1s orbital.
There are two differences between 2s and Is orbitals :
() The size of a 2s orbital is bigger as compared to a ls orbital.
(i) The 2sorbital has a spherical node while ls orbital does not have a node.
8. What do you understand by a spherical node?
Ans. A spherical node is a spherical region of zero probability in an s-orbital other than Is
orbital.
9. Which quantum number determines the (i) size and energy (ii)shape and (iii) orientation
of an oribital?

Ans. (i) Principal (ii) Azimuthal (iii) Magneticquantum number

10. Give the increasing order of energy of s, p, d and f-orbitals in a shell.
Ans. s <p<d<f
11. What isthe maximum number of electrons in s, p, d and f-orbitals?
Ans. Maximum number of electrons in s, p, d and f-orbitals in 2, 6, 10 and 14 respectively.
12. Write the maximum number of unpaired and paired electrons in s, p, d and f-orbitals.
(UPBTE 2018)
Ans. s, p, d and f-orbitals have maximum 2, 6, 10 and 14 paired electrons respectively. They
have maximum l,3, 5 and 7 unpaired electrons.
13. Two p-subshells have 3 and 5 electrons. How will you show their distribution?
Ans. According to Hund's rule, the three p-orbital will havelelectron each with parallel spins :
IO and ! ! I
P: Py P.
14. How will you show the distribution of5 electrons in d-orbitals?
Ans. The five d-orbitals will have one electron each with parallel spin.
Distribution of electrons in d-orbitals :

15. Write the number of unpaired electrons in 22 Ti atom. (UPBTE 2013)

Ans. The electronic configuration of 22Ti is :
is', 2p°,3²p°,4s?. thas 2unpairedelectrons in 34° orbital.
16. 1fthe mass number of an element is W and its atomic number is N, what is the number of
neutrons? (P8TE 2020)
Ans, Alomic number Number of protons =W
No. of neutrons =MasN nunmber Number of protons
-W-N
24 Applied Chemistry
atomic number of element?
17. M shell of an clement has 5 electrons. What is the
15.
(UPRTE2014,
Ans. K, L and M shells have 2, 8 and 5 respectively, total being
Atomic number = No. of elcctrons =15
unpaird
18. Anatom has 2K, 8L, 5M clectrons. Write itselectronic configuration. How many
clectrons are there in the atom?
3 unpaired
Ans. The electronic configuration is Is,2sp, 3s, 3p,, 3p, 3p. This atom has
electrons.

19. In the hydrogen atom, the position of electron is fixed. Explain. (UPBTE 2016,
shell.
Ans. The only one clectron in hydrogen atom remain moving in its first or K
20. How do we expressl=0, 1, 2 and 3?
Ans./= 0, 1, 2 and 3 are represented by s, p, d and f-orbitals respectively.
21. How many sub-shells are associated with n=4? Express the different orbitals in order
with their symbols.
Ans. With n =4, there are 4 orbitals. These are 4s, 4p, 4d and 4f-orbitals.
22. Write the values of four quantum numbers for valence electron of sodium atom.
Ans. The electronic configuration of Na (11) is 1s,2sp,, 3s'. Its valency electron is
represented by 3s'. The values of quantumnumbers for it are :n=3,l= 0, m= 0, s =+ 1/2.
23. Write the quantum numbers of all the electrons of lithium atom (Z = 3).
Ans. Electronic configuration of Li (3) is 2, 1(1s, 2s').
The quantumnumbers for ls electrons are:n=1,l=0, m= 0, s =+ 1/2 and-1/2.
Thequantum numbers for 2s electrons are : n =2, l=0, m=0, s=+ 1/2.
24. Explain the principal quantum number and azimuthal quantum number for 4s-orbital.
Ans. Principal quantum number, n=4 and azimuthal quantum no. l is zero.
25. Derive, on the basis of quantum numbers, the maximum number of eleetrons which may
be present in the third shell of an atom. (UPBTE 201)

Ans. Maximum number of electrons in third, i.e., Mshell :

Azinuthal Magnetic Spin Total aumber
and s a - ! of electroas
Q. no. (/) Q. no. (n) Q. no. S=+
2 2

0(3)
1(3p) +1,0, - I 3 3

2(3d) +2, +1, 0, - I, -2

(PBIE
26. Write the values of n,1, m and s quantun1 numbers for 3d electroa.
Ans. for u' electron, a=3l=n-l 2, m= -2 unls + r
Atomic Structure 25

22. How many and what are the values of spin quantum number for each value of m ?
Ans. Values of sare two. These are +/2 and -I/2,
28. Howmany and what are the values of mfor = 2? (UP 2023)
Ans. Values of mare5. These are -2, - 1, 0, + 1,+ 2.
29. Write down the number of d-electrons in the lowest energy level of an atom with atomie
number 24. (UPBTE 2022)
Ans. The electronic configuration of the element with atomic number 24 (Cr) is 1s,2sp.
3s²p4s. It has 5unpaired d-electrons.
30. One element has atomic number 24. How many electrons are in K, L, M and N shells?
(UPBTE 2016)
Ans. An element with atomic number 24 has 2, 8, 13, 1electrons in its K, L, Mand N shells
respectively.
31. For azimuthal quantum numberl=3, the maximum number of electrons? (UPBTE 2020)
Ans. For azimuthal quantum number 3, there will be 2/+l=2x3++l=7 f-orbitals. Each
orbital can have maximum 2 electrons. So, the maximum number of electrons with 3/ will be
7x2= 14.
32. The orbitals represented by the set of quantum numbers : (i) n =3, l= 2, m =+2.
(ii) n =3, l= 2, m=-2have same energy. Explain. (UPBTE 2012)
Ans. It is true because n +! value is the same for both () n+ l=3+2 =5 and
(ii) n+1=3+2 =5.
33. Write the electronic configuration of fluorine. (UPBTE 2023)
Ans. F(9) is 2, 7or 1s',2s, 2p.2p. 2p.
34. What are the probable values of /for principal quantum number n?
Ans. The probable values ofl are 0 ton -1.
+ Multiple Choice Questions (MCQ)
Write serial number of correct option out of the four alternatives :
1. When an electron jumps from L to K shell, then energy is : (UPBTE 2019)
(a) Emitted (b) Absorbed

(c) Neither emitted nor absorbed (d) None of these

2. Rutherford's atomic model proved the existence of :
(a) Electron (b) Proton
(c) Neutron (d) Nucleus
3. According to Bohr-Bury scheme, third orbit can aecomodate maximua aumber of
electrons as :
() 2 (b) 8 (c) 18 (d) 32

Hint :Maximum no.of electrons =2n² =2x 3² =18

26 Applied Chemist
quantum number n is:
4. Number of orbitals in a shell having principal
(a) n? (b) 2n? (c) 2n (d) n+2
5. According to Bohr's theory, angular momentum of electron present in fifth orbit wilu
2.5h 5T 2.5
(a) (b) (c)
h
(d)
6. Beloware given four atomic orbitals :
I. 1s II. 2d III. 3f IV. 4f
Which of the above are not possible?
(a) Iand II (b)IIand III (c) IIIand IV (d) Iand IV
7. Below are given four atomic orbitals :
I. lp II. 2s III. 3f IV. 4d

Which of the above are not possible?

(a) I and II (b) IIand III (c) Iand III (d) Iand IV

Answers

1. (a) 2. (d) 3. (c)4. (a) 5. (b) 6. (b) 7. (c)

t
2
CHEMICAL BONDING
Syllabus :
Concept of chemical bonding- cause of chemical bonding, types of bonds: ionic bonding (NaCI
example), covalent bond (H2, Fz, HF), hybridization in BeClz, BFs, CH4, NH3, H¡0), coordination
bond in NH,, and anomalous properties of NH3, H,0 due to hydrogen bonding, and metallic
bonding.

2.1. Basic Concept ofChemical Bonding

Noble gases do not combine to form molecules : The elements, which constitute group 18 of
the periodic table, are called noble gases. These are helium, neon, argon, krypton, xenon and radon.
Their electronic configuration are given in the table 2.1.
Table 2.1:Electronic Arrangement of Atoms of Noble Gases
Noble gas Symbol Atomic number Electronic Electrons in
Arrangement valence shell
Helium He 2 2
Neon Ne 10 2, 8
Argon Ar 18 2, 8, 8
Krypton Kr 36 2, 8, 18, 8 8
Xenon Xe 54 2, 8, 18, 18, 8 8
Radon Rn 86 2,8, 18,32, 18, 8

It is clear from the electronic configuration of the noble gases that they have eight electrons in
their outermost shell except helium which has two electrons in its last orbit. This shows that the noble
gases have their octets complete whereas helium has its duplet complete. Their electronic
configuration is related to the stability of their atoms. Due to the completion of electrons in their last
orbits, these elements donot undergo chemical combination and are called inert or noble gases. Thus,
noble gases exist as monoatomic form and their atoms do not combine to form molecules.
Causes of Chemical Bonding
Atoms of elements combine to form molecules : The chenmical reactions of atoms of elenents
depend upon the number of clectrons present in their outernost orbits. The electrons of the last shell
are called valency electrons.Since the valence shells of noble gases of group 18 have their octets
(duplet in helium) complete, they do not combine with other atoms to form molecules. But the
atoms of the elements other than noble gases do not have their octets complete. They complete the
28 Applied Chemistry
octets (8 electrons in their last ortbit) except hydrogen, which completes its duplet (2 electrons in its
last orbit) by losing, gaining or sharing of electrons. Hence, the atoms of elements, other than nobie
gases, have a tendency to attain the stable configuration of the nearest inert gas. This is the cause
why atoms combine to form mnolecules.
Based upon the electronic configurations of the elements, Kossel and Lewis in 1916 Du
forward the electronic theory of valency. According to this, when two atoms combine together, the
bond formed between them is called a chemical bond.
Thus, the chemical bond is the force that holds the atoms together within a molecule. A
chemical bond may be visualised as an effect that leads to decrease in energy.
The noble gases do not combine with other elements because they have stable electronic
configuration. Other elenments try to attain the stable electronic configuration of the nearest inert gas.
This is why they combine with each other and attain the stable electronic configuration of the nearest
noble
under:
gas by losing,gaining or sharing of electrons. Thus, there are three types of chemical bonds as
() lonic or electrovalent bond. It is formed due to loss or gain (Transference) of electrons
between the two combining atoms.
(i)Covalent bond. t is formed by mutual sharing of electrons between two atoms.
(ii) Coordinate covalent bond : It is formed due to providing a pair of electrons by one atom
only for sharing. o

2.2. lonic Bonding or Electrovalent Bond

According to Kossel's Theory, an ionic bond is formed when the combining atoms acquire
noble gas configuration by loss or gain of electrons. Thus, an ionic bond involves the transference of
electrons from one atom to the other. For exampie :
Formation of Sodium Chloride, NaCl molecule
In the formation of NaClmolecule, Na atom transferS one electron to chlorine atom. Thus, there
is transference of one electron from Na to Cl atom and both these atoms acquire stable electronic
configuration of the nearest noble gas.
Na + CI ’ Na + C17 or Na CI
2, 8,1 2, 8, 7 2,8 2, 8, 8

Due to loss of lelectron by Na, it becomes positively charged. SoNat is a cation. Due to gain
of 1electron, Cl becomes negatively charged. So CI is an anion.
Na -e (electron) ’ Na (Sodium cation)
Cl+e CI (Chlorine anion)
The compounds formed due to loss or gain of electron/s between two atoms are called ionic of
electrovalent compounds.
The electrovalancy of an element is the number of its electrons that its atom loses or gains
from other atom to complete its octet (duplet in hydrogen).
Thus, the valency of sodium is +l because it loses one electron to complete its octet and th
valency of chlorine is -1because it gains one electron to complete its octet.
Chemical Bonding 29

Some other examples :

() Formation of lithium fluoride, LiF
Li + F
2,1 2,7 2 2,8

The electrovalency ofLiis+1 and of Cl is -1.

() Formation of magnesium oxide, MgO
Mg + Mgt o or MgO
2, 8, 2 2, 2 , 8
6
4

The electrovalency of Mg is +2 and ofO is -2.

(iii) Formation of Calcium oxide, CaO

o on Ca: +ô: ca :ö; or ca?to

2, 8, 2 2,6 2, 8 2,8

(iv) Formation of calciumchloride, CaCl,

otat i2, 8, 7

Ca 2,8, 8
Ca?t or
CT
2, 8, 8, 2 CI
2, 8,8
CI 2,8, 8
2,8,7

(v) Formation of magnesium chloride, MgCl,ool bddh gbldos sdi lo

CI: boasCI eod alduobbolleo at oe
2, 8,7 2, 8, 8

Mg: or Mg2+
2, 8,2 2, 8
-Ci:
2, 8, 7 2, 8, 8

Characteristic Properties of Ionic Compounds

generally hard and brittle in nature.
U) lonie compounds exist as crystalline solids. They are
They have high melting and boiling points because of strong electrostatic interactions
(H)
s between the ions.
soluble in non-polar solvents such as
() They are generally soluble in water, They are less
alcohol, ether, benzene, ete.
() They conduct electricity in aqueous solutions or when in molten stale.
Applied Chemistry
30

2.3. Covalent Bond mutual sharing of the same

bond is formed due to
Theory, a covalent
According to Lewis
the two combining atoms. providesfor mutual
humber of clectrons between
the number of
clectrons which it sharing
The covalency of an elenment is(duplet in hydrogen).
octet
in order tocomplete its
molecule, H, atoms nrot,
()Formation of hydrogen electron in its valency shell. Two H
number one has 1
Hydrogen with atonmic
for mutual sharing to form H, molecule. Thus :
electron each
hydrogen molecule is shown
as under
Dot representation of
or HH
H" + H
Hydrogen molecule
Hydrogen atoms
one shared b
the involvement of l pair (2 electrons),
A covalent bond, which is formed due to
single bond. It is represented by a dash . The covalency of hydrogen is one
each atom, is called a
H atoms.
The shared pair of electrons belongs to both the
(ii) Formation of oxygen, O, molecule
Oxygen atom with atomic number 8 (2, 6) has 6 electrons
in last orbit. It needs 2 electrons to
electrons each to form oxygen molecule
complete its octet. So two oxygen atoms mutually share 2
Covalency of oxygen is two. Thus, dot representation of 0,
molecule is as under :

:Þ: + :0: ’
Oxygen atoms Oxygen molecule

Here, oxygen atoms provide 2 electrons each for mutual sharing to attain the stabie
configuration of the noble gas. Abond formed due to the involvement of 4 electrons (2 pairs of
between two atoms is called a double bond. It is expressed by two parallel dash, =.
(iiü) Formation of nitrogen, N, molecule
Nitrogen atom with atomic number 7 (2, 5) has 5 electrons inits valence shell. An atomof N
needs 3 electrons to complete its octet. So two N atoms provide 3electrons each for mutual sharing
the formation of N molecule.
The dot representation of N) molecule is as under :

NN (NN) ’N=N
Nitrogen aloms Nitrogen molecule
Here, nitrogen atoms provide 3 electrons each for mutual sharing to complete their oxtro
(completion of 8e in outermost shell). Abondfornmed due to involvement of 6electrons (3 paisafe
between two atoms iscalled a triple bond. It is expressed by three
parallel dash, '=,
Thus, covalency of N is three.