ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY

LESSON 1: INTRODUCTION TO ABNORMAL abnormal in one culture or religion may be

PSYCHOLOGY normal in another.
3. Personal distress/ discomfort: If a person
Lesson Outline feels significant pain, anxiety, or suffering as a
[Link] Abnormality result of their thoughts or actions, this may
[Link] History of Psychopathology indicate abnormal behavior.
[Link] Considerations 4. Mental Illness: Recognized psychological
[Link] Abnormality/ Psychological conditions that disrupt thoughts, feelings, or
Disorders behaviors, often causing distress or functional
impairment. Mental illnesses are typically
What is abnormal psychology?
diagnosed based on established criteria (like
It deals with the nature, symptoms, development, and
those in the DSM-5)
treatments of mental/ psychological disorders. And it
refers to the study of abnormal behavior. 4Ds of ABNORMALITY
▪ Distress: This refers to feelings of unease,
Psychological Disorder or Abnormal Behavior
unpleasantness, and emotional pain or a
It is a psychological dysfunction within an individual that
discomfort in thoughts or behaviors. It
is associated with distress or impairment in functioning
encompasses a range of negative emotions.
and a response that is not typical or culturally expected
(can be one of the highest that is present)
Normal vs. Abnormal Behavior ▪ Dangerousness: This refers to the severity of
Sometimes, it can be difficult to distinguish normal from the symptoms that pose a risk to oneself
abnormal behavior because context matters. For (inward) ex. Bipolar or other people (outward)
example, a child refusing to eat or a man barking might ex. Anti-Personality Disorder.
seem abnormal, but could be explained by specific ▪ Deviance: It is not conforming to the standard
circumstances (e.g., developmental stages or coping form, rare and not usual within societal norms
mechanisms). and expectations.
Non-Pathological (Normal) ▪ Dysfunction: Refers to impaired functioning of
Manifestation of Normality the normal routine and a disruption of a
1. Efficient perception of reality. (awareness is in person’s ability to be productive in daily life,
tacked) such as work or social interactions.
2. Ability to exercise voluntary control over Note: not all people who have mental disorders are
behavior. dangerous.
3. A healthy and positive self-esteem. (not too Definition of Abnormality (DSM-5)
high and not too low) Abnormality/mental disorder is described as behavioral,
4. The ability to form affectionate relationships. psychological, or biological dysfunctions that are
5. Productivity unexpected in their cultural context and associated with
Pathological (Abnormal) - away from normal present distress and impairment in functioning, or
Criteria of Abnormal behavior increased risk of suffering, death, pain, or impairment.
1. Unusualness of the behavior: Behaviors that Mental health professionals as scientist-
are rare or deviate significantly to many people practitioners
or from societal norms 1. Using the most recent diagnostic and
2. Cultural Relativism: Behaviors are statistical treatment procedures that are based on the
and standard norm based. It must be latest scientific developments;
understood within cultural contexts; what’s

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
2. Evaluating the aforementioned procedures to ● Prognosis: A prediction about the course that
determine if they are effective, and a condition will take. The possible outcome of
3. Conducting research to discover new the intervention.
information about the disorders and their Good vs. Guarded/Bad: If the prognosis is good, the
treatments. individual will probably recover, and if the prognosis is
Note: Some individuals with personality disorders do guarded, the probable outcome doesn't look good.
not feel stress; for them, their low levels of discomfort or
distress feel normal and serve as their way of ● Protective factors: These are things that
expressing themselves. reduce the chances of developing problems,
The focus of studying psychological disorders like strong social support or good coping skills.
▪ Clinical Description ● Risk factors: These are things that increase
▪ Causes (Etiology) the likelihood of developing problems, such as
▪ Treatment and Outcome stress, trauma, or unhealthy habits.
I. Clinical Description
II. Etiology
▪ Presenting Problems: Way of indicating why
Origin/ causes of the disorders
the person came to the clinic. (Why are you
Why does a disorder begin? Disorder can have multiple
here?). It is the initial symptoms or all the
causes and several factors.
symptoms the client presented including
concerns III. Treatment
▪ Prevalence: How many people have the Psychological, pharmacological, or combined treatment
disorder? (Statistic). The number of cases to alleviate the disorder
(previous/new) in the population at the
specified time. [Link] History of Psychopathology
▪ Incidence: How many new cases? The ● Traditional Perspective
number of new cases occurs during a given ● Modern Perspective
period such as years or months. ● Modern Healthcare
▪ Onset: When or where did the symptoms The traditional perspective (Ancient times)
start? ● Supernatural: The work of evil spirits, divine
Acute: begin suddenly, brief, quick interventions.
Insidious: develop gradually over an expected ● Biological: Physical illness and the
period. breakdown of the systems of the body.
Aged- onset: When did the symptoms start? ● Psychological: traumas, bereavement,
● Course: Progression/progress right after the chronic stress
treatment. What is the possibility that will The Traditional Perspective
happen? ● Ancient Time
Chronic: lasts a long time or sometimes ● The Medieval Age
lifetime ● The Development of Asylums
Episodic: likely to recover within a few months ● Moral Treatment
only to develop symptoms again. “Cycle of
Ancient Time
recovery and relapse”
Demonology: Demons/spirits
Time- limited: patient will get better shortly
● Exorcism: Evil spirits were cast out through
without treatment or intervention
prayer, magic, flogging, starvation, having the

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
person ingest horrible tasting drinks, or Medieval Age
noisemaking. ● Witchcraft Hunt: witchcraft or witches were
● Hydrotherapy: A treatment that uses water to considered abnormal and accused of being
relieve pain, improve circulation, and promote mentally ill.
healing. It includes the process of soaking feet ● Psychic Epidemics or Mass Hysteria: large
in water, known as a foot bath. numbers of people engage in unusual
● Trephination: A stone instrument known as a behavior and false beliefs. Mostly actions but
trephine was used to remove part of the skull, also emotion.
creating an opening. Through it, the evil spirits ● Manias/Dance Frenzies: Historical
could escape, thereby ending the person’s phenomena where groups of people would
mental affliction and returning them to normal engage in uncontrollable, erratic dancing and
behavior. movements, often believed to be a reaction to
Ancient China stress, mass hysteria, or spiritual influence.
● Imbalance of Yin Yang: positive force and ● Saint Vitus Dance: A type of dance frenzy
heightened emotions such as anger, linked to Saint Vitus, where people in the
happiness, fright (yang) , negative force and Middle Ages would dance wildly, sometimes
low emotions such as fear, sorrow and for days. This name is also used for a
sadness (yin). neurological disorder, Sydenham's chorea,
● Internal organs (vital air): vital air flowed which causes involuntary movements.
through one of those organs, the individual ● Tarantism: A social phenomenon in Italy
experienced a certain emotion. where large groups of people, supposedly
● Abnormal Airflow: Imbalance of air flow on bitten by a tarantula, would experience an
our body and dysfunctional organ in body uncontrollable urge to dance, believing the
movements would cure them of the spider's
Ancient Egypt & Greece
venom.
● Wandering Uterus: (for women only) such as
● Lunacy: Paracelsus attributed abnormality to
pregnancy and menstruation. It's all because
the movements of the moon and stars.
of the womb. Strong smelling substance as
treatment. Development of Asylums
● Imbalances of the body humors because of Asylums (shelter for refugee)
the fluids that run to our body. Hippocrates ● Special rooms for people with abnormal
classification of abnormal behavior (epilepsy, behavior.
mania, melancholia, brain fever). He ● Form of intervention is not good “inhumane”
described four main fluids or humors that ● Lack of mental health facilities and mental
directed normal brain functioning and professionals
personality. Blood which arose in the heart, ● Patients are like inmates; locked-up
black bile arising in the spleen, yellow bile or ● No intervention, no psychotherapy
choler from the liver and phlegm from the Hospital of Saint
brain. Mental disorders occurred when the Mary of Bethlehem (Bedlam): 1st mental institution
humors were in a state of imbalance such as located in London
an excess of yellow bile causing frenzy and Moral Treatment: Allowing of treatment for patients
too much black bile causing melancholia or with respect and dignity
depression.

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● Philippe Pinel: Moral movement. He allowed ● Emil Kraepelin (dementia praecox &
patients to walk freely around La Bicetre manic-depressive psychosis)
Hospital. Biochemical Imbalances:
● Quaker William Tuke: The Retreat- an ● Neurotransmitters
asylum in England; treating patients with ● Hormones: hypothalamicpituitary-adrenal axis
respect & dignity (or HPA axis)
● Dorothea Dix: Mental hygiene movement- ● Genetic abnormalities: Down syndrome was
moral treatment in US. There’s now social due to the triplication of chromosome 21.
interaction, humane processes and removal of ● Disease: Syphilis can cause general paresis
chains. (memory loss, muscle weakness, progressive
Moral Treatment dementia
● During the first half of the 19th century Biological
● The term moral actually referred more to ● Louis Pasteur’s germ theory of disease,
emotional or psychological than to a code of developed in about 1870, facilitated the
conduct. identification of the syphilis.
● Its basic tenets included as normally as ● John P. Grey’s position was that the causes of
possible in a setting that encouraged social insanity were . Therefore, the mentally ill
interaction. patient should be treated as physically ill. The
● Moral therapy as a system originated with the emphasis was again on rest, diet, and proper
well-known French psychiatrist Philippe Pinel room temperature and ventilation, approaches
and his close associate . used for centuries by previous therapists in the
● Jean Baptiste Pussin had already instituted biological tradition.
remarkable reforms by removing all chains ● Under Grey’s leadership, the conditions in
used to restrain patients and instituting hospitals greatly improved and they became
humane and positive psychological more humane, livable institutions. But in
interventions. subsequent years they also became so large
● Pussin persuaded Pinel to go along with the and impersonal that was not possible.
changes. ● In the 1930s, the physical interventions of
● After William Tuke followed Pinel’s lead in electric shock and brain surgery were often
England, Benjamin Rush, often considered the used.
founder of U.S. psychiatry, introduced moral ● Benjamin Franklin discovered a mild and
therapy in his early work at Pennsylvania modest electric shock to the head produced a
Hospital. brief convulsion and memory loss (amnesia)
The Modern Perspective but otherwise did little harm.
● Biological ● Manfred Sakel: The earliest form of shock
● Psychological therapy, insulin therapy was invented in 1933
● Socio-cultural as one of the first treatments that involved
● Other Contemporary Model inducing comas or seizures.
Biological ● Ugo Cerletti: In 1937, an Italian neurologist
Brain Dysfunction: was convinced that metrazol- induced
● Wilhelm Griesinger’s The Pathology and convulsions were useful for the treatment of
Therapy of Psychic Disorder. schizophrenia, but far too dangerous and
uncontrollable to be applied (there was no
antidote to stop the convulsions at the time, as

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
it happened with insulin). Furthermore, they ● In patients with drug or alcohol addictions, the
were highly feared by the patients. gamma-aminobutyric acid, or GABA, receptor
● Of the biological therapies in the 1930s may be affected.
electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) was the most Genetic Abnormalities
successful and lasting treatment. ● Behavioral Genetics: Study of the genetics of
● Ladislaus Von Meduna: a young Hungarian personality and abnormality
physician, studied the brains and the mental ● Alteration in the gene structure can cause
health histories of schizophrenics and abnormalities
epileptics and noted that there seemed to exist ● Genes and the Environment: genes can
a "biological antagonism" between these two determine the type of environment we choose;
diseases of the brain. Meduna reasoned, then, the environment can serve as a catalyst for
that "pure" artificially induced epileptic genetic tendencies.
convulsions could be able to "cure"
Chromosomal disorders
schizophrenia.
Common Genetic Disorders
The neurotransmitters And its Function/s ● Down syndrome (Trisomy 21)
1. Serotonin: ● Fragile X syndrome
● play an important role in emotions and ● Klinefelter syndrome
impulses such as aggressive impulses. ● Triple-X syndrome
● associated with depression and ● Turner syndrome
obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). ● Trisomy 18
2. Dopamine ● Trisomy 13
● brain’s reward system and muscle system. Nervous System
● hypothesis: High levels are associated with
Schizophrenia and low levels are associated
with Parkinson's Disease.
3. Norepinephrine
● mood regulation.
4. Gamma Amino Butyric Acid (GABA)
● inhibits the activities of other neurotransmitters
● associated with anxiety disorder.
Role of Neurotransmitters
● If serotonin or norepinephrine movement is
interrupted, depression or anxiety disorders Functional Areas of the Brain
can result
● Dopamine is another neurotransmitter linked to
mental illness, such as schizophrenia
● Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
is also believed to be a result of interrupted
passages of dopamine or norepinephrine.
● Tiredness, high levels of stress and poor
motivation are also linked to low dopamine.
● Personality disorders and social disorders are
believed to be caused by the interrupted
transfer of neurotransmitter messages.

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The Major Divisions of the Brain Psychological
1. Psychodynamic
2. Behavioral
3. Humanistic
4. Cognitive
5. Family Systems
1. Psychodynamic
● Several abnormal behaviors stem from
unconscious thoughts, desires, and memories
● Mesmer, Breuer, Charcot, and Freud.
2. Behavioral
● The role of reward, punishment, and modeling.
Limbic System: Controls basic emotions and
● Skinner, Pavlov, and Bandura.
psychological drives
3. Humanistic
● The role of free choice/ free will.
● Incongruence of the real self and ideal self.
● Rogers and May
4. Cognitive
● The role of cognitive processes such as
perception of events.
● ABCDEF concept of Ellis. - Ellis and Beck
5. Family Systems
● The role of family in psychopathology
● Murray Bowen
● Amygdala: set of neurons responsible for the Socio-cultural: focuses on how social and cultural
processing of fear factors influence mental health
● Hippocampus: responsible for long-term ● Poverty: Living in poverty causes chronic
memory formation stress, which increases the risk of developing
● Thalamus: involved with consciousness, mental health disorders like depression and
alertness, and sleep anxiety disorders. Limited access to
● Pineal gland: a pea-shaped gland that healthcare, education, and basic needs further
regulates sleep. worsens these conditions as individuals
● Hypothalamus: involved with pleasure, food, struggle with constant financial strain.
body temperature, and sex ● Unemployment: Being unemployed often
leads to feelings of worthlessness, stress, and
The Role of the Endocrine System low self-esteem, which can trigger or worsen
● Hormones mental health issues such as major
● Pituitary Gland and Hypothalamus depressive disorder (MDD) and generalized
● Stress Response: corticotropin release factor anxiety disorder (GAD). Financial struggles
(CRF) HPA Axis – anxiety and depression add to the stress, creating a cycle of emotional
distress.
● Environmental Issues: Poor living conditions,
exposure to pollution, or unsafe
neighborhoods can cause physical and

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
emotional stress. Prolonged exposure to such
environments may lead to anxiety disorders, 5-HTT GENE MODEL
depression, and in severe cases, ● As a serotonin transporter, the protein
post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) if encoded by the 5-HTT gene is responsible for
traumatic events, like natural disasters, are the reuptake of serotonin into the presynaptic
involved. cell after it has been released into the synaptic
● Housing Concerns: Inadequate or unstable cleft to signal the adjacent neuron. The precise
housing creates a stressful living environment. structure of this protein has not been
Overcrowded spaces, unsafe conditions, or determined, but it is known to be located in the
the fear of eviction can result in anxiety presynaptic cell membrane. The activity and
disorders, adjustment disorders, or even number of the serotonin transporter proteins
depression as individuals face constant determine the length of time that the chemical
instability and insecurity about their living signal remains in the synapse (Glatz, et. al.
situation. 2003).
● Cultural and Religious Practices: Strongly ● Since the serotonin pathway, and specifically
influence how mental health is viewed and the serotonin transporter, are involved in mood
treated. In some cultures, mental illness may control, multiple antidepressant medications
be stigmatized, leading to untreated have targeted these elements, and
depression or social anxiety disorder. researchers have often studied the 5-HTT
Other Contemporary Models transporter for its role in depression.
Meehl, Bleuler, & Rosenthal, 1960 Gene-Environment Correlation: Active
● One effect genes have on people is what
scientists call an active gene- environment
correlation.
● It’s active because genes influence behavior in
a way that leads people to seek out and
construct certain situations. Then those
situations that they create or choose for
themselves influence their personalities.
● For example, one highly heritable trait is
activity level. Consider how some newborn
BIOPSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL babies are wiggling all over the place while
Engel & Romano, 1977 others are much more sedate. The heritability
of activity level is about 0.4. As these babies
get older, the more active ones are going to be
more interested in running all around, kicking
balls, and playing games. When they’re the
age that kids start playing sports, they’re going
to be the first in line.
Gene-Environment Correlation: Reactive
● The second kind of gene-environment
correlation is called a “reactive” or evocative
gene-environment correlation. It’s called
evocative because genes influence a person’s

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behavior in ways that evoke certain reactions Modern Mental-health care
from other people. ● Drug Treatment
● Occurs when parents create an environment ● Deinstitutionalization
that matches their child's personality. ● Managed-Care System
● A reactive gene-environment correlation Drug Treatment
occurs when parents create environments that ● Major breakthrough in the 20th century.
match their child’s personality. If a parent sees ● The discovery of phenothiazines.
that a child enjoys music but doesn’t like
sports, the parent will be more likely to buy the Type of Drug (Adapted from Hoeksema, 2011)
child things that involve music rather than
sports, encourage music lessons rather than
team sports, and so on. The child’s genes
fostered behavior that led parents to create a
different environment, which then has
downstream consequences for the child’s
personality.
General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) by Hans Selye
● General adaptation syndrome(GAS) describes
Deinstitutionalization (a system that they still do)
the physiologic changes your body goes
● integrating mental patients in the community.
through as it responds to stress. (How do we
● Patients’ rights movement in the US in 1960.
respond to stress?) These changes occur in
● Launched by Pres. Kennedy in 1963.
stages:
● Community health and intervention
● An alarm reaction (also called fight-or-flight)
● ex. Tokhang (can be outpatient or inpatient)
● A resistance phase (in which your body
● Can be merged with community
recovers)
● A period of exhaustion Managed-Care System (lowest)
● Enduring stress has physical and mental ● Collection of methods for organizing health
effects on the [Link] the more your body care ranging from simple monitoring all the
goes through the stages of general adaptation, way to total control over what care can be
the greater the risk of long-lasting negative provided.
effects. ● A system of health insurance designed to
control costs and improve quality of care.
Example of General Adaptation Syndrome
● Mostly in Hospitals
● Alarm reaction: You have trembling hands
and butterflies in your stomach prior to the Multimodal therapy (MMT)
start of an important exam. Arnold Lazarus
● Resistance: You've finished your exam but ● is a type of holistic approach to psychotherapy,
you're having trouble switching gears and usually involving several therapeutic
focusing on other things. techniques or approaches at once. In other
● Exhaustion: Your exam is in the past but you words, the focus tends to be on treating the
still feel anxious and depressed. You're having whole person rather than focusing too narrowly
trouble sleeping and you wonder how you're on specific symptoms. It is also called "eclectic
going to get through the rest of the semester. therapy" or "integrative psychotherapy."
● Combination of any forms of several
treatments, ways or methodologies.

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
● Even physical, social, mental intervention Topic Outline
● Developed by psychologist Arnold Lazarus in A. Research Methods
the 1960s when he noticed that clients would B. Assessment
benefit from using more than one type of C. Diagnosis
therapy at a time.
A. Research Methods
C. Ethical Considerations in Abnormal Psychology The Scientific Method: A process which involves a
Defining Ethics series of steps to obtain and evaluate information
● Ethics refer to issues or practices that relevant to a problem being studied (Hoeksema, 2011).
influence the decision making process in terms
of “doing the right thing” Steps of the Scientific Method
Step 1: Selecting and Defining the Problem
Code of Ethics and Professional Standards for
● The research problem is the issue that you
Philippine Psychology Practitioners
Principles
want to solve/discover.
I. Respect for the Dignity of Persons and Example: You want to determine the effect
Peoples of lack of sleep on academic performance.
II. Competent Caring for the Well-being of Step 2: Formulating and Testing Hypothesis
Persons and Peoples ● An educated guess supported by
III. Integrity data/what we predict on the result of the
IV. Professional and Scientific Responsibilities to
study.
Society
● It can be stated as ALTERNATIVE/NULL.
Ethical Considerations in Abnormal Psychology Example: Students who lack sleep have lower
● Clinicians have the duty to provide competent grades than students who have enough sleep.
care to their clients.
● Clinicians must avoid multiple Research Methods
● relationships with their clients. The Scientific Method: A process which involves a
● Clinicians must protect their clients’ series of steps to obtain and evaluate information
confidentiality. relevant to a problem being studied (Hoeksema, 2011).
● Clinicians are charged to provide ethical
Steps of the Scientific Method
service to a diverse population.
Step 1: Selecting and Defining the Problem
● The research problem is the issue that you
want to solve/discover.
● Example: You want to determine the effect of
lack of sleep on academic performance.
Step 2: Formulating and Testing
Hypothesis
● An educated guess supported by data/what we
predict on the result of the study.
● It can be stated as ALTERNATIVE/NULL.
● Example: Students who lack sleep have lower
grades than students who have enough sleep.
Lesson II: Research, Assessment, and Diagnosis Step 3: Choosing & Implementing a Research
Method

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● Decide what research design, data collection ● Results are generalizable.
procedure, and data analysis to be used. Disadvantages:
Step 4: Drawing a Conclusion ● Cannot indicate the cause and effect of the
● Synthesis of key points. variables being studied.
Step 5: Writing the Research Report ● Suffer from a third variable problem.
● Consider the institutional or journal format.
Epidemiological Studies: Determine the frequency
The Basic Components of Research
and distribution of a disorder.
● Hypothesis: Educated guess/statement to be
supported by data.
● Prevalence of the disorder
● Research Design: The plan for testing the
● Incidence of the disorder
hypothesis.
● Risk factors
● Dependent Variable: It is measured and
Advantages:
expected to be changed and influenced by the
● Provide pertinent information about the
independent variable.
prevalence, incidence, and risk factors for a
● Independent Variable: Factor that is assumed
disorder.
to affect the dependent variable.
● Give us an idea as to who is at highest risk of
● Internal Validity: Degree to which the results
developing the disorder.
of the study can be attributed to the
Disadvantages:
independent variable.
● Unable to establish that the identified risk
● External Validity: The extent to which the
factor causes a disorder.
results of the study can be generalized or
● Suffer from third variable problem.
applied outside the immediate study.
Experimental Studies: Attempts to control all the
Common Research Methods
variables that may affect the dependent variable.
Case Studies: In-depth histories of the experiences of
● Control and Experimental Group
individuals.
● Human Laboratory Studies
Advantages:
● Therapy Outcome Studies
Advantages:
● Richness in details
● Can determine the cause/s and effect/s of the
● Attention to the unique experiences of the
variable being studied.
person
Disadvantages:
● Ability to focus on rare problems
● Low external validity, or problems in terms of
Disadvantages:
the generalizability of the result.
● Lack of generalizability
● Some experimental studies pose serious
● Lack of objectivity
ethical issues.
● Difficulties in replication
Cross-Cultural Studies: Examines the similarities and
Correlational Studies: Examine the relationship
differences in abnormality across cultures.
between dependent and independent variables.
Advantages:

● No manipulation, focusing on situations

occurring in the real world.
Advantages:

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● Expand our knowledge about psychological ● Reporting Research Results: Psychologists
disorders beyond the confinements of our own do not fabricate data. If psychologists discover
cultural context. errors in their published data, they should take
Disadvantages: reasonable steps to correct the errors.
● Differences in the meanings or manifestations ● Plagiarism: Psychologists do not claim the
of variables across cultures. work of others as their own.
● Difficulty translating questionnaires and other
assessment tools into different languages. B. Assessment

Meta-Analysis: Combining the results of several ● The process of gathering and integrating
studies to determine the overall trends across studies. information about the symptoms manifested by
Advantages: the clients and the possible causes of these
symptoms (Hoeksema, 2011; Cohen et al.,
● Since the researcher can pool data from 2013).
thousands of participants across studies, it can
solve the problem of small numbers of Assessment Tools: An assessment tool must be
participants. reliable, valid, and standardized.
Disadvantages:
● Some studies have flaws in terms of the Clinical Assessment
methodologies used.
● Clinical assessment refers to the process of
Ethical Issues in Research gathering and integrating information about the
symptoms manifested by the clients and the
● Maintaining Confidentiality: We have the possible causes of these symptoms
primary obligation to keep in strict confidence (Hoeksema, 2011; Cohen et al., 2013).
the identity of the participants and any ● Involves evaluating and measuring biological,
information gathered from them in the study. psychological, and social factors that possibly
● Informed Consent: Inform the participants influence the presenting problem/s of the client
about the purpose of the study, its benefits, (Barlow & Durand, 2015).
their right to decline and to withdraw, potential
danger or risk, incentives for participation, Assessment Tools: Various tools have been
confidentiality and its limitations, and the developed to help mental health practitioners gather
contact person if the participants have pertinent information from the client. To ensure the
questions about the research. usefulness of any assessment tool, clinicians must
● Deception: Do not use deception in research make sure that it is reliable, valid, and standardized
unless it is determined that deceptive (Hoeksema, 2011).
technique is justified due to the complicated
nature of the study. ● Reliable when it is consistent in measuring
● Debriefing: The researcher should also what it is supposed to measure.
provide an opportunity for the participants to ● Valid when it measures what it is intended to
ask questions and receive answers. If the measure.
research procedure caused harm to the ● Standardized when there is a standard method
participants, the psychologist should take in administering it.
reasonable steps to minimize the harm.
Clinical Interview

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
● Conversation between the clinician and client. ● Antecedent: What happened before the
● To organize information gathered from the behavior (activating event) or trigger of
interview, most clinicians use the Mental behavior.
Status Examination (MSE). ● Behavior: The action or behavior itself.
● Consequence: What happened after the
MSE measures the following: behavior.
● Behavior Rating Scales: Tools such as
checklists or scales to systematically assess
behavior.
● Self-Monitoring: Clients track their own
behaviors, feelings, and thoughts over
time. Clinicians can give assignments to
client ex. Journal.

3. Psychological Testing: A Standardized Tests to

Assess emotional, cognitive, and behavioral responses
associated with specific disorders. “The test should be
depends on the symptoms gathered”

Interviews in Assessment Projective Techniques:

Unstructured Interview: How did it start? It consists of ● Rorschach Inkblot Test: Analyzes responses
a few open-ended questions. This format allows for to ambiguous inkblots to uncover unconscious
flexibility in responses and can lead to more in-depth thoughts and feelings.
insights into the client's experiences and feelings. ● Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): Involves
storytelling based on pictures to reveal
Structured Interview: Yes or No? The clinician asks a underlying motives and conflicts.
standardized set of questions regarding symptoms
experienced by the client, ensuring consistency and Personality Inventories:
thoroughness.
Minnesota Multiphasic Personality
● Example: A structured interview for panic Inventory (MMPI): A widely used personality
disorder might include questions about the assessment that helps identify
occurrence of panic attacks, their triggers, psychopathology.
physical symptoms during attacks, and any
resultant anxiety about having more attacks. Intelligence Tests:

● Stanford Binet Intelligence Scale (SBIS)

Behavioral Assessment: Involves direct observation
● Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS)
of a client’s behavior, thoughts, and feelings in specific
● Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children
contexts. (mostly in behavior)
(WISC)

Components:

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
4. Symptoms Questionnaire: Quickly assesses the ● 1st classification system for psychological
symptoms presented by the client. symptoms was proposed by Hippocrates in the
4th century. He divided all mental disorders
● Example: Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) into four (4):
includes items to evaluate various aspects of ● Mania (states of abnormal excitement)
depression, such as mood, future outlook, and Melancholia (states of abnormal depression)
feelings of failure. ● Paranoia (maladaptive mistrust and suspicion)
● Epilepsy (seizure disorder)
5. Neuropsychological Testing: Measures brain ● In 1883, Emil Kraepelin published the first
dysfunction by observing the effects of such dysfunction modern classification system of psychological
on task performance. disorders. He proposed two major
classifications:
● Example: Bender-Gestalt Test evaluates ● Dementia praecox (later changed to
sensorimotor skills by having individuals schizophrenia)
replicate drawings. ● Manic depressive psychosis (later changed to
bipolar disorder)
6. Neuroimaging: Utilizes technology (e.g., CT scans)
to capture accurate images of brain structure and DSM (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental
function, aiding in the understanding of neurological Disorders):
conditions.
● most widely used in the United States of
7. Psychophysiological Test: Detects changes in America.
the brain and nervous system that reflect emotional ● developed by the American Psychiatric
and psychological changes. “Only neurologists can Association.
do administer”
DSM History:

● Example: Electroencephalogram (EEG) ● first published in 1952

measures electrical activity in the brain. ● there have been several updates issued
● in the DSM-I, there were 102 categories of
8. Diagnosis: The classification of disorders based on diagnoses • increasing to 182 in the DSM-II
symptoms and signs, forming the foundation for clinical ● 265 in the DSM-III
care. ● 297 in the DSM-IV
● 298 in DSM-5
Classification Systems
● 299 in DSM-5 -TR
● Early Classification System: Hippocrates,
DSM's Timeline
Emil Kraepelin
● Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental First Edition (1952)
Disorders (DSM): American Psychiatric
Association ● outlined the diagnostic criteria for all
● International Classification of Diseases ● the mental disorders recognized by the
(ICD): World Health Organization medical community during that time. -The
criteria were somewhat vague to the strong
Early Classification: influence of psychoanalytic theory.

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
DSM-II (1968)

● some new disorders were

● included but like the 1st edition it is abstract
and theoretical.
● The reliability for diagnosis is low.

DSM-III (1980) & DSM-III-R (1987)

● relying on precise descriptions of the disorders DSM-5 (2013)

as
● they presented to clinicians rather than on ● parallel with WHO’s International Classification
psychoanalytic or biological theories of of Diseases (ICD)
etiology. -studying the reliability and validity of
the diagnostic criteria. Notable changes
● rating the individuals on five dimensions/ axes.
Multiaxial system was introduced in this ● inclusions of new disorders
editions of the DSM. Multiaxial System ● reclassification of other disorders
(DSM-IV) included five axes to assess various ● combining diagnoses
factors affecting mental health. ● organizing diagnosis by causes
● ethnic and cultural considerations in diagnosis
DSM-IV (1994) ● removal of the multi-axial system/ the DSM 5
is non-axial.
● the distinction between organically based
● disorders and psychological based disorders DSM-5-TR (2022)
was eliminated. -Multi-axial system remained
but with some changes. ● The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of
Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition, Text Revision
DSM-IV- TR (2000) (DSM-5-TR) was published in 2022.

● minor changes to some of the diagnostic Important updates include:

● criteria to improve consistency.
● Fully revised text for each disorder with
DSM-IV-TR's Multiaxial Format updated sections on associated features,
prevalence, development and course, risk and
● Axis I:Clinical Disorders prognostic factors, culture, diagnostic markers,
● Axis II:Personality Disorders and Mental suicide, differential diagnosis, and more
Retardation ● More than 70 modified criteria sets with helpful
● Axis III:General Medical Conditions clarifications
● Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental ● Fully updated Introduction and Use of the
Problems Manual to guide usage and provide context for
● Axis V:Global Assessment of Functioning important terminology
(GAF) ● Considerationsoftheimpactofracismanddiscrimi
nationonmental disorders integrated into the
text

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ABNORMAL PSYCHOLOGY
● New codes to flag and monitor suicidal ● Medication-Induced Movement Disorders and
behavior, availabletoall clinicians of any Other Adverse Effects of Medication
discipline and without the requirement of any ● Other Conditions That May Be a Focus of
other diagnosis Clinical Attention
● Fully updated ICD-10-CM codes implemented
since 2013, including more than 50 coding ICD (International Classification of Diseases)
updates new to DSM-5-TR for substance
intoxication and withdrawal, and other ● alternative approach in diagnosing
disorders psychological disorders.
● Updated and redesigned ● developed by the World Health Organization.
DiagnosticClassification ● widely used classification system in Europe
and the rest of the world
DSM-5 contains 20 disorder chapters and nearly 300
mental illnesses.

The DSM 5-TR contains revised criteria for more than

70 disorders. It also includes the addition of a new
diagnosis called Prolonged Grief Disorder

20 Disorder Chapters

DSM-5-TR has the same structure as DSM-5

● Neurodevelopmental Disorders
● Schizophrenia Spectrum and Other Psychotic
Disorders
● Bipolar and Related Disorders
● Depressive Disorders
● Anxiety Disorders
● Elimination Disorders
● Other Mental Disorders and Additional Codes
● Obsessive-Compulsive and Related Disorders
● Trauma-and Stressor-Related Disorders
● Dissociative Disorders
● Somatic Symptom and Related Disorders
● Feeding and Eating Disorders
● Sleep-Wake Disorders
● Sexual Dysfunctions
● Gender Dysphoria
● Disruptive, Impulse-Control, and Conduct
Disorders
● Substance-RelatedandAddictive Disorders
● Neurocognitive Disorders
● Personality Disorders
● Paraphilic Disorder

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