UNIT I : MECHATRONICS, SENSORS ANDACTUATORS SPR1304-INDUSTRIAL MECHATRONICS

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. MECHATRONICS

Mechatronics is a concept of Japanese origin and can be defined as the application of

electronics and computer technology to control the motions of mechanical systems.

Fig 1: Origin of mechatronics

It is a multidisciplinary approach to product and manufacturing system design. It

involves application of electrical, mechanical, control and computer engineering to develop
products, processes and systems with greater flexibility, ease in redesign and ability of
reprogramming. It concurrently includes all these disciplines.

Fig 2: Mechatronics approach

1.2. SYSTEM :
A system may be defined as a black box which has an input and an output. System
concerned only with the relationship between the input and output and not on the process
going inside the box.

Fig 3: A system example

1.3. MECHATRONIC SYSTEM

Fig 4: Elements of mechatronics

 Actuators: Solenoids, voice coils, D.C. motors, Stepper motors, Servomotor,

hydraulics,pneumatics.
 Sensors: Switches, Potentiometer, Photo - electrics, Digital encoder, Strain gauge,
Thermocouple, accelerometeretc.

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 Input signal conditioning and interfacing: Discrete circuits, Amplifiers, Filters, A/D,D/D.
 Digital control architecture: Logic circuits, Microcontroller, SBC, PLC,
Sequencing and timing, Logic and arithmetic, Control algorithm,Communication.
 Output signal conditioning and interfacing: D/A D/D, Amplifiers, PWM, Power transistor,
Power Op -amps.
 Graphical displays: LEDs, Digital displays, LCD,CRT.

1.4. MEASUREMENT SYSTEM

A measurement system can be defined as a black box which is used for making
measurements. It has the input as the quantity being measured and the output as a measured
value of thatquantity.

Fig 5: A measurement system

Elements of Measurement Systems:

Measurement system consists of the following three elements.
a) Sensor b) Signal conditioner c) DisplaySystem

Fig 6: Elements of measurement system

 Sensor:
A sensor consists of transducer whose function is to convert the one form of energy
into electrical form of energy. A sensor is a sensing element of measurement system that
converts the input quantity being measured into an output signal which is related to the
quantity.
 SignalConditioner:
A signal conditioner receives signal from the sensor and manipulates it into a suitable
condition for display. The signal conditioner performs filtering, amplification or other signal
conditioning on the sensor output.
 DisplaySystem:
A display system displays the data (output) from the signal conditioner by analog or
digital. A digital system is a temporary store such asrecorder.

1.5. CONTROL SYSTEM :

A black box which is used to control its output in a pre-set value
Fig 7: Elements of a control system

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 Open loop controlsystem:

If there is no feedback device to compare the actual value with desired one. No
control over its input

Fig 8:Open loop control system

 Closed loop controlsystem:

If there is feedback device to compare the actual value with desired one.

Fig 9: Closed loop control system

Elements of Closed Loop System:
The elements of closed loop control system are
 ComparisonUnit
 ControlUnit
 CorrectionUnit
 ProcessUnit
 MeasurementDevice

1.6. SYSTEM OF CONTROLLING WATER LEVEL

Controlledvariable: Water level in thetank
Referencevariable: Initial setting of the float and lever position Comparison
Element : Thelever
Error signal: Difference between the actual & initial setting of the lever positions
ControlUnit: The pivoted lever
CorrectionUnit: The flap opening or closing the water supply
Process: The water level in thetank
Measuringdevice: The floating ball andlever

Fig 10: Water level indicator

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UNIT I : MECHATRONICS, SENSORS ANDACTUATORS SPR1304-INDUSTRIAL MECHATRONICS

1.7. SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

Measurement is an important subsystem of a mechatronics system. Its main function
is to collect the information on system status and to feed it to the micro-processors for
controlling the wholesystem.
Measurement system comprises of sensors, transducers and signal processing devices.
Sensors in manufacturing are basically employed to automatically carry out the
production operations as well as process monitoring activities. Sensor technology has the
following important advantages in transforming a conventional manufacturing unit into a
modern one.
1. Sensors alarm the system operators about the failure of any of the sub units of manufacturing
system. It helps operators to reduce the downtime of complete manufacturing system by
carrying out the preventativemeasures.
2. Reduces requirement of skilled and experiencedlabours.
3. Ultra-precision in product quality can beachieved.

Sensor
It is defined as an element which produces signal relating to the quantity being.
measured. According to the Instrument Society of America, sensor can be defined as “A
device which provides a usable output in response to a specified measurand.”
Here, the output is usually an „electrical quantity‟ and measurandis a „physical
quantity, property or condition which is to be measured‟. Thus in the case of, say, a variable
inductance displacement element, the quantity being measured is displacement and the sensor
transforms an input of displacement into a change ininductance.

Transducer
It is defined as an element when subjected to some physical change experiences a
related change or an element which converts a specified measured into a usable output by
using a transduction principle.
It can also be defined as a device that converts a signal from one form of energy to
another form.
A wire of Constantan alloy (copper-nickel 55-45% alloy) can be called as a sensor
because variation in mechanical displacement (tension or compression) can be sensed as
change in electric resistance. This wire becomes a transducer with appropriate electrodes and
input-output mechanism attached to it. Thus we can say that „sensors are transducers‟.

1.8. PERFORMANCE TERMINOLOGY

Transducers or measurement systems are not perfect systems. Mechatronics design
engineer must know the capability and shortcoming of a transducer or measurement system to
properly assess its performance. There are a number of performance related parameters
[Link].
Sensorspecificationsinformtheusertotheaboutdeviationsfromtheidealbehaviour of the sensors.
Following are the various specifications of a sensor/transducersystem.

1. Range
The range of a sensor indicates the limits between which the input can vary. For
example, a thermocouple for the measurement of temperature might have a range of 25- 225
°C.

2. Span
The span is difference between the maximum and minimum values of the input.
Thus, the above-mentioned thermocouple will have a span of 200 °C.
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UNIT I : MECHATRONICS, SENSORS ANDACTUATORS SPR1304-INDUSTRIAL MECHATRONICS

3. Error
Error is the difference between the result of the measurement and the true value of the
quantity being measured. A sensor might give a displacement reading of 29.8 mm, when the
actual displacement had been 30 mm, then the error is –0.2mm.

4. Accuracy
The accuracy defines the closeness of the agreement between the actual measurement
result and a true value of the measurand. It is often expressed as a percentage of the full range
output or full–scale deflection. A piezoelectric transducer used to evaluate dynamic pressure
phenomena associated with explosions, pulsations, or dynamic pressure conditions in motors,
rocket engines, compressors, and other pressurized devices is capable to detect pressures
between 0.1 and 10,000 psig (0.7 KPa to 70 MPa). If it is specified with the accuracy of about
±1% full scale, then the reading given can be expected to be within ±
0.7 MPa.

5. Sensitivity
Sensitivity of a sensor is defined as the ratio of change in output value of a sensor to
the per unit change in input value that causes the output change. For example, a general
purpose thermocouple may have a sensitivity of 41µV/°C.

6. Nonlinearity

Fig 11 Non-linearity error

The nonlinearity indicates the maximum deviation of the actual measured curve of a
sensor from the ideal curve. Figure 1 shows a somewhat exaggerated relationship between
the ideal, or least squares fit, line and the actual measured or calibration line. Linearity is often
specified in terms of percentage of nonlinearity, which is definedas:
Nonlinearity (%) = Maximum deviation in input ⁄ Maximum full scale input
The static nonlinearity defined by Equation is dependent upon environmental factors,
including temperature, vibration, acoustic noise level, and humidity. Therefore it is important
to know under what conditions the specification isvalid.

7. Hysteresis
The hysteresis is an error of a sensor, which is defined as the maximum difference in
output at any measurement value within the senso's specified range when approaching the
point first with increasing and then with decreasing the input parameter. Figure shows the
hysteresis error might have occurred during measurement of temperature using a
thermocouple. The hysteresis error value is normally specified as a positive or negative
percentage of the specified input range.

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UNIT I : MECHATRONICS, SENSORS ANDACTUATORS SPR1304-INDUSTRIAL MECHATRONICS

Fig 12 Hysteresis error curve

8. Resolution

Resolution is the smallest detectable incremental change of input parameter that

canbe detectedintheoutput [Link] expressedeitherasaproportionofthe full-
scale reading or in absolute terms. For example, if a LVDT sensor measures a displacement up
to 20 mm and it provides an output as a number between 1 and 100 then the resolution of the
sensor device is 0.2mm.

9. Stability
Stability is the ability of a sensor device to give same output when used to measure
[Link]„drift‟isusedtoindicatethechangeinoutput that
occurs over a period of time. It is expressed as the percentage of full rangeoutput.

10. Deadband/time
The dead band or dead space of a transducer is the range of input values for which
thereis no output. The dead time of a sensor device is the time duration from theapplication of
an input until the output begins to respond orchange.

11. Repeatability
It specifies the ability of a sensor to give same output for repeated applications of
same input value. It is usually expressed as a percentage of the full range output:
Repeatability = (maximum – minimum values given) X 100 ⁄ full range

12. Response time

Response time describes the speed of change in the output on a step-wise change of
[Link] which the
response time isdefined.

1.9. CLASSIFICATION OF SENSORS

Sensors can be classified into various groups according to the factors such as
measurand, application fields, conversion principle, energy domain of the measurand and
[Link] in the
references.
Detail classification of sensors in view of their applications in manufacturing is as
follows.
A. Displacement, position and proximitysensors
• Potentiometer
• Strain-gaugedelement
• Capacitiveelement

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UNIT I : MECHATRONICS, SENSORS ANDACTUATORS SPR1304-INDUSTRIAL MECHATRONICS

• Differentialtransformers
• Eddy current proximitysensors
• Inductive proximityswitch
• Opticalencoders
• Pneumatic sensors
• Proximity switches(magnetic)
• Hall effectsensors
B. Velocity andmotion
• Incrementalencoder
• Tachogenerator
• Pyro electricsensors
C. Force
• Strain gauge loadcell
D. Fluidpressure
• Diaphragm pressuregauge
• Capsules, bellows, pressuretubes
• Piezoelectric sensors
• Tactilesensor
E. Liquidflow
• Orificeplate
• Turbinemeter
F. Liquidlevel
• Floats
• Differentialpressure
G. Temperature
• Bimetallicstrips
• Resistance temperaturedetectors
• Thermistors
• Thermo-diodes andtransistors
• Thermocouples
• Lightsensors
• Photodiodes
• Photoresistors

1.10. DISPLACEMENT AND POSITIONSENSORS

Displacement sensors are basically used for the measurement of movement of an
object. Position sensors are employed to determine the position of an object in relation to
some reference point.
Proximity sensors are a type of position sensor and are used to trace when an object
has moved with in particular critical distance of a transducer.

1. Potentiometer Sensors
Figure shows the construction of a rotary type potentiometer sensor employed to
[Link] on the
principle of conversion of mechanical displacement into an electrical signal. The sensor has a
resistive element and a sliding contact (wiper). The slider moves along this conductive body,
acting as a movable electriccontact.

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Fig13: Schematic of a potentiometer sensor for measurement of linear displacement

The object of whose displacement is to be measured is connected to the slider by

using
• a rotating shaft (for angulardisplacement)
• a moving rod (for lineardisplacement)
• a cable that is kept stretched duringoperation
[Link] oflarge
[Link] plastic resin
embedded with the carbon powder. Wire wound track has a resolution of the order of ± 0.01
% while the conductive plastic may have the resolution of about 0.1µm. During the sensing
operation, a voltage Vsis applied across the resistive element. A voltage divider circuit is
formed when slider comes into contact with the wire. The output voltage (VA) is measured as
shown in the figure 4. The output voltage is proportional to the
[Link] against
the output voltageVA.

Fig14 Potentiometer: electric circuit

VA = I RA

But I = VS / (RA + RB)

Therefore VA = VS RA / (RA +RB)

As we know that R = ρ L / A, where ρ is electrical resistivity, L is length of resistor and A is
area of crosssection
VA = VS LA / (LA + LB)

Applications of potentiometer
These sensors are primarily used in the control systems with a feedback loop to
ensure that the moving member or component reaches its commanded position.

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UNIT I : MECHATRONICS, SENSORS ANDACTUATORS SPR1304-INDUSTRIAL MECHATRONICS

These are typically used on machine-tool controls, elevators, liquid-level assemblies,

forklift trucks, automobile throttle controls. In manufacturing, these are used in
controlofinjectionmoldingmachines,woodworkingmachinery,printing,spraying,robotics, etc.

2. StrainGauges
The strain in an element is a ratio of change in length in the direction of applied load
to the original length of an element. The strain changes the resistance R of the element.
Therefore, we cansay,
∆R/R α ε;
∆R/R = G ε
where G is the constant of proportionality and is called as gauge factor. In general, the value
of G is considered in between 2 to 4 and the resistances are taken of the order of
100 Ω.

Fig15. A pattern of resistive foils

Fig16. Wheatstone’s bridge

Resistance strain gauge follows the principle of change in resistance as per the
equation. It comprises of a pattern of resistive foil arranged as shown in Figure [Link]
foilsaremadeofConstantanalloy(copper-nickel55-45%alloy)andarebondedtoabacking material
plastic (polyimide), epoxy or glass fiber reinforced epoxy. The strain gauges are secured to
the workpieceby using epoxy or Cyanoacrylate cement Eastman910
SL. As the workpiece undergoes change in its shape due to external loading, the resistance of
strain gauge element changes. This change in resistance can be detected by a using a
Wheatstone‟s resistance bridge as shown in Figure 6. In the balanced bridge we can have a
relation,
R2/ R1 = Rx / R3
whereRx is resistance of strain gauge element, R2 is balancing/adjustable resistor, R1 and R3
are known constant value resistors. The measured deformation or displacement by the stain
gauge is calibrated against change in resistance of adjustable resistor R2 which makes the
voltage across nodes A and B equal to zero.

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UNIT I : MECHATRONICS, SENSORS ANDACTUATORS SPR1304-INDUSTRIAL MECHATRONICS

Applications of strain gauges

Strain gauges are widely used in experimental stress analysis and diagnosis on
machines and failure analysis. They are basically used for multi-axial stress fatigue testing,
proof testing, residual stress and vibration measurement, torque measurement, bending and
deflection measurement, compression and tension measurement and strain measurement.
Strain gauges are primarily used as sensors for machine tools and safety in
automotives. In particular, they are employed for force measurement in machine tools,
hydraulic or pneumatic press and as impact sensors in aerospace vehicles.

3. Capacitive element basedsensor

Capacitive sensor is of non-contact type sensor and is primarily used to measure the
linear displacements from few millimeters to hundreds of millimeters. It comprises of three
plates, with the upper pair forming one capacitor and the lower pair another. The linear
displacement might take in two forms:
a. one of the plates is moved by the displacement so that the plate separationchanges
b. Area of overlap changes due to thedisplacement.

Figure [Link] the schematic of three-plate capacitive element sensor and displacement
measurement of a mechanical element connected to the plate 2.

The capacitance C of a parallel plate capacitor is given by,

C = εrεo A / d
Where εris the relative permittivity of the dielectric between the plates, εo
permittivity of free space, Aarea of overlap between two plates and d the plate separation.
As the central plate moves near to top plate or bottom one due to the movement of the
element/workpiece of which displacement is to be measured, separation in between the plate
changes. This can be given as,
C1= (εrεo A) / (d + x)
C2= (εrεo A) / (d – x)
When C1 and C2 are connected to a Wheatsone‟s bridge, then the resulting out-of-
balance voltage would be in proportional to displacement x.
Capacitiveelementscanalso [Link]
towardsthesensorplateis used forinductionofchange [Link]
capacitance which is used to detect theobject.

Applications of capacitive element sensors

• Feed hopper levelmonitoring
• Small vessel pumpcontrol
• Grease levelmonitoring
• Level control ofliquids
• Metrologyapplications
o to measure shape errors in the part being produced
o to analyze and optimize the rotation of spindles in various machine tools
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suchassurfacegrinders,lathes, millingmachines,andairbearingspindlesby measuring errors in

the machine toolsthemselves
• Assembly linetesting
o to test assembled parts for uniformity, thickness or other designfeatures
o to detect the presence or absence of a certain component, such as glue etc.

4. Linear variable differential transformer(LVDT)

Figure 18. Construction of a LVDT sensor

Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a primary transducer used for

measurementoflineardisplacementwithaninputrangeofabout±2to±400mmingeneral. It has non-
linearity error ± 0.25% of full range. Figure 2.2.6 shows the construction of a LVDT
sensor. It has three coils symmetrically spaced along an insulated tube. The central coil is
primary coil and the other two are secondary coils. Secondary coils are connected in series in
such a way that their outputs oppose each other. A magnetic core attached to the element of
which displacement is to be monitored is placed inside the insulatedtube.

Figure 19. Working of LVDT sensor

Due to an alternating voltage input to the primary coil, alternating electro-magnetic

forces (emfs) are generated in secondary coils. When the magnetic core is centrally placed with
its half portion in each of the secondary coil regions then the resultant voltage is zero.
IfthecoreisdisplacedfromthecentralpositionasshowninFigure9,say,moreinsecondary coil 1 than in
coil 2, then more emfis generated in one coil i.e. coil 1 than the other, and there is a resultant
voltage from the coils. If the magnetic core is further displaced, then the value of
resultant voltage increases in proportion with the displacement.
Withthehelpofsignalprocessingdevicessuchaslowpassfiltersanddemodulators,precise
displacement can be measured by using LVDTsensors.
LVDT exhibits good repeatability and reproducibility. It is generally used as an
absolute position sensor. Since there is no contact or sliding between the constituent elements
of the sensor, it is highly reliable. These sensors are completely sealed and are widely used in
Servomechanisms, automated measurement in machine tools.
A rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) can be used for the measurement of
rotation. Readers are suggested to prepare a report on principle of working and construction

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of RVDT sensor.

Applications of LVDT sensors

• Measurement of spool position in a wide range of servo valveapplications
• To provide displacement feedback for hydrauliccylinders
• To control weight and thickness of medicinal products viz. tablets or pills
• For automatic inspection of final dimensions of products being packed for dispatch
• To measure distance between the approaching metals during Friction welding process
• To continuously monitor fluid level as part of leak detectionsystem
• To detect the number of currency bills dispensed by anATM.
•
5. Eddy current proximitysensors

Fig 20. Schematic of Inductive Proximity Sensor

Eddy current proximity sensors are used to detect non-magnetic but conductive
materials. They comprise of a coil, an oscillator, a detector and a triggering circuit. Figure 10
shows the construction of eddy current proximity switch. When an alternating current is
passed thru this coil, an alternative magnetic field is generated. If a metal object comes in the
close proximity of the coil, then eddy currents are induced in the object due to the magnetic
field. These eddy currents create their own magnetic field which distorts the magnetic field
responsible for their generation. As a result, impedance of the coil changes and so the
amplitude of alternating current. This can be used to trigger a switch at some pre-determined
level of change in current.
Eddy current sensors are relatively inexpensive, available in small in size, highly
reliable and have high sensitivity for small displacements.

Applications of eddy current proximity sensors

• Automation requiring preciselocation
• Machine tool monitoring
• Final assembly of precision equipment such as diskdrives
• Measuring the dynamics of a continuously moving target, such as a vibrating element,
• Drive shaft monitoring
• Vibration measurements
•
6. Inductive proximityswitch

Fig 21 Schematic of Inductive Proximity Switch

Inductive proximity switches are basically used for detection of metallic objects.
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Figure shows the construction of inductive proximity switch. An inductive proximity sensor
has four components; the coil, oscillator, detection circuit and output circuit. An alternating
current is supplied to the coil which generates a magnetic field. When, a metal
objectcomesclosertotheendofthecoil,[Link]
monitored by a circuit which triggers a switch when a preset value of inductance change
isoccurred.

Applications of inductive proximity switches

• Industrial automation: counting of products during production ortransfer.
• Security: detection of metal objects, arms, landmines.

7. Opticalencoders

Fig 22 Construction and working of optical encoder

Optical encoders provide digital output as a result of linear / angular displacement.
Thesearewidelyused intheServomotorstomeasuretherotationofshafts.Figure22shows the
construction of an optical encoder. It comprises of a disc with three concentric tracks of
equally spaced holes. Three light sensors are employed to detect the light passing thru the
holes. These sensors produce electric pulses which give the angular displacement of the
mechanical element e.g. shaft on which the Optical encoder is mounted. The inner track has
just one hole which is used locate the „home‟ position of the disc. The holes on the middle
track offset from the holes of the outer track by one-half of the width of the hole. This
arrangement provides the direction of rotation to be determined. When the disc rotates in
clockwise direction, the pulses in the outer track lead those in the inner; in counter clockwise
direction they lag behind. The resolution can be determined by the number of holes on disc.
With 100 holes in one revolution, the resolution wouldbe,
360⁰ /100 = 3.6⁰ .

8. Pneumatic Sensors
Pneumatic sensors are used to measure the displacement as well as to sense the proximity of an
object close to it. The displacement and proximity are transformed into change in air pressure.
Figure 23. Shows a schematic of construction and working of such a sensor. It comprises of
three ports. Low pressure air is allowed to escape through port A. In the absence of any obstacle /
object, this low pressure air escapes and in doing so, reduces the pressure in the port B. However
when an object obstructs the low pressure air (Port A), there is rise in pressure in output port B.
This rise in pressure is calibrated to measure the displacement or to trigger a switch. These

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sensors are used in robotics, pneumatics and for tooling in CNC machine tools.

Fig23. Working of Pneumatic Sensors

1.11. PROXIMITY SWITCHES

Fig24. Configurations of contact type proximity switch

Contact-type proximity switches being used in manufacturing automation. These are
small electrical switches which require physical contact and a small operating force to close
the contacts. They are basically employed on conveyor systems to detect the presence of an
item on the conveyorbelt.

Reed Switch

Fig 25 Reed Switch

Magnet based Reed switches are used as proximity switches. When a magnet
attachedtoanobjectbroughtclosetotheswitch,themagneticreedsattracttoeachotherand close the
switch contacts. A schematic is shown in Figure25.

LED based proximity sensors

Photo emitting devices such as Light emitting diodes (LEDs) and photosensitive devices such as
photo diodes and photo transistors are used in combination to work as proximity sensing devices.
Figure 16 shows two typical arrangements of LEDs and photo diodes to detect the objects
breaking the beam and reflecting light.

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Fig 26. LED based proximity sensors

9. Hall effectsensor

Figure 27 Principle of working of Hall effect sensor

Hall effect sensors work on the principle that when a beam of charge particles passes
through a magnetic field, forces act on the particles and the current beam is deflected from its
straight line path. Thus one side of the disc will become negatively charged and the other side
will be of positive charge. This charge separation generatesapotential difference which is the
measure of distance of magnetic field from the disccarrying current. The typical application of
Hall effect sensor is the measurement of fluid level in a container. The container
[Link] circuit with a current
carrying disc is mounted in the casing. When the fluid level increases, the magnet will come
close to the disc and a potential difference generates. This voltage triggers a switch to stop the
fluid to come inside the container. These sensors are used for the measurement of
displacement and the detection of position of an object. Hall effect sensors need necessary
signal conditioning circuitry. They can be operated at 100 kHz. Their non-contact nature of
operation, good immunity to environment contaminants and ability to sustain in severe
conditions make them quite popular in industrial automation.

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1.12. VELOCITY SENSOR

Fig 28:Tachogenerator

Tachogenerator works on the principle of variable reluctance. It consists of an assembly of a

toothed wheel and a magnetic circuit as shown in figure. Toothed wheel is mounted on the
shaft or the element of which angular motion is to be measured. Magnetic circuit
[Link],theairgap between
wheel tooth and magnetic core changes which results in cyclic change in flux linked with the
coil. The alternating emf generated is the measure of angular motion. A pulse shaping signal
conditioner is used to transform the output into a number of pulses which can be counted by
acounter.

Fig 29: Tachogenerator

An alternating current (AC) generator can also be used as a techognerator. It comprises of rotor
coil which rotates with the shaft. Figure shows the schematic of AC generator. The rotor rotates
in the magnetic field produced by a stationary permanent magnet or electromagnet. During this
process, an alternating emf is produced which is the measure of the angular velocity of the
rotor. In general, these sensors exhibit nonlinearity error of about ± 0.15% and are employed for
the rotationsup to about 10000rev/min.

Fig 30: Pyroelectric sensors

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Fig 31: Pyroelectric sensor

Pyroelectric sensor comprises of a thick element of polarized material coated with thin film
electrodes on opposite faces as shown in figure. Initially the electrodes are in electrical
equilibrium with the polarized material. On incident of infra red, the material heats up and
reduces its polarization. This leads to charge imbalance at the interface of crystal and
electrodes. To balance this disequilibrium, measurement circuit supplies the charge, which is
calibrated against the detection of an object or its movement.

Applications of Pyroelectric sensors

 Intrusiondetector
 Optothermaldetector
 Pollutiondetector
 Positionsensor
 Solar cellstudies
 Engine analysis

1.13. FORCE SENSOR

Fig 32: Strain Gauge in displacement measurement

Fig 33: Strain gauge in pressure measurement

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Tactile sensors

Fig 34: Tactile sensor

Piezoelectric sensor

Fig 35: Liquid flow

1.14. LIQUID LEVEL

Liquid flow is generally measured by applying the Bernoulli's principle of fluid flow through
a constriction. The quantity of fluid flow is computed by using the pressure drop measured.
The fluid flow volume is proportional to square root of pressure difference at the two ends of
the constriction. There are various types of fluid flow measurement devices being used in
manufacturing automation such as Orifice plate, Turbine meter etc.

Orifice plate:

Fig 36: Orificemeter

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Turbine meter

Fig 37: Turbine meter

turbine flow meter has an accuracy of ±0.3%. It has a multi blade rotor mounted centrally in
the pipe along which the flow is to be measured. Figure 2.4.12 shows the typical arrangement
of the rotor and a magnetic pick up coil. The fluid flow rotates the rotor. Accordingly the
magnetic pick up coil counts the number of magnetic pulses generated due to the distortion of
magnetic field by the rotor blades. The angular velocity is proportional to the number of pulses
and fluid flow is proportional to angular velocity.

1.15. FLUID LEVEL

The level of liquid in a vessel or container can be measured,

a. directly by monitoring the position of liquidsurface

b. indirectly by measuring some variable related to theheight.

Direct measurements involve the use of floats however the indirect methods employ load
cells. Potentiometers or LVDT sensors can be used along with the floats to measure the
height of fluid column. Force sensed by the load cells is proportional to the height of fluid
column.

1.16. TEMPERATURE SENSORS

Temperature conveys the state of a mechanical systemin terms of expansion or contraction of

solids, liquids or gases, change in electrical resistance of conductors, semiconductors and
thermoelectric emfs. Temperature sensors such as bimetallic strips, thermocouples, thermistors
are widely used in monitoring of manufacturing processes such as casting, molding, metal
cutting etc. The construction details and principle of working of some of the temperature
sensors are discussed in following sections.

1. Bimetallic strips
Bimetallic strips are used as thermal switch in controlling the temperature or heat in a
manufacturing process or system. It contains two different metal strips bonded together. The
metals have different coefficients of expansion. On heating the strips bend into curved strips
with the metal with higher coefficient of expansion on the outside of the curve. Figure shows a
typical arrangement of a bimetallic strip used with a setting-up magnet. As the strips bend, the
soft iron comes in closer proximity of the small magnet and further touches. Then

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the electric circuit completes and generates an alarm. In this way bimetallic strips help to
protect the desired application from heating above the pre-set value of temperature.

Fig 38: Bimetallic strip

2. Resistance temperature detectors(RTDs)

RTDs work on the principle that the electric resistance of a metal changes due to changein its
temperature. On heating up metals, their resistance increases and follows a linear relationship
as shown in Figure 2.5.2. The correlationis

Where Rtis the resistance at temperature T (°C) and R0 is the temperature at 0°C and α is the
constant for the metal termed as temperature coefficient of resistance. The sensor is usually
made to have a resistance of 100 Ω at 0°C

Fig 39: RTD Charateristics by elements

Fig 40: RTD Construction

Figure shows the construction of a RTD. It has a resistor element connected to a Wheatstone

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bridge. The element and the connection leads are insulated and protected by a sheath. A small
amount of current is continuously passing though the coil. As the temperature changes the
resistance of the coil changes which is detected at the Wheatstone bridge.

RTDs are used in the form of thin films,wire wound or coil. They are generally made of metals
such as platinum, nickel or nickel-copper alloys. Platinum wire held by a high- temperature
glass adhesive in a ceramic tube is used to measure the temperature in a metal furnace. Other
applications are:
 Air conditioning and refrigerationservicing
 FoodProcessing
 Stoves andgrills
 Textileproduction
 Plasticsprocessing
 Petrochemicalprocessing
 Microelectronics
 Air, gas and liquid temperature measurement in pipes andtanks
 Exhaust gas temperaturemeasurement

Thermistors

Thermistors follow the principle of decrease in resistance with increasing temperature. The
material used in thermistor is generally a semiconductor material such as a sintered metal
oxide (mixtures of metal oxides, chromium, cobalt, iron, manganese and nickel)
ordopedpolycrystalline ceramic containing barium titanate (BaTiO3) and other compounds. As
the temperature of semiconductor material increases the number of electrons able to move
about increases which results in more current in the material and reduced
[Link] are rugged and small in dimensions. They exhibit nonlinear response
characteristics.

Thermistors are available in the form of a bead (pressed disc), probe or chip. Figure 41 shows
the construction of a bead type thermistor. It has a small bead of dimension from 0.5 mm to 5
mm coated with ceramic or glass material. The bead is connected to an electric circuit through
two leads. To protect from the environment, the leads are contained in a stainless steel tube.

Fig 41: Schematic of a thermistor

Applications of Thermistors
 To monitor the coolant temperature and/or oil temperature inside theengine
 To monitor the temperature of anincubator
 Thermistors are used in modern digitalthermostats
 To monitor the temperature of battery packs whilecharging
 To monitor temperature of hot ends of 3Dprinters
 To maintain correct temperature in the food Handling and processing industry
equipments
 To control the operations of consumer appliances such as toasters, coffee makers,

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refrigerators, freezers, hair dryers,etc.

Thermocouple
 Thermocouple works on the fact that when a junction of dissimilar metals heated, it produces
an electric potential related to temperature. As per Thomas Seebeck (1821), when two wires
composed of dissimilar metals are joined at both ends and one of the ends is heated, then there
is a continuous current which flows in the thermoelectric circuit. Figure shows the schematic
of thermocouple circuit. The net open circuit voltage (the Seebeck voltage) is a function of
junction temperature and composition of two metals. It is given by, ΔVAB = αΔT

Where α, the Seebeck coefficient, is the constant of proportionality.

Fig 42: Schematic of thermocouple circuit

 Generally, Chromel(90% nickel and 10% chromium)–Alumel(95% nickel, 2% manganese,

2% aluminium and 1% silicon) are used in the manufacture of a thermocouple. Table 2.5.1
shows the various other materials, their combinationsand application temperatureranges.

Applications of Thermocouples
 To monitor temperatures and chemistry throughout the steel makingprocess
 Testing temperatures associated with process plants e.g. chemical productionand
petroleumrefineries
 Testing of heating appliancesafety
 Temperature profiling in ovens, furnaces andkilns
 Temperature measurement of gas turbine and engineexhausts
 Monitoring of temperatures throughout the production and smelting process inthe steel,
iron and aluminumindustry

1.17. LIGHT SENSORS

A light sensor is a device that is used to detect light. There are different types of light
sensorssuch as photocell/photoresistor and photo diodes being used in manufacturing and
other industrial applications.

Photoresistor is also called as light dependent resistor (LDR). It has a resistor whose
resistance decreases with increasing incident light intensity. It is made of a high resistance
semiconductor material, cadmium sulfide (CdS). The resistance of a CdSphotoresistor varies
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inversely to the amount oflight incident upon [Link] follows the principle of p
hotoconductivity which results from the generation of mobile carriers when photons are
absorbed by the semiconductor material.

Figure shows the construction of a photo resistor. The CdS resistor coil is mounted on a
ceramic substrate. This assembly is encapsulated by a resin material. The sensitive coil
electrodes are connected to the control system though lead wires. On incidence of high
intensity light on the electrodes, the resistance of resistor coil decreases which will be used
further to generate the appropriate signal by the microprocessor via lead wires.

Fig 43: Construction of a photo resistor

Photoresistors are used in science and in almost any branch of industry for control, safety,
amusement, sound reproduction, inspection and measurement.

Applications of photo resistor

 Computers, wireless phones, and televisions, use ambient light sensors to
automatically control the brightness of ascreen
 Barcode scanners used in retailer locations work using light sensortechnology
 In space and robotics: for controlled and guided motions of vehicles and [Link] light
sensor enables a robot to detect light. Robots can be programmed to have a specific reaction
if a certain amount of light isdetected.
 Auto Flash forcamera
 Industrial processcontrol

Photo diodes

Photodiode is a solid-state device which converts incident light into an electric current. It is
made of Silicon. It consists of a shallow diffused p-n junction, normally a p-on-n configuration.
When photons of energy greater than 1.1eV (the bandgap of silicon) fall on the device, they are
absorbed and electron-hole pairs are created. The depth at which the photons are absorbed
depends upon their energy. The lower the energy of the photons, the deeper they are absorbed.
Then the electron-hole pairs drift apart. When the minority carriers reach the junction, they are
swept across by the electric field and an electric current establishes.

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Photodiodes are one of the types of photodetector, which convert light into either current or
voltage. These are regular semiconductor diodes except that they may be either exposed to detect
vacuum UV or X-rays or packaged with a opening or optical fiber connection to allow light to
reach the sensitive part of the device.

Fig 44: Photodiode

Figure shows the construction of Photo diode detector. It is constructed from single crystal
silicon wafers. It is a p-n junction device. The upper layer is p layer. It is very thin and formed
by thermal diffusion or ion implantation of doping material such as boron. Depletion region is
narrow and is sandwiched between p layer and bulk n type layer of silicon. Light irradiates at
front surface, anode, while the back surface is cathode. The incidence of light on anode
generates a flow of electron across the p-n junction which is the measure of light intensity.

Applications of photo diodes

Camera: Light Meters, Automatic Shutter Control, Auto-focus, Photographic Flash Control
Medical: CAT Scanners - X ray Detection, Pulse Oximeters, Blood Particle Analyzers
Industry
 Bar CodeScanners
 LightPens
 BrightnessControls
 Encoders
 PositionSensors
 SurveyingInstruments
 Copiers - Density of Toner.

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Fig 19: Microprocessor-based system

 Bit: A bit is a single binarydigit.

 Word: A word refers to the basic data size or bit size that can be processed
by the arithmetic and logic unit of the processor. A 16-bit binary number is called a
word in a 16-bitprocessor.
 Bus: A bus is a group of wires/lines that carry similarinformation.
 System Bus: The system bus is a group of wires/lines used for
communication between the microprocessor andperipherals.
 Memory Word: The number of bits that can be stored in a register or
memory element is called a memoryword.
 Address Bus: It carries the address, which is a unique binary pattern used
to identify a memory location or an I/O port. For example, an eight bit address bus has
eight lines and thus it can address 28 = 256 different locations. The locations in
hexadecimal format can be written as 00H –FFH.
 Data Bus: The data bus is used to transfer data between memory and
processor or between I/O device and processor. For example, an 8-bit processor will
generally have an 8-bit data bus and a 16-bit processor will have 16-bit databus.
 Control Bus: The control bus carry control signals, which consists of
signals for selection of memory or I/O device from the given address, direction of
data transfer and synchronization of data transfer in case of slowdevices.

A typical microprocessor consists of arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) in association with control
unit to process the instruction execution. Almost all the microprocessors are based on the principle
of store-program concept. In store-program concept, programs or instructions are sequentially
stored in the memory locations that are to be executed. To do any task using a microprocessor, it is
to be programmed by the user. So the programmer must have idea about its internal resources,
features and supported instructions. Each microprocessor has a set of instructions, a list which is
provided by the microprocessor manufacturer. The instruction set of a microprocessor is provided in
two forms: binary machine code and mnemonics.

Microprocessor communicates and operates in binary numbers 0 and 1. The set of instructions in
the form of binary patterns is called a machine language and it is difficult for us to understand.
Therefore, the binary patterns are given abbreviated names, called mnemonics, which forms the
assembly language. The conversion of assembly-level language into binary machine-level language
is done by using an application called assembler.

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