English Language Notes Class 10th

Mukesh Bhardwaj

1. Analytical Paragraph

Introduction Body Conclusion

2-3 Lines from Question 5-6 Lines Explanation 2-3 Lines from Question
❖ Don’t leave lines
❖ Shouldn’t exceed 120 words

Types of Question that come in Exam: Extract, a chart, a map, a table, a graph, bar graph
and pie chart.
Format to write Analytical Paragraph
(i) Introduction: To write introduction we should start our answers with these words.
➢ The chart given above describes….
➢ The given pie chart suggests….
➢ The given data provides information about….
➢ The graph given above illustrates….
➢ The given bar graph represents….
➢ The given map illustrates….
(ii) Body: Explain in detail about the given information, use relevant figures, explain trends,
make comparisons …etc.
Terms we should use:
✓ Go down: Decrease, Fall, Drop, Plunge (Big change)
✓ Go up: Increase, Rise, Grow, Climb (Big change)
✓ No change: Stabilize, Remain stable, Remain the same
✓ Constant: Fluctuate
Most important stats or data: It is clearly evident
(iii) Conclusion: We must use these terms while concluding analytical paragraph.
➢ Overall
➢ To Conclude
➢ In a nutshell

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Practice Questions
1.

CBSE 2024
The given table illustrates the hobbies chosen by boys and girls during summer vacations. It
is evident that girls prefer dancing (40%) and singing (25%) more than boys, who show a
preference for photography (35%) and playing (30%). While 19% of boys engage in yoga, a
slightly lower percentage of girls (15%) choose this activity. Photography is significantly
more popular among boys (35%) compared to girls (5%). Conversely, dancing is the most
favoured hobby among girls (40%), whereas only 13% of boys participate in it. In a nutshell,
these differences highlight the varied interests of boys and girls during their summer
breaks.
2.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

CBSE 2024

The given bar graph represents a fluctuating trend in the number of gyms and members
over the past decade. In 2010, there were approximately 2,000 gyms and 2,500 members.
The number of gyms and members increased gradually until 2016, reaching around 3,500
gyms and 3,000 members. The peak was observed in 2018 with 4,500 gyms and 4,000
members. However, there was a decline in both gyms and members in 2020, with numbers
dropping to around 2,500 gyms and 2,000 members. By 2022, the numbers slightly
recovered to 3,000 gyms and 3,500 members. Overall, the data indicates a general increase
in the number of gyms and members over the decade, with a notable peak in 2018 followed
by a dip and partial recovery.
3.

CBSE 2024

The visual representation depicts the life cycle of a butterfly, from egg to butterfly. The life
cycle of a butterfly consists of four distinct stages: egg, larva (caterpillar), pupa (chrysalis),
and adult butterfly. The cycle begins when the adult butterfly lays eggs on a leaf. These
eggs hatch into larvae, commonly known as caterpillars. The caterpillar stage is primarily
focused on feeding and growth. After reaching a certain size, the caterpillar transforms into
a pupa, also known as a chrysalis. During this stage, the caterpillar undergoes significant
changes, eventually emerging as an adult butterfly. This metamorphosis process highlights
the remarkable transformation and adaptation mechanisms in butterflies.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

4.

CBSE 2023
The given pie chart illustrates the monthly expenditure of a family across various
categories. The largest portion, 23%, is allocated to groceries, indicating a priority on food
essentials. Following this, education expenses account for 20%, reflecting the family’s
commitment on education and learning. Transportation costs are also significant at 18%,
suggesting regular travel needs. Clothing purchases take up 19%, showing a balanced
approach to personal attire. Finally, miscellaneous expenses constitute 15%, while rent is
the smallest segment at 5%. This distribution shows a family’s financial priorities. In a
nutshell the family emphasizes essential needs while maintaining a reasonable budget for
education and personal care.
5.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

CBSE 2024
The given data provides the detailed analysis of the reason behind students dropping out of
school. A staggering 73% of students expressed dissatisfaction with the school
environment, indicating a lack of engagement and interest. Additionally, 61% cited issues
with the teachers, suggesting that teacher – student relationships play a crucial role in
retention. The perception of value in schoolwork is also critical, as 60% of students felt that
the tasks assigned lacked significance. Family issues (42%) and the need to work for
financial support (35%) further illustrate external pressure impacting students’ decisions.
Bullying (28%) and the challenges of coursework, whether too difficult (54%) or too easy
(19%), highlight the diverse factors that contribute to the dropout phenomenon.
Addressing these issues is essential for improving student retention rates.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

2. Letter Writing
There are two types of letters:
1. Formal Letters: These letters are written in formal, simple and polite language. They
follow a certain format and are written for official purpose.
2. Informal Letters: These letters are written to parents, friends and relatives. They are
written in everyday and conversational language.

# In 10th we mainly study about formal letters.

Types of Formal Letters:
The types of formal letters from which questions are asked in CBSE Class X are:
❖ Complaint Letters
❖ Enquiry Letters
❖ Letters for placing an order
❖ Letters to the Editor
❖ Situation based letter
Parts of a Formal Letter
1. Sender’s Address: Complete address of the person who has written the letter. It is
written at the top left corner of the.
Anand Nagar
New Delhi
2. Date: Date on which the letter is written. It is written just after senders address in a very
specific format after leaving one line.
20th January, 2025
3. Reciever’s Post and Adress
As official letters are written to an authority, we write the receiver’s address after
addressing the official. It contains the receiver’s designation, organization and full address.
The Editor
The Times of India
Daryaganj
Delhi-110002
4. Subject: It expresses the main objective of the letter clearly. It must be brief.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

About lack of cleanliness and hygiene in Anand Nagar

5. Salutation: It is the greeting to the person to whom the letter is written.
Sir/Madam or Respected Sir/Madam
NOTE: If gender is not specified in the question then we use both.
6. Body of the Letter: It contains all the information that the writer wants to convey. The
body includes three main parts:
a) Introductory Paragraph: It states the purpose of writing the letter.
b) Informative Paragraph: It gives details of the problem, its causes, effects, possible
solutions, etc.
c) Concluding Paragraph: It states the writer’s hopes, comments, requests, suggestions,
etc.
7. Complimentary Closing: It is a courteous way of ending the letter. It is done in the
following format;
Thanking you
Yours sincerely/faithfully
(First letter of 2nd word isn’t written in capital and don’t use Your’s instead of Yours)
8. Sender’s Signature Name and Designation: After the complimentary closing you must
sign off the letter by mentioning your name and designation along with your signature.
Ajay Mehta
(A Concerned Citizen)

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Practice Questions
# Letter of Enquiry:
1. You are Kamal/Kanishka living at G-50, Kirti Nagar, Delhi. Write a letter to the Principal
I.T.I Pusa in about 100-120 words, enquiring about the diploma courses available in the
institution, the duration of the course, the fee-structure, placement services and
admission process. CBSE 2023
G-50, Kirti Nagar
Delhi
10th November 2025
The Principal
I.T.I Pusa
Subject: Enquiry about diploma courses
Sir/Ma’am
This is with reference to the advertisement regarding the diploma courses offered by your
institution. I have completed my schooling with extremely good grades and am interested
in pursuing a diploma course in your institution. I would be grateful if you could provide me
with the following details for admission to the graduation diploma in IT.
• Details for Admission
• Eligibility Criteria
• Fee Structure
• Hostel Facility
• Prospects Placement
• Scholarships Available (if any)
I would appreciate an early response from your end so as to enable me to decide my future
course of action. I am sending along a self – addressed and duly stamped envelope so that
you can send me a prospectus regarding the course at the earliest.
Hoping for an early response.
Thanking you
Yours sincerely
Kamal

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

# Letter to the Editor

2. The household water supply in your locality is muddy and not fit for drinking. Despite
several complaint letters to the civic authorities, the problem is still unresolved. Write a
letter to the editor of a local daily, in about 120 words, expressing your concern at the
situation and suggesting measures to resolve the problem and drawing attention of the
concerned authorities.
You are Somil/Soumya of 769, Silver Apartments Ajitha Vihar Karampeeth. CBSE 2024
768, Silver Apartments
Ajitha Vihar, Karampeeth
5th March, 2024
The Editor
The Times of India
New Delhi
Subject: Muddy household water supply
Sir/Ma’am
Through the column of your esteemed newspaper, I wish to bring the attention of the
concerned authorities towards the alarming issue of polluted water supply in our locality.
Our area has been receiving dirty and contaminated water for the last two weeks. The
polluted water is unhealthy for consumption. This poses a serious threat to our health and
well – being. As a result, we have to buy 10 – 20 water bottles every day to beat the rising
temperature and for other day-to-day chores. No action has been taken to resolve this
situation.
I believe that the concerned authorities take immediate action to address this issue. There
is a need to investigate the source of pollution and monitor water quality regularly.
Thanking you
Yours sincerely
Somil/Soumya

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

# Complaint Letters
3. There is no proper arrangement for cleaning of drains in your city. There are heaps of
accumulated garbage and stagnant water. Write a letter to the Municipal Commissioner
of your city complaining about the same as there is a fear of outbreak of disease.
You are Alka/Ashish of 3/4 Anand Nagar, New Delhi.
3/4, Anand Nagar
New Delhi
21st April, 2022
The Municipal Commissioner
Municipal Corporation
Delhi
Subject: Complaint about lack of cleanliness and hygiene in Anand Nagar
Sir/Ma’am
This is to inform your that I, Alka/Ashish, am a resident of Anand Nagar, Delhi. On behalf of
the residents of my area, I have written this letter to draw your kind attention towards the
prevailing unsanitary and unhygienic conditions of our locality.
In recent years, Anand Nagar has become a place identified because of its dirt and ding. The
sewage is not cleaned and the drains are always overflowing. Garbage is littered at all
corners and stagnant water can be found accumulated at various places. The sweepers
come but they don’t conduct their duties properly. The keep on pilling the garbage at
corners without removing it. It has created a terrible smell and has made the life of the
residents miserable. Besides, mosquitoes, flies and other disease carriers breed in these
garbage dump and pose a serious health hazard.
I, therefore, request you to look into this matter. Garbage should be collected daily or at
least on alternate days so as to prevent the accumulation of waste. Kindly do the needful at
the earliest.
Thanking you
Yours sincerely
Alka/Ashish
(A concerned citizen)

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

3. TENSES
PRESENT TENSE
1. Simple Present (Indefinite) Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative Subject + v1/v5 + Object He goes to library everyday.
Negative Subject + do/does + v1 + Object He does not go to library everyday.
Interrogative Do/Does + Subject + v1 + Object? Does he go to library everyday?

Use of Simple Present Tense:

(i) To express habitual action, habit or custom.
e.g. She goes for a walk in the evening.
I wash clothes on Sundays.
(ii) To talk about a general or universal truth.
e.g. Moscow is the capital of Russia.
The Earth moves around the Sun.
(iii) To indicate a future event which is part of a plan or arrangement.
e.g. It starts in December.
The school reopens next week.
2. Present Continuous Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + is/am/are + v4 + O Aryan is playing cricket.
Negative S + is/am/are + not + v4 + O Aryan is not playing cricket.
Interrogative Is/am/are + S + v4 + O? Is Aryan playing cricket?

Use of Present Continuous Tense:

(i) To indicate an action in progress.
e.g. He is watching the T.V.
(ii) To indicate an action that is not happening at the time of speaking but is in progress.
e.g. I am studying in a university.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Jim is working as a professor.

(iii) To denote an action that has been pre – arranged to take place in near future.
e.g. Kiara is going to an event tomorrow.
3. Present Perfect Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + have/has + v3 + O They have asked me to go with them.
Negative S + have/has + not + v3 + O They have not asked me to go with them.
Interrogative Have/has + S + v3 + O? Have they asked me to go with them?

Use of Present Perfect Tense:

(i) To indicate an action that has just finished.
e.g. Anuradha has done his work.
(ii) To describe past events, the effect of which still exists.
e.g. She has completed her homework so we are going to market now.
(iii) To describe a past experience, the time of which is not given or definite.
e.g. She has visited the Taj Mahal.
Have you played cricket?
4. Present Perfect Continuous Tense:
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + have/has + been + v4 + O They have been living here since 2002.
Negative S + have/has + not + been + v4 + O They have not been living here since 2002.
Interrogative Have/Has + S + been + v4 + O + ? Have they been living here since 2002?

Use of Present Perfect Continuous Tense:

(i) To indicate an action that began at some time in the past and is still continuing.
e.g. I have been waiting for you since 6 pm.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

PAST TENSE
1. Simple Past Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + v2 + O She went to shopping mall yesterday.
Negative S + did + not + v1 + O She did not go to shopping mall yesterday.
Interrogative Did + S + v1 + O + ? Did she go to shopping mall yesterday?

Use of Simple Past Tense:

(i) It is often used in recounts and narratives.
e.g. We went to watch the game yesterday.
(ii) To indicate past habits.
e.g. I used to play cricket on Sunday.
2. Past Continuous Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + was/were + v4 + O It was raining yesterday.
Negative S + was/were + not + v4 + O It was not raining yesterday.
Interrogative Was/were + S + v4 + O + ? Was it raining yesterday?

Use of Past Continuous Tense

(i) To express an action that was in progress during a given period of time in the past.
e.g. They were waiting for the doctor when the fire broke out.
3. Past Perfect Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + had + v3 + O We had decided to play.
Negative S + had + not + v3 + O We had not decided to play.
Interrogative Had + S + v3 + O +? Had we decided to play?

Use of Past Perfect Tense:

(i) To indicate an action that completed before another past event.
e.g. The train had started before we reached the station.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

(ii) To indicate a desire in past that has not been fulfilled.

e.g. We had wished to climb the Everest.
4. Past Perfect Continuous Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + had + been + v4 + O I had been reading for an hour.
Negative S + had + not + been + v4 + O I had not been reading for an hour.
Interrogative Had + S + been + v4 + O + ? Had I been reading for an hour?

Use of Past Perfect Continuous Tense:

(i) To denote an action that is cause of another action in the past.
e.g. She was upset because she had been looking forward to the reunion.

FUTURE TENSE
1. Simple Future Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + shall/will + v1 + O She will join us for trip.
Negative S + shall/will + not + v1 + O She will not join us for trip.
Interrogative Shall/will + S + v1 + O + ? Will she join us for trip?

Use of Simple Future Tense:

(i) To express an action that will take place at some time in the future.
e.g. He will go for the meeting tomorrow.
(ii) To express a warning, order, request, advice or proposal.
e.g. Shall we start the meeting?
2. Future Continuous Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + shall/will + be + v4 + O She will be cooking food.
Negative S + shall/will + not + be + v4 + O She will not be cooking food.
Interrogative Shall/will + S + be + v4 + O + ? Will she be cooking food?

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Use of Future Continuous Tense:

(i) To indicate an action that will be in progress at a point in the future.
e.g. We shall be going tomorrow.
(ii) To indicate an action that will occur in a continuous course.
e.g. I shall be staying with my grandparents.
3. Future Perfect Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + shall/will + have + v3 + O You will have finished your
assignments.
3
Negative S + shall/will + not + have + v + O You will not have finished your
assignments.
3
Interrogative Shall/will + S + have + v + O + ? Will you have finished your
assignment?

Use of Future Perfect Tense:

(i) To indicate an action that will be completed at some point in the future.
e.g. She will have reached home by evening.
4. Future Perfect Continuous Tense
Sentence Type Structure Example
Affirmative S + shall/will + have + been + v4 + O I shall have been working in
this company for one year.
Negative S + shall/will + not + have + been + I shall not have been working
v4 + O in this company for one year.
Interrogative Shall/will + S + have + been + v4 + O Shall I have been working in
+? this company for one year?

Use of Future Perfect Continuous Tense:

(i) To indicate an action that will be in progress over a period of time in the future.
e.g. She will have been cooking for hours.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

4. SUBJECT-VERB CONCORD
➢ Subject-Verb Concord or Subject-Verb Agreement refers to a set of rules that defines
a grammatically correct and meaningful sentence.
➢ It ensures that the subject and verb present in the sentence agree with each other.
Subject and Verb in Person and Number
(i) If the subject is singular it takes the singular verb and if the subject is plural it takes the
plural verb.
e.g. He is going for a walk. (Singular)
We are going for a walk. (Plural)
(ii) If two or more singular subjects are joined together using ‘and’ a plural verb is used.
e.g. Harry and Garry are playing cricket.
(iii) When two subjects together express one idea, singular verb is used.
e.g. Time and tide waits for no one.
Bread and butter is my favourite breakfast.
(iv) Some nouns that appear plural but are singular in meaning, takes a singular verb.
e.g. The news is true.
Politics is a dirty game.
(v) Everybody, somebody, nobody, anybody and anyone take a singular verb.
e.g. Everybody looks tired today.
(vi) If two subjects are joined by ‘or’ , ‘nor’ , ‘either’ , ‘neither’ the verb agrees with the
subject nearest to it.
e.g. Either the captain or the teammates are not happy.
Neither the members nor the speaker was able to answer the question.
(vii) The title of a book, play, story, or a musical composition, even if plural, takes a
singular verb.
e.g. Romeo and Juliet was written by William Shakespeare.
The Chronicles of Narnia revolves around the journey of four siblings.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

(viii) Sentences that starts with ‘here’ and ‘there’ either take singular or plural verbs
according to the subjects nearest to them.
e.g. There is a book lying on the table.
Here are the files that you asked for.
(ix) If subjects are joined by ‘together with’ , ‘as well as’ , ‘with’ , ‘along with’ . ‘in addition
to’ the verb must agree with the first subject, irrespective of whether it is singular or
plural.
e.g. My mother, along with my siblings is going on a trip.
The ministers, as well as the prime minister, are attending the meeting.
(x) Two nouns qualified by ‘each’ and ‘every’ even though connected by ‘and’, require a
singular verb.
e.g. Every student and every teacher is present in the hall.
(xi) None is singular but takes a plural/singular verb according to the sense involved in the
sentence.
e.g. None of them were asked to attend the class.
He was looking for a pen but none was found.
(xii) When the plural noun is a collective unit, it must be followed by singular verbs.
e.g. The United Nations functions all over the world.
(xiii) Uncountable nouns like advice, stationary, weather, progress are singular and take a
singular verb.
e.g. Today’s weather is quite pleasant.
Advice is not welcomed until asked.
(xiv) A collective noun takes a singular verb when collection is thought of as one whole. It
takes the plural verb when the stress is on the individual.
e.g. The jury is announcing the final verdict today.
The jury have been arguing for an hour now.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
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(xv) A singular verb is used when a plural noun denotes some specific quantity or amount.
e.g. Two kilometers is not a large distance.
Three hundred rupees has been asked by them.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

5. DETERMINERS
➢ Determiners are words that can be used with nouns to determine or modify their
meaning.
➢ Determiners function like adjectives.
➢ They are also called ‘fixing words’.

Classification of Determiners
Determiners can be classified into –
1. Articles 4. Possessive Adjectives
2. Demonstrative Adjectives 5. Distributive Adjectives
3. Quantifiers

1. Articles – A, An, The

Indefinite Articles:
• ‘A’ and ‘An’ are indefinite articles.
• They do not refer to any specific or unique noun.
• They make the noun singular and are used only with singular nouns.
Use of Indefinite Articles ‘A’ and ‘An’:
(i) The article ‘A’ is used before the words that start with consonant sound.
e.g. I found a bag in the class.
He is a European.
I want to study in a university.
(ii) The article ‘An’ is used before the words that start with vowel sound.
e.g. She gave me an umbrella.
He is an honest man.
Definite Articles:

• The is called the definite article.

• It is used to denote a noun that has already been referred to.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Use of Definite Article – ‘The’:

(i) While talking about a particular person or thing already referred to.
e.g. This is the pen you were looking for.
(ii) Before the name of River, Ocean, Canal, Desert, Group of Islands, Mountain Ranges.
e.g. The Pacific Ocean, The Ganga, The Panama Canal, The Thar Desert, The West Indies,
The Himalayas.
(iii) Before the name of some countries.
e.g. The USA, The United Kingdom, The People’s Republic of China,
The Republic of Korea, The USSR.
(iv) Before the name of religious and mythological books.
e.g. The Ramayana, The Mahabharata, The Bible..etc
(v) Before the name of things which are unique.
e.g. The Moon, The Earth, The Taj Mahal ..etc.
(vi) With a proper noun, when it is qualified by an adjective or a defining adjectival clause.
e.g. Ashoka the great.
The Mr. Verma whom you met yesterday is my father.
(vii) With superlative degree.
e.g. She is the most beautiful girl of this school.
(viii) With ordinals.
e.g. Sachin Tendulkar is the first cricketer to get Bharat Ratna.
(ix) Before musical instruments.
e.g. I want to play the guitar.
(x) Before adjective when the noun is understood.
e.g. The youth are the future of a nation.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

2. Demonstrative Adjectives – This, That, These, Those

(i) That (in case of plural, those)
a) It refers to person (s) or thing (s) that is far away from the speaker.

• That house belongs to my uncle.

• Those bricks are quite expensive.
b) It is used to avoid the repetition of the preceding noun(s).

• That painting is better than mine.

• Those devices are more developed than ours.
(ii) This ( in case of plural, these)
a) It refers to person (s) or thing (s) that is near the speaker.

• This matter is a serious one.

• These books are mine.

3. Quantifiers
A quantifier is a word or phrase which is used before a noun to indicate the amount or
quantity.
Types of Quantifiers are as follows;
(i) Definite: One, two, hundred ….. first, second, both, etc.
(ii) Indefinite: Some, many, much, enough, few, a few, all, little, a little, several, most, etc.
(iii) Difference: Another, other.
(iv) Comparative: More, less, fewer.
NOTE: Quantifiers can be used in affirmative sentences, questions, requests or commands
with both countable and uncountable nouns.
e.g. Many students are participating in the sports festival.
I have a few questions to ask the teacher.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Uses of Quantifiers:
I. Use of few/a few and little/a little -
(a) Few and a few
Few emphasises the lack of something and used with plural countable nouns.
e.g. Shivam has few good books.
A few emphasises that something still remains and used with plural countable nouns.
It means a small quantity.
e.g. There are still a few copies left.
(b) Little and a little
Little is used with uncountable nouns; means almost nothing or not much.
e.g. She is short-tampered so she has little patience.
A little emphasises that something still remains.
e.g. There is a little sugar in the coffee.
II. Use of much and many -
We use much uncountable nouns and many with plural countable nouns.
e.g. I haven’t got much work left to do.
Many books are on sale today.
III. Use of more, less and fewer (comparative determiners) –
(a) We use more or less before uncountable nouns by adding ‘than’ after it.
e.g. I have more energy in the morning than evening.
She requires less effort than you to complete the work.
(b) We use fewer before plural countable nouns to refer to a group of things smaller than
another.
e.g. We need fewer photos this time.
IV. Use if each and every (Distributive determiners) –
We use each when the number in the group is limited or definite.
We use every when the number is indefinite or unknown.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
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Both of these are followed by countable nouns and singular verbs.

e.g. Each child in the school is learning well.
Every book in this collection is fascinating.
V. Use of most, several and all –
(a) We use most with uncountable nouns.
e.g. I feel anxious most of the time.
(b) We use several with plural nouns, but it refers to a number which is not very large.
e.g. There are several posters made for this festival.
(c) All requires a plural verb when used with a countable noun, but requires a singular verb
with an uncountable noun.
e.g. All family members are going to Varanasi.
All is well.
VI. Use of another and other –
We use another only with singular countable nouns, whereas other can be used with
singular countable, plural countable or uncountable nouns.
e.g. Can I get another cup of coffee?
He has never liked other people besides his chosen friends.
VII. Use of either and neither –
(a) We use either to refer to two things, people, situations, etc.
e.g. I’m free either today or tomorrow.
(b) We use neither with singular countable nouns and a singular verb. Neither is the
negative of either.
e.g. Neither Newton nor Einstein knew that they could invent wonders.

4. Possessives
(My, Your, His, Her, Its, Our and Their)
Possessive determiners or possessive adjective tell us who owns something.
e.g. I have her number.

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6. MODALS
(Can, Could, Shall, Should, Will, Would, May, Might, Must)
Functions of Modals

Will
1. To express Promise/Willingness/Determination
e.g. Ravi will buy me an iPhone. (promise)
I will look after your child. (willingness)
We will pass this examination with flying colours. (determination)
2. To express Request/Characteristic/Habit
e.g. Will you pass me the remote? (request)
He will be late as always. (habit)

Would (Past form of 'Will')

1. Used as Past form of ‘will’
e.g. He asked if I would be able to teach him Physics.
2. To express Past Habit
e.g. He would walk his dog in the evening.
3. To express a Request
e.g. Would you let me borrow the class notes?
4. To express a Wish
e.g. I wish it would rain.
5. To express an Imaginary condition
e.g. She would be a writer if she followed her dreams.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Shall
1. To ask for Suggestion/Request/Advice
e.g. Shall we start the presentation? (suggestion)
What shall we do with this issue? (advice)
2. To indicate Threat/Warning/Promise/Command/Assurance/Determination
e.g. She shall stay inside the house. (command)
You shall be fine. (assurance)

Should (Past form of 'Shall')

1. To express Duty/Obligation
e.g. Students should follow the school’s rules. (obligation)
You should obey your parents. (duty)
2. To ask for an Opinion
e.g. Should we ask him to go with us?
3. To give or take Advice/Suggestion
e.g. You should respect your parents. (advice)
Should we buy the flowers now? (suggestion)
4. After 'lest' when someone expresses fear
e.g. Study well lest you should fail the exam.

Can
1. To express an Ability/Capability/Power/Capacity
e.g. She can solve the problem really fast. (ability/capability)
Can you understand the Spanish verbs? (capacity)
2. To show Possibility
e.g. We can go to Delhi next year.
3. To take or give Permission
e.g. Can you pass me the salt?

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Could (Past form of 'Can')

1. To express Past Ability
e.g. She could lift 10 kgs in her teenage years.
2. To express Polite Request
e.g. Could I have some milk?

May
1. To show Possibility/Probability
e.g. Chelsea may win the championship.
2. To give or take Permission
e.g. May I borrow your pen?
Yes, you may borrow it.
3. To express Wish/Prayer
e.g. May you live long! (wish)
May we prosper! (prayer)
4. To show a Purpose
e.g. They are practising hard so that they may win.

Might (Past form of 'May')

1. To express Less Possibility
e.g. Rani might win the lottery this time.
2. For Permission
e.g. Might I ask for more data on this topic?
3. To express a Guess
e.g. Anil might be having a meeting.

Note: May and Might are often interchangeable.

Use might for less likely situations, and may for more likely ones.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Must
1. To express Necessity/Obligation
e.g. You must reach the school by 9 a.m. (necessity)
Everyone must follow the traffic rules. (obligations)
2. To indicate Assumption/Conclusion
e.g. He must be here for his little brother. (assumption)
3. In case of Prohibition
e.g. You must not talk like that.

Semi Modals
Semi modals function like modals but can also act as main verbs.
There are 5 Semi Modals:
Ought to, Need/Need to, Dare, Used to

Ought to
1. To express Moral Obligation/Duty
e.g. Every citizen ought to respect the nation.
2. To express Possibility
e.g. This bicycle ought to get out of stock soon.

Need / Need to
1. To express the Absence of obligation (Negative)
e.g. You needn’t worry about me.
Need I go there?

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Dare
Refers to boldness or courage. Often used in negative statements.
e.g. Dare you disobey me?
Don’t you dare ruin the moment for me.
NOTE: As a semi-modal: “dare” is most often used with “not”

Used to
Refers to past habits or discontinued actions.
e.g. We used to practice karate daily.
There used to be a shopping mall here.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

7. REPORTED SPEECH
➢ Reported Speech (also called Narration) is the act of reporting the words of a
speaker. There are two types:
1. Direct Speech (Direct Narration)
2. Indirect Speech (Indirect Narration)
Direct Speech
❖ The speaker's exact words are quoted.
❖ Enclosed in double quotation marks (" ").
❖ Starts with a capital letter.
❖ Ends with proper punctuation (., !, ?) inside quotation marks.
❖ Introduced by a comma ( , ) after the reporting verb.
❖ Example: She said, “I have my art class in the evening.”
Indirect Speech
❖ The speaker’s words are paraphrased (not exact words).
❖ No quotation marks.
❖ A conjunction (often “that”) is used.
❖ Tenses, pronouns, and adverbs may change.
❖ Example: She said that she had her art class in the evening.
Reporting Verb and Reported Speech
Reporting Verb: The verb outside quotation marks (e.g. said, told, asked).
Reported Speech: The words within the quotation marks (the actual spoken words).
Rules for Changing Direct to Indirect Speech
1. Remove commas and quotation marks.
2. Use conjunction (e.g. “that”, “if”, “whether”, Wh-words).
3. Change in Tense: If reporting verb is in Present/Future, tense of the speech remains
unchanged. If reporting verb is in Past, the tense changes:
# CHANGE OF TENSE
Present Tense Statements
1. Simple Present → Simple Past
Direct: She said, “I want to see her.”
Indirect: She said that she wanted to see her.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

2. Present Continuous → Past Continuous

Direct: He said, “I am going tomorrow.”
Indirect: He said that he was going the next day.
3. Present Perfect → Past Perfect
Direct: Mohan said, “He has fallen asleep.”
Indirect: Mohan said that he had fallen asleep.
4. Present Perfect Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
Direct: Ritu said, “I have been practising judo.”
Indirect: Ritu said that she had been practising judo.
Past Tense Statements
1. Simple Past → Past Perfect
Direct: She said, “I wanted to see her.”
Indirect: She said that she had wanted to see her.
2. Past Continuous → Past Perfect Continuous
Direct: He said, “I was going to school.”
Indirect: He said that he had been going to school.
Note: Past Perfect and Perfect Continuous remain unchanged.
Future Tense Statements
1.Simple Future (will/shall) → would/should
Direct: She said, “I shall want to see her.”
Indirect: She said that she should want to see her.
2. Future Continuous (will/shall be) → would/should be
Direct: He said, “I shall be going tomorrow.”
Indirect: He said that he would be going the next day.
3. Future Perfect → would/should have
Direct: Mohan said, “He will have fallen asleep.”
Indirect: Mohan said that he would have fallen asleep.

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

4. Future Perfect Continuous → would/should have been

Direct: Ritu said, “She will have been practising.”
Indirect: Ritu said that she would have been practising.
CHANGE OF PERSON
1. 1st Person: Changes according to the subject.
2. 2nd Person: Changes according to the object.
3. 3rd Person: Generally remains unchanged.
Changes in Modals
May → Might
Can → Could
Must → Had to
Ought to → Ought to
Changes in Time & Place
Time:
Now → Then
Ago → Before
Today → That day
Tonight → That night
Yesterday → The previous day/The day before
Tomorrow → The next day /The following day
In an hour → An hour later
Hither → Tither
Place Indicators:
Here → There
This → That
These → Those

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Rules for Changing Interrogative Sentences

1. Yes/No Questions
❖ Use “if” or “whether”.
❖ Interrogative sentence becomes assertive.
❖ Reporting verb changes to asked.
Example: Direct: He said, “Is he coming?”
Indirect: He asked if he was coming.
2. Wh-Questions
❖ Wh-word acts as conjunction.
❖ Sentence structure becomes assertive.
Example: Direct: He said, “Where is he?”
Indirect: He asked where he was.
Rules for Changing Imperative Sentences
❖ Reporting verb changes to ordered, requested, advised, suggested etc.
❖ Use "to" instead of “that”.
Examples: Direct: He said, “Bring me my bag.”
Indirect: He requested to bring his bag.
NOTE: In sentence beginning with ‘Let’ the reporting verb is changed to ‘proposed’ or
‘suggested’.
Direct: She says, “Let us discuss something important.”
Indirect: She suggested that they should discuss something important.
Rules for Changing Exclamatory Sentences
❖ Reporting verb changes to ‘exclaimed’.
❖ The exclamatory word (interjection) is replaced by ‘exclaimed with
joy/sorrow/regret/surprise/contempt.
❖ Follow other indirect speech rules.
Examples: Direct: He said, “Alas! My father is no more.”
Indirect: He exclaimed with sorrow that his father was no more.
Direct: She said, “What a beautiful flower!”

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English Language Notes Class 10th
Mukesh Bhardwaj

Indirect: She exclaimed with joy that the flower was beautiful.

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