C4.

1 Populations and
Communities
Spec Points
• C4.1.10 a community as all of the interacting organisms in an
ecosystem.
Learning Outcomes
• Define key ecological terms
What do you know already?
Groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring.
Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate populations.

The environment in which a species normally lives or the location of a living organism.

A group of organisms of the same species who live in the same area at the same time.

Formed by populations of different species living together and interacting with each
other.

A community which is interacting with the abiotic environment.

the study of relationships between living organisms and between organisms and their
environment.

Living factors within the environment, e.g. pathogens and predators

Non-living environmental factors, e.g. air temperature, oxygen availability

Word bank: Community, Abiotic, species, population, biotic,

habitat, ecosystem, ecology,
Species, Communities and Ecosystems
Species: a group of organisms that can interbreed and produce fertile offspring.

The organisms below have been produced as a result of two different species cross-breeding.
Q1 - What would be significant about these organisms ?
Q2 – What term do we use do describe these organisms?
Population: A group of organisms of the same species that are living in the
same area at the same time.

Organisms of the same species can be separated, naturally or due to

intervention of humans. These separated individuals are unlikely to
interbreed, though they are still able to do so.

The separated organisms are regarded as being members of different

populations.

Give an example of how populations might be separated:

Community: A group of populations that are living and interacting
together in the same area.

Communities include microbes and plants and

hence often involve thousands of species.
Sampling in ecosystems
Lesson outcomes
1. Describe the random and systematic techniques used to
sample populations in an ecosystem

2. Use a chi squared test to determine if predicted results differ

significantly from actual results.
How can we count the number of organisms
in a given location?

What is the problem with this method?

Watch the you tube clip…..
• [Link]
Estimation of Population Size in sessile organisms

e.g. Plants
Can count the:
• Density number of plants per m2
• Frequency estimate of no. of species
• % cover (number of each species)
How to use a quadrat
Quadrats can be used to sample at random, or sample
systematically.
Random sampling

Quadrats can be used for random

sampling.

1. First set up a pair of axes using

tape measures
2. use random numbers to
generate coordinates
3. place the quadrat at these
given coordinates
4. Count the number of species
within the quadrat
Standard Deviation
Area Number Daisy Number Calculate the mean and the standard
1 21 deviation for this data.
2 14
3 1
4 18
5 5 What does the standard deviation show?
6 19
7 6
8 11
9 11
10 0
Suggest the major limitation of quadrat sampling.
Hint: What organisms is this
technique not suitable for and
why
But what about motile organisms?
Ground insects
Insects fall in and can’t get out.

Flying insects Aquatic animals

Use a ‘sweep net’ and Use a net!
sweeping method
Why could counting butterflies be a problem?

Capture mark release recapture

Capture and mark

1. Capture as many
animals as you can in a
defined period of time.

2. Count them and Mark

them in a way that causes
no harm

3. Release them to mix in

the population.
The Lincoln Index
35 snails were captured and marked, this was how many M= number of individuals caught and
was recaptured marked initially
N= the total number of individuals
recaptured
R= the total number of individuals
recaptured.
Practice question
3. (a) Explain how a frame quadrat is used to find percentage cover of a species of plant in a
habitat.

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(3)
The distribution of one species of plant in an overgrown garden was investigated. The diagram shows
a frame quadrat in one position.

1m Low hedge

1m

(b) (i) Estimate the percentage cover of the plant in this quadrat.

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(1)
Learning outcomes
• Describe what resources organisms compete for.
• Explain carrying capacity
• Draw and explain population curves
Resources
What resources to plants and animals compete for?

These resources will affect the carrying capacity.

1. Define carrying capacity

2. What are limiting factors and how do they relate to the carrying
capacity?

3. Why is it important for animals to stay within their carrying capacity?

Negative feedback of population size
• The size of population can rise or fall over time.
Two types of factors can
increase or decrease the
populations
1. Density-independent
factors

2. Density-dependent
factors.
Can you suggest examples?
Complete the table.
What does this graph show?
MWB-TPS
1. Draw an exponential curve
2. What factors would affect birth rate?
3. What factors would affect death rate?
How can
you
describe
the three
phrase of
this graph?
[3]
[3]
Modelling of the sigmoid population growth
curve
[Link]

Complete the worksheet.

What would happen in a population immigrated or

emigrated into or from this starting population?
Recap
Spec Point
C4.1.9 Competition versus cooperation in intraspecific
relationships.
C4.1.11 Herbivory, predation, interspecific competition,
mutualism, parasitism and pathogenicity as categories of
interspecific relationship within communities
Learning Outcomes
• With examples explain competition versus cooperation in
intraspecific relationships.
What is the difference between intraspecific and interspecific
relationships?
Intraspecific Competition in Animals

What do
animals
compete for?
Intraspecific Competition in Plants

What do plants
compete for?
Cooperation- Individuals in a population may cooperate in a variety of ways.
What examples of cooperation can you think of?
Interspecific Relationships within communities

Research each type of relationships and give an example

Mutualism
• Mutualism are close associations between species, where both
species benefit from the relationship.

Research 3 specific examples

1. Root nodules in Fabaceae
2. Mycorrhizae in Orchidaeceae
3. Zooxanthellae in hard corals
Root nodules in Fabaceae
Mycorrhizae in Orchidaceae
Zooxanthellae in hard corals
Quick Quiz
1. How do nitrogen-fixing bacteria benefit from their symbiotic relationship
with legume plants?
2. What role do mycorrhizal fungi play in assisting orchid plants to thrive in
nutrient-poor environments?
3. Explain how zooxanthellae contribute to the energy requirements of
hard corals and the coral reef ecosystem.
4. Why are root nodules important for legume plants, and what specific
function do they serve in the nitrogen cycle?
5. Describe the mutualistic relationship between hard corals and
zooxanthellae, highlighting the benefits exchanged between the two
organisms.
Spec Points
• C4.1.13 Resources between endemic and invasive species
Endemic vs Invasive Species
• What is an endemic species?

• What factors would affect the density of the endemic

species?

• How does the competitive exclusion principle apply if

an invasive species arrives?
Invasive Species in the UAE

Indian house crows spotted in Abu Mesquite tree, a Central American tree
Dhabi, which can cause significant species that was intentionally brought to
damage to the ecosystem by the UAE to help forestation efforts, but
impacting island breeding birds by
eating the young and eggs apart from instead it is growing in dense forests,
the high risk of disease introduction destroying farms and native flora such as
they bring the ghaf, the national tree of the UAE.
Source: [Link]
Testing for interspecific competition
How the distribution of squirrels has changed.

Can you describe the distribution of data? Are there any limitations of the
data?
Testing for interspecific competition
Interspecific competition is indicated but not proven if one species is more
success in the absence of another.

To determine if interspecific competition is happening a range of research

approaches can be undertaken:
Hypotheses
What are the two hypotheses for this practical?
Chi-Squared test
1. Start by stating a null (H 0 ) and alternate hypothesis (H 1 ).
2. Collect reliable data via random sampling, where each
member in the community has an equal chance of being
part of the sample (e.g quadrat sampling)
3. Calculate chi-squared value using the formula
4. Calculate the degrees of freedom.
5. Choose critical value and accept or reject the null
hypothesis
Worked example
A student uses a quadrat to determine the presences or absences
of a two species of turtle. The quadrats are randomly distributed.
Worked example
The student collected the following data and calculated the
expected frequency:
How is expected frequency calculated?
• The expected frequency is calculated by multiplying the row total
by column total and dividing by the grand total, 60. For example,
the expected frequency for tall plants exposed to sunlight is:

Row total x Column total

= Expected total
Grand total

Worked example from Table 1 :

= 21.6
Worked example
Calculate the chi-squared value and the degrees of freedom
Worked example
Choosing a significance value of 5% at 1 d.f. (3.84), we can see our
chi-squared value is greater (6.65). Therefore, we reject the null
hypothesis. We can conclude that the presence of species A
does affect the distribution of species B.
Use the Chi-squared test to examine the
association between the two speices
 The presence or absence of two
species of scallop was recorded in
fifty quadrats (1m2) on a rocky
seashore

The following distribution pattern

was observed:
 6 quadrats = both species ; 15
quadrats = king scallop only ; 20
quadrats = queen scallop
only ; 9 quadrats = neither
species
Chi-squared value on excel
Recap
Predators and prey
Predator –Prey relationships

Describe and explain stages 1-4 on the graph

There are many other factors that determine the size of these populations can you list them?
Top-down control of populations
• Top-down control occurs when the abundance of lower trophic levels in a
food chain is regulated by the presence and activities of organisms at higher
trophic levels.
• Predators, positioned at the top of the food chain, play a significant role in
exerting top-down control.

A famous case-study of this, is the introduction of wolves into Yellowstone

national park.
Yellow stone national park: Case Study
Bottom-down control of populations
Bottom-up control occurs when the availability of resources at
lower trophic levels influences the abundance and distribution of
organisms at higher trophic levels.

What examples can you think of?

Examples
in a terrestrial ecosystem:
1. the availability of soil nutrients can determine the growth and
productivity of plants.
2. The abundance of plants, in turn, influences the abundance of
herbivores that rely on them for food.
3. This cascading effect can further affect the populations of
predators
Allelopathy and antibiotic secretion
Allelopathy (release of biochemicals
which prevent survival or
neighboring organisms) and
antibiotic secretion (by bacteria) are
two processes in which organisms
release chemical substances into
their environment to deter potential
competitors.

Research how the black walnut tree uses allelopathy to limit the
biodiversity around it.
Allelopathy and antibiotic secretion
• Both allelopathy and antibiotic
secretion involve the release of
chemical compounds that serve
as weapons against competitors.

• These chemical interactions can

help shape the dynamics of an
ecosystem and have important
implications in both natural
ecosystems and medical
applications.
UAE example
• Research P. juliflora leaves antimicrobial properties.

• [Link]
l_activity_of_united_arab_emirates.[Link]
B4.1 Adaptations to the
environment
Recap
What habitats are these animals adapted for?
How is the artic fox adapted to its
environment?
Habitat
MWB: Define a habitat

A habitat is a geographical location that

provides the necessary resources for an
organism’s survival and reproduction. They
consist of both biotic and abiotic factors
Habitats
Adaptions to the abiotic environment

What conditions do the grass and trees need to adapt to?

Lyme grass (Leymus mollis)
Grass in sand dunes grows on sea sand dunes.

Adaptations
• Thick waxy cuticle
• Leaves can roll up during
drought
• Stomata indentations (furrows)
• Tough sclerenchyma
• Rhizomes
• Acclamation of fructans in the
root and leaf cells
Trees in Mangrove Swamps

Adaptations
• Secretion of salt from salt glands in
leaves
• Root epidermis coated in suberin
(cork)
• Cable roots growing close to the soil
surface
• Pneumatophores
• Stilt roots
• Large buoyant seeds
• Accumulation of mineral ion as and Source: [Link]
mangroves-are-so-important-and-how-to-save-them-1.848035

carbon compounds such as mannitol

Limitations of adaptations and range of
tolerance
Many organisms are
extremely resiliant to
change, and have a
number of adaptations
which allow them to adapt
to changes in abiotic
factors.

MWB: list abiotic factors

Abiotic factors that affect the growth of
plants
Research which abiotic (non-living)
factors can affect the growth of plants
and give an example of how a plant
has adapted to overcome this
limitation e.g. long roots to obtain
more water
Abiotic factors that affect the growth of
plants
Abiotic factor
Light
Condition Example of adaptation

Light
Temperature
Water
Soil
Abiotic factors that affect the growth of
animals
Research which abiotic (non-living)
factors can affect the growth of
animals and give an example of how
an animal has adapted to overcome
this limitation e.g. extreme cold or
lack of food.
Abiotic factors that affect the growth of animals
Abiotic factor Condition Example of adaptation
Light
Climate
Temperature
Water
Food
Ecological Range of tolerance

What meant by the ecological range of tolerance.

Ecological range of tolerance
Range of tolerance refers to the range of environmental conditions, within
which an organism can survive and function optimally. Beyond this range the
organism will experience stress or even death.

E.g. Lions prefer seasonal rainfall and high temperatures. Outside of its
range of tolerance it may not be able to survive or reproduce.

What factors could affect the range of tolerance?

How does range of tolerance act as a
limiting factor?
In a forest the dense canopy can
block a large amount of sunlight
from reaching the forest floor. As a
result, plant growth on the forest
floor will be limited by sunlight.

Therefore, the availabilty of light on

the forest floor sets an upper limit
for the number of plants species on
the forest floor.

How can we measure this?

Transects: Measuring distribution
The use of sampling
techniques is necessary to
study the correlation between
abiotic variables and species
distribution.

The transect line method is the

most used technique.
Transects: Measuring distribution
Sensors and data loggers
We often use sensors and data loggers when
measuring environmental changes, especially
abiotic factors. These can measure factors such
as temperature, pH, humidity and sound, over a
prolonged period of time.

What are the advantages of using sensors and data loggers?

Complete the exam question
Climatic factors, such as temperature and rainfall, vary
greatly over short distances across mountain ranges. In an
investigation, populations of the plant, Achillea lanulosa,
were sampled from several sites on a transect across a
mountain range. At each sampling site, seeds were
collected at random. Each batch of seeds was germinated
and grown to maturity under the same experimental
conditions.

The diagram shows

• a profile indicating the position and altitude of
the sampling sites
• the mean height of mature plants grown from
each sample of seeds
• the standard deviation of heights of the mature
plants grown from each sample of seeds.
Write a method for the following scenario

To measure the change in light intensity along a transect line and

understand how this affects distribution of a particular plant
species.
Materials
• Measuring tape
• Light meter (LUX app — available for free on android and apple
stores)
• Quadrat (1m x 1m)
• Notebook or data sheet
Recap
Coral reefs: How are they formed?
Comprehension Questions
1. What is the role of stony corals in building a coral reef ecosystem?

2. What are some examples of animals that rely on a coral reef for shelter
and food?

3. Why is understanding the structure of coral reef ecosystems important for

scientists?
Conditions needed for the creation of coral
reefs
Research the specific
conditions needed to form
coral reefs, in terms of:
• Water depth
• pH
• Salinity
• Water clarity
• Temperature
Conditions needed for the creation of coral
reefs
Formation of coral reefs and effects of rising CO2

What is the correlation between pH and dissolved carbon dioxide?

What is a biome?
Abiotic factors and terrestrial biome distribution
What does this graph show?
Abiotic factors and terrestrial biome distribution
A biome is a large community of plants and animals that occupy a distinct
geographical region and are adapted to its climate and other
environmental conditions.
We will focus on 6 of these biomes:
- Tropical rainforest
Research task:
- Tundra For each biome,
- Taiga research the conditions
- Hot Deserts e.g. temperature,
rainfall, light intensity
- Temperate forest and seasonal variation.
- Grasslands
Topical forest Temperate Taiga Hot desert Grassland Tundra
forest

Temperature

Precipitation

Light intensity

Seasonal
variation
Biomes as groups of ecosystems with
similar communities
Biomes are groups of ecosystems that share similar abiotic
conditions, such as climate, soil and water, which in turn result in
similar communities of plants and animals due to convergent
evolution.

What is convergent evolution?

What do the organisms in these groups have in common?
Adaptations to life in hot deserts
Adaptations to life in hot deserts: Plants
• Leaves sprout after rainfall to perform photosynthesis.
• Long thorny stems can expand to store water during droughts,
allowing it to survive when water is scarce; thorns also serve as a
deterrent to herbivores.
• Greenish chlorophyll-containing bark allows it to carry out
photosynthesis even when there are no leaves present.
• Deep root system which allows it to access water from deep in the
soil and an additional horizontal root system which allows it to
quickly absorb even small amounts of precipitation.
Adaptations to life in hot deserts: Animals
• Slow metabolic rate allowing it to go for
long periods without food and water.
• Skin is covered in bumpy scales, which
help it retain moisture.
• Unique ability to store fat in their tail
helping it survive long periods of time
without food.
Adaptations in the Rainforest
Adaptations- Plants
The meranti (Shorea faguetiana) is a species of trees that is adapted to life in the
topical rainforests.
• It can grow to over 100 m high, overtopping other trees and avoiding competition
for light.
• Trunk of hard dense wood to provide support especially against wind stress
• Trunk is buttressed at the base to provide increased support because rainforest
soils are shallow
• Smooth trunk to shed rainwater rapidly
• Broad oval leaves with pointed tips that shed rainwater rapidly
• evergreen leaves which take advantages of ideal conditions for photosynthesis
throughout the year
• Enzymes of photosynthesis adapted to tolerate temperatures as high as 35 °C
• Flowers and seeds produced in large quantities about one year in five, with none in
other years to deter species that eat the seeds.
Adaptations- Animals
Spider monkey (Ateles geoffroyi) is a species of mammal, its adaptations are:
• Long arms and legs for climbing and reaching fruit
• Flexible shoulders allowing swinging from tree to tree
• Large hook-like hands without thumbs that can grasp branches and lianas
and pick fruit
• Feet that can act like extra hands, grasping branches and allowing hands to
be used for other things
• Long tail that can grip onto branches and act like a fifth hand
• Highly developed larynx allowing a wide range of sounds to be made to
communicate in the dense rainforest canopy
• Sleeping at night and active in the daytime when vision is best
• Breeding at any time of the year
D4.2 Stability and Change
Stability of ecosystems
• The stability of an ecosystem is the ability to maintain its
structure and function over time, despite changes or
disturbances.
• A stable ecosystem can resist changes that may disrupt its
steady state.
• If a change or disturbance affects the structure or function of an
ecosystem, a stable ecosystem should be able to restore itself
back to the original state.
Examples of stable ecosystems
Research the following stable
ecosystems:
• Tropical rainforest
• Coral reefs
• Boreal forest
• Sonoran desert

For each give a brief description of

the ecosystem, biodiversity and
the threats it faces.
Factors affecting stability of ecosystems
An ecosystem requires both resistance and resilience to maintain its stability
over time.
What factors would contribute to the stability of an ecosystem?

What factors would contribute to the disruption of an ecosystem?

Supply of energy
Energy is needed for all life processes. Without a steady supply of
energy, ecosystems would quickly collapse.

An ecosystem with a higher diversity of producers will likely be more

resistant to changes in biotic and abiotic factors.

A stable ecosystem also requires a balanced energy flow to ensure

that no one species becomes too dominant or too scarce.
Recycling of nutrients
Nutrient recycling is the process by
which nutrients are cycled between
the environment and organisms.
Examples of important nutrients
include carbon, nitrogen and
phosphorus.

By efficiently recycling nutrients,

ecosystems can maintain nutrient
availability
Biodiversity- genetic diversity
• A highly diverse ecosystem is more likely to be stable because it
can better resist disturbances.
• Species diversity ensures that there are enough different species
to fulfil various ecological roles, which creates a more resilient
ecosystem.
• Greater variety of distinct habitats found in an ecosystem or
biome results in more species diversity.
• Genetically diverse populations, there is a higher probability of
genetic variations that increase individual fitness, reproductive
success and overall population health.
Climatic factors
Changes in climatic
conditions can lead to
shifts in species
ranges and alter the
composition of
ecosystems. If
climatic conditions
become unsuitable for
certain species, it can
disrupt the balance
and stability of
ecological
communities.
‘Tipping points’

The critical threshold of a change that results in a significant and

often irreversible change in an ecosystem’s structure, function or
composition is called a tipping point.

Once reached, the ecosystem undergoes a profound

transformation, leading to the loss of biodiversity and the collapse
of populations.
Example of tipping point: Rainforest & palm oil
Issues with deforestation of rainforests
Tropical rainforests play a critical role in
both local and global ecosystems. They
provide habitat for wildlife, sequester
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere,
protect biodiversity and provide
valuable resources for nearby
communities.

They also have other functions that

may not seem so obvious. Transpiration
of water from rainforest affect global Clouds produced by rainforests
precipitation patterns hundreds of
miles away.
Calculating percentage change

Using the QR code, locate your home country, select analysis, click
on the country.
e.g.

Using the times given calculate the percentage change for your
country.
Modelling ecosystems
Identifying and predicting tipping points is important for informed
decision-making, policy development and sustainable
management practices. It is challenging as tipping points can be
highly complex and influenced by multiple interacting factors.

Models are simpler representations of real-world phenomena.

Mesocosm
A mesocosm is an experimental tool that allows the experimenter to
control the conditions in a small part of the natural environment. It can
act as a model of a larger ecosystem.

What are the advantages of

using a mesocosm?
Advantages of Mesocosms
How to setup a mesocom
Mesocosms can be set up in open tanks, but sealed glass vessels are
preferable because entry and exit of matter can be prevented, while still
allowing light to enter and heat to leave. You are expected to set up a sealed
mesocosm to try to establish a sustainable system.

Tips:
• To ensure sustainability of your sealed mesocosm ensure that you have
sufficient plant material to produce adequate oxygen to support all life
forms in the system. You may consider using an oxygen sensor and a
carbon dioxide sensor to monitor the fluctuations in these two gases.
• Aquatic mesocosms should have some water circulation to ensure the
water does not become stagnant.
Recap questions
The role of keystone species
Some species in an ecosystem may have a disproportionately large
impact on the community compared to their abundance or biomass.
Their presence or absence deeply affect the stability of the ecosystem.
These species are known as keystone species.

Examples of keystone species include:

• Sea otters
Watch the videos and explain
• Wolves how their presence or absence
• Sea stars. can impact the population of
other species in their ecosystems
and the habitats they reside in.
Sea Star
Yellowstone wolves
Sea Otters
Keystone species exam question
(a) Outline a method that could have been used in this study to
measure the numbers of sea urchins per 0.25 m2. [2]

(b) Sea otters are considered keystone species in this environment.

Suggest how the presence of sea otters could affect the algae
population. [3]
Sustainability of harvesting from the wild
• The practice of harvesting resources from
nature has been a fundamental part of
human existence for centuries.
• However, as human populations have
grown and technological advancements
have expanded our capabilities, the act of
harvesting from the wild has become
increasingly complex.
• To avoid overexploitation of renewable wild
resources, harvesting should be done
sustainably.
Sustainable harvesting
• Many resources in nature, such as forests or fish in the oceans, are
renewable; they can replace the loss at a rate.

• There are limits to the amount of resources we can take from ecosystems
without causing permanent damage to their balance and health.

• The goal of harvesting sustainably is ‘during each harvesting effort or in a

particular time, removing the maximum number of individuals (or
maximum biomass) that can be harvested indefinitely without decreasing
the stability of the ecosystem’
Sustainable forestry
Sustainability of marine fish (cod,
Gadus morhua)

What does this graph show?

Sustainable fishing
• Quotas set

• Nets with different mesh sizes

• Only allow fishing at certain times of the year to protect breeding season

• Fish farming (aquaculture)

Guidelines for sustainable harvesting: IUCN
The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has
proposed four principles of wildlife conservation:

• A minimum population size should be determined. It should not be

depleted below the theoretical minimum size.
• Concern with the entire community of organisms and all the renewable
resources
• Minimising risk of irreversible change and long-term adverse effects.
• Continual monitoring, analysis and assessment.
Sustainable Agriculture
During the early 20th century, the Great
Plains in North America experienced a period
of intense agricultural expansion. Large-scale
mechanised farming techniques were
introduced, and vast areas of native
grasslands were converted into farmland. The
predominant practice was monoculture
farming, where farmers planted extensive
areas with a single crop, such as wheat, and
relied heavily on tilling the soil.

What is the issue with monoculture farming?

Sustainability of agriculture
Agriculture can become unsustainable when practices and systems
are not properly managed.
Factors we must consider include:
• Soil erosion
• Agrochemicals
• Water use
• Biodiversity
• Greenhouse gas emissions.

How do these affect sustainability?

Factor How it affect sustainability.
Soil erosion

Agrochemicals

Water use

Biodiversity

Greenhouse
emissions
Soil erosion
• The removal of vegetation, such as
forests and grasslands, reduces the
protective cover of the soil.
• Without plants to hold the soil in place,
erosion rates can increase significantly.
• Excessive grazing by livestock and poor
agricultural practices such as improper
ploughing, leaving fields bare between
planting seasons and planting on steep
slopes can damage plant cover and
expose the soil surface, making it
susceptible to erosion by wind and
water.
Agrochemicals
• Some fertilisers can contribute to
soil acidification, reducing soil pH
levels. Acidic soils are less
productive and can become more
susceptible to erosion.
• Agrochemicals, especially
synthetic fertilisers, may lead to a
decline in soil organic matter. This
decreases the soil's ability to hold
water and nutrients, making it
more susceptible to erosion.
Water use
• If irrigation is not managed
properly, excessive water
application can lead to the
leaching of nutrients beyond the
crop root zone. Water-soluble
nutrients can be carried
downwards with the excess
water.
• Excessive use of fertilisers and
pesticides can contaminate
water bodies, harming aquatic
ecosystems and human health.
Biodiversity
• Intensive agricultural practices often
prioritise high-yielding crop varieties
and livestock breeds, leading to the
loss of biodiversity.
• Monocropping and genetic
homogeneity make agricultural
systems more vulnerable to pests,
diseases and climate change impacts.
Greenhouse gas emissions
• During agricultural activities such as tilling, fertilisation, livestock
farming, transportation and food processing, greenhouse gases are
produced and emitted.
• These gases trap heat, leading to global warming and climate
change.
• As temperatures rise, weather patterns become more unpredictable
and shifting patterns of pests and diseases become more
problematic.
Fertilisers and eutrophication

Draw a flow chart to

show the stages of
eutrophication.

Eutrophication risk in the Dubai

Stages of Eutrophication

Note: this can also occur from untreated sewage release.

What is happening in
this image?
Biomagnification of pollutant
• The consumption of
contaminated organisms by
predators results in the transfer
and accumulation of the
pollutants in higher trophic
levels.
• With each successive level of
the food chain, the
concentration of the pollutant
can become magnified in the
long term, which is
called biomagnification
Bioaccumulation of pollutant
 When pollutants enter an ecosystem, organisms can receive them
through absorption, ingestion or contact.
 These chemicals can be persistent and resist breakdown in the
environment, leading to their accumulation within the tissues of
organisms - Bioaccumulation
MWB: Define
What is the difference between biomagnification and
bioaccumulation?
DTT
Read the information on DTT and answer the questions
Mercury Bioaccumulation
• Mercury compounds such as
methyl mercury is more likely
to accumulate in droplets of
fat in adipose tissue than
metallic mercury.

Explain how this can lead to methyl

mercury being found in humans.
Exam question
(a.i) State the relationship between DDE concentration and eggshell thickness. [1]

([Link]) Suggest one reason for a decline in the brown pelican population with the most eggshell thinning. [1]

(b) Deduce, giving reasons, which brown pelican population decreased the most in the years following the study.
[2]
Exam question
(c) Outline the biomagnification of DDE in brown pelicans.
[3]
Plastics
Make a list of all the plastic products you have used today.
Micro & Macroplastics
Due to its non-biodegradable nature, plastic can accumulate in soil
and water bodies, where it can harm wildlife and pollute the
environment.
• Microplastics are small plastic particles or fragments that
measure less than 5 mm in size.
• Macroplastics refer to larger pieces of plastic debris that are
typically visible to the naked eye.
Plastic pollution
Effects of plastics on ecosystems
Disruption of marine food webs
Small marine organisms filter-feed on microplastics. This transfer of plastics
through the food chain can have cascading effects
Chemical pollution
When marine organisms consume plastics, they can be exposed to these
toxic chemicals, which can have detrimental effects on their health and
reproductive systems.
Wildlife entanglement and ingestion
Plastic items such as fishing nets, ropes and six-pack rings can entangle
animals, causing injuries, amputations or even death.
Habitat degradation
Plastic debris can degrade marine habitats, including coral reefs, seagrass
beds and estuaries.
NOS: Scientific reports
1. To what extent do scientists have a responsibility to educate the
public about their result results?

2. For which lines of research is this most important?

3. Discuss the benefits and limitations to the public of simplified

representations of research findings?
Rewilding
River rewilding
Rewilding
Can be sped up by
• Distributing seeds of plants that should be components
of ecosystems
• Reintroduction of apex predators and other keystone
species
• Re-establishment of connectivity where natural
ecosystem have become fragmented
• Control of invasive alien species.
Hinewai Reserve
• 1250 hectares of farmland has been allowed to return to native forest.
• Alien mammals like goats, bushtail, possums, and deer are rigorously
controlled.

The speed of regeneration of natural ecosystems at Hinewai has been

remarkable.
Succession summary
AHL 4.2.12
Ecological succession
Ecological succession occurs in response to various causes, including
natural disturbances, human activities and changes in environmental
conditions.

Succession = the process of the ecosystem changing over time

Succession happens because of changes to the abiotic factors causing the
biotic plant and animal species present to change.

 Primary succession = occurs on newly formed/exposed land

 Secondary succession = occurs where soil is present, but no plant
or animal species are present
AHL 4.2.13
Primary succession
Primary succession is the process of ecological change that occurs
in an area that has never been colonised by living organisms or has
been completely devoid of life due to extreme conditions, such as
newly formed volcanic rock or a retreating glacier.

Note:
This
process
can take
hundreds of
years
Pioneer species As plants die and Diversity Soil now rich and
colonises the decompose the soil increases deep enough to
rock/bare ground deepens and larger These out compete support large trees
and release plants can now the smaller plants – Climax
minerals which survive – stability and become the community
enable other increases dominant species
species to survive
Secondary succession
Usually the site of fire, flooding, windstorms, and human activities (e.g., logging
of forests).
Unlike primary succession, which starts from a barren landscape, secondary
succession begins with a pre-existing soil base and remnant species.
AHL 4.2.14

Cyclic succession
Some ecosystems undergo a cyclic ecological succession where
the community composition changes repeatedly.
These stages occur in a predictable sequence and eventually turn
back to the initial or similar starting point.
The process involves a continuous cycle of change and
regeneration, often driven by natural events.

Give an example of cyclic succession.

AHL 4.2.15

Climax communities
• As succession progresses, the pace of
change tends to slow and eventually a
climax community persist until a
disturbance causes further change.

How might human activity alter the natural process?

Arrested succession
As more species populate the habitat it
makes it more viable for further species to
live there. Those new species will then out-
compete the previous [Link] process
will continue until a climax community
is reached.

Why do you think grazing herbivores

halt succession in heathland?
Grazing
• Grasses and many herbs can tolerate
grazing but tree and shrubs seedlings
are killed.

• Leading to the area remaining grass

than.
Drainage of Wetland
• Wetlands provide habitats for organisms
adapted to anaerobic conditions.
• However, saprotrophic fungi are inhibited
this leads to the formation of peat which
is a large ecosystem and a carbon sink.
• In temperate climates these are known as peat bogs, trees cannot grow
here, and the dominant plant is often Sphagnum mosses.

Why would wetlands be drained?

Drainage of wetlands consequences
• Plants adapted to dry soil colonise.
• Trees will now be able to grow here
• But if the drains aren’t maintained it will become waterlogged
again.
AHL D4.3 Phenology
What does this graph show?
AHL 4.3.9

Phenology-the study of timings

• Photoperiod- is the length of time organisms are exposed to light

in a 24 hour period.

• Photoperiod and temperature both effect biological events such

as flowering, budburst, budset, and bird migration and nesting.
Phenology in the Arctic
• The Rangifer tarandus
(caribou) migrate
throughout the year to
find food sources one
such source is Cerastium
arcticum (mouse-eared
chickweed).

What impact might climate change have on this?

Birds in the UAE
Source:

• Migratory birds in the UAE rely on insects which come after the
rains in the spring. For many desert plants, phenological cycles
are timed to take maximum advantage of water availability and
avoid heat stress. It is not uncommon to see short, intense bursts
of growth during winter or spring rainy periods, plants distributing
seeds or flowers immediately following the period of growth, and
near or complete senescence by the onset of intense summer
heat. As the rains become more unpredictable, the availability of
insects and plants comes more unpredictable, but birds have not
changed their migration patterns, this will in turn affect bird
numbers.
Source:
Life Cycle of an Insect

• Ips typographus (spruce bark beetle) usually have a life cycle of 2

years.
• But in warmer years it can be completed in 1 year, the
development then becomes unsynchronized. Larger numbers
then attack the Spruce trees damaging them.