Frontiers of Architectural Research 13 (2024) 625e638

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CASE STUDY

Organic stabilization in earthen plaster:

Eco-compatible architecture and ancient
techniques in Tata Somba homes
D. Ben Ghida

Department of Architecture, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy

Received 26 August 2023; received in revised form 14 January 2024; accepted 6 February 2024

KEYWORDS Abstract The study of organic stabilization is crucial for understanding its impact on the
Vernacular durability and effectiveness of earthen plaster. Analyzing natural admixtures’ effects on plas-
architecture; ter properties provides insights that aid in optimizing plaster composition and application for
Cultural heritage desired characteristics. The addition of biopolymers, known to enhance plaster performance,
preservation; necessitates further investigation to understand their role in earthen plaster stabilization.
Sustainable This study focuses on Tata Somba homes in Benin and Togo, recognized as UNESCO World
architecture; Heritage sites. These unique architectural examples embody “architecture without archi-
Biopolymer; tects”, relying solely on local traditional knowledge. The objective is to explore and revive
Earth architecture; Tata Somba’s ancient eco-technology for earth plaster stabilization. Research shows that bio-
Earth stabilization polymers’ combined stabilization and application techniques can improve earthen plaster per-
formance. Seven promising bio-stabilizers were identified, suggesting their potential as
sustainable, effective options for CO2 mitigation in buildings. These findings not only deepen
our understanding of earthen architecture but also underscore the potential of merging tradi-
tional, eco-friendly building methods with modern scientific insights to create sustainable so-
lutions for cultural heritage preservation and contemporary built environments.
ª 2024 The Author(s). Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co.
Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license ([Link]
licenses/by/4.0/).

1. Introduction It emphasizes the use of construction materials and tech-

niques that are locally available, sustainable, and harmo-
1.1. Earth architecture nious with the natural surroundings. Sustainability is a core
aspect of vernacular architecture, promoting the conserva-
tion of natural resources, reducing energy consumption, and
Vernacular architecture represents traditional building
minimizing waste production (Ben Ghida, 2016a). This
practices deeply rooted in local cultures and environments.
approach aims to minimize the environmental impact of the

E-mail address: xdezign@[Link].

Peer review under responsibility of Southeast University.

[Link]
2095-2635/ª 2024 The Author(s). Publishing services by Elsevier B.V. on behalf of KeAi Communications Co. Ltd. This is an open access
article under the CC BY license ([Link]
D. Ben Ghida

built environment and reduce carbon emissions associated with its dependence on traditional knowledge and locally
with the production of materials such as Portland cement. In sourced materials, has eluded industrialization. It has
recent years, there has been a renewed interest in vernac- indeed been superseded by methods employing mass-
ular architecture, particularly in the context of sustainable produced materials like Portland cement.
building practices and environmental stewardship. This Nevertheless, as interest in sustainable and environ-
renewed interest is driven by a growing recognition of the mentally friendly alternatives intensifies, a window of op-
energy-efficient and eco-system-protective nature of portunity opens to rediscover and adapt earthen
vernacular buildings, as well as their ability to respond construction techniques to the demands of modern archi-
directly to local climate, materials, geology, and traditions. tecture and construction.
Notably, the ancient practice of earthen construction is un- The UNESCO World Heritage Earthen Architecture Pro-
dergoing a revival owing to its ecological benefits, aesthetic gramme (WHEAP) recognizes the critical need to preserve
appeal, and the comfortable living environment it provides earthen structures, representing over 10% of World Heri-
(Spennemann, 2022). This traditional building material and tage sites, especially since 25% of the sites listed as World
construction method, which were previously overshadowed Heritage in danger are earth-based structures.
by more standardized construction practices (Lee and Ben These sites face degradation risks, mainly from water
Ghida, 2017), are now receiving renewed attention for damage exacerbated by neglect, poor roof maintenance,
their sustainability and low environmental footprint and inadequate protective measures (Stazi et al., 2016).
(Spennemann, 2022). Research and reports focusing on soil Environmental hazards, such as floods and earthquakes,
(geotechnical), adobe or Compressed Earth Blocks (CEB), and human activities, including industrialization and urban
and rammed earth stabilization have extensively explored growth, pose additional threats. The situation is further
the mechanical, physical, and thermal behavior of stabilized complicated by the loss of traditional earthen architecture
earthen construction materials. However, there is relatively know-how (Brunet-Jailly and Scherrer, 2018; Marchand,
limited research on earthen plasters, particularly in the 2009a, 2016; Moriset et al., 2021; Vissac et al., 2016).
context of indigenous practices. Therefore, it is essential to identify plasters capable of
The escalating concerns regarding the environmental shielding these buildings from weathering. Optimal plasters
repercussions of Portland cement production, especially its should possess characteristics such as ease of application,
high CO2 emissions, which account for about 13% (Ben substrate compatibility, water-repellency, high resistance
Ghida, 2017), have reignited interest in raw earth mate- to water erosion (Stazi et al., 2016), aesthetic compatibility
rials (Ben Ghida, 2016a, 2016b). (in the case of cultural heritage restoration), and tensile
As a result, a growing segment of architects, engineers, strength.
and builders are exploring traditional eco-compatible Unlike cement-based coatings, such plasters align with
building techniques that incorporate locally sourced, eco- earthen walls in terms of material composition, aesthetics,
friendly materials. Eco-compatible architecture is part of a water vapor permeability, and mechanical behavior, thanks
broader movement toward sustainability and ecological to the earthen material’s capacity to absorb and release
responsibility in the built environment. This approach fo- water vapor (Liang et al., 2022; Liuzzi et al., 2013).
cuses on ensuring that the built environment coexists Studies have demonstrated that earthen architecture
harmoniously with the natural environment and is benefi- techniques, including rammed earth, have significantly
cial or at least non-harmful to both human health and the evolved across civilizations and time, incorporating various
ecosystem. It intersects with concepts like green archi- methods to improve material durability (Daoudi et al.,
tecture, sustainable design, and biomimicry, all of which 2018). The scarcity of literature on traditional earthen
emphasize a more thoughtful and respectful interaction plaster stabilization techniques used presents a challenge
between human-made structures and the natural world. for conducting an extensive literature review. However, the
Alternative methods such as earthen architecture present analysis of these techniques can be conducted through a
numerous benefits (Ben Ghida, 2015, 2016a, 2016b, 2023a). case study research method, exploring the materials used,
This architecture demonstrates a high thermal inertia which the reasons for their use, and the methods employed. This
enables the absorption and gradual dissemination of solar paper can draw from existing references in the field to
heat, thereby improving comfort during the summer months provide insights into the traditional earthen plaster stabi-
(Minke, 2012). Earthen walls significantly mitigate the im- lization techniques used.
pacts of external temperature fluctuations and relative hu-
midity on indoor thermal environments, showing robust 1.2. Eco-compatible architecture philosophy
humidity regulation capabilities (Liang and Jiang, 2022).
However, to secure the future of earthen architecture Eco-compatible architecture philosophy, blending indus-
within the framework of contemporary construction, it trial ecology and bioarchitecture, represents a new para-
must meet stringent durability requirements and align with digm focusing on ecologically responsible design to enhance
standardized construction techniques. As architects and life quality in harmony with nature, Fig. 1. This paradigm
builders’ endeavor to marry traditional methods with extends beyond aesthetics, integrating long-term resource
contemporary practices (Ben Ghida, 2019, 2023a), the efficiency and waste reduction, and prioritizing the com-
challenge lies in ensuring the long-term resilience and mon good (Francese and Mazzoleni, 1998; Grosso, 2004;
reliability of earthen materials (Ben Ghida, 2023a). Kay, 2003; Ripley and Bhushan, 2016; UNEP, 2001).
Addressing these concerns can bolster their appeal and Covering the entire building lifecycle, from cradle to
render them a more viable choice for sustainable con- grave, this approach is aimed at minimizing its impact on
struction projects. Historically, raw earth construction, occupants’ well-being (Francese and Mazzoleni, 1998;

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Frontiers of Architectural Research 13 (2024) 625e638

Grosso, 2004; Kay, 2003; Ripley and Bhushan, 2016; UNEP, natural ingredients have been identified for evaluation. To
2001). It emphasizes energy efficiency, manages achieve the research objective, the study is designed to
embodied energy, and strictly controls emissions, to pro- accomplish the following three main goals:
tect human health and the environment (Francese and
Mazzoleni, 1998; Grosso, 2004; Kay, 2003; Ripley and 1) Scrutinize traditional biopolymer stabilizers. This goal
Bhushan, 2016; UNEP, 2001). involves examining the historical use of traditional
Addressing environmental challenges, this philosophy biopolymer stabilizers, exploring their evolution and
advocates for designs that align ecological and societal application over time.
needs, promoting a sustainable coexistence of man-made 2) Examine vernacular stabilization techniques. This goal
structures with the natural world. It signifies a commitment entails investigating the vernacular stabilization tech-
to sustainable living and environmental stewardship, niques commonly employed in Tata Somba homes,
reshaping how built environments interact with the including the specific methods, materials, and practices
ecosystem, representing a paradigm shift in architectural used.
thinking. 3) Assess the advantages, feasibility, and effectiveness of
biopolymer stabilizers in enhancing earthen plaster
1.3. Research aims and objectives performance, aligning with eco-friendly and eco-
compatible materials.
This research focuses on investigating Tata Somba’s age-old
eco-technology earthen plaster stabilization techniques, 2. Literature review
specifically the use of biopolymer stabilizers. While existing
literature on Tata Somba architecture primarily explores
2.1. Earth stabilization
colonialism, religion, culture, history, and architectural
space design, there is a notable gap in comprehensively
The external facades of structures are often their primary
analyzing the specific earthen plaster stabilization tech-
weakness due to direct exposure to climatic conditions (Ben
niques employed by the Tammari community in West Af-
Ghida, 2023b). Traditional building techniques such as
rica. Thus, the aim of this research is to provide a
straw bale, cob, adobe, wattle and daub, and old rammed
comprehensive understanding of the bio-stabilization
earth structures are usually coated with an earthen-based
techniques associated with earthen plaster used by the
plaster, which serves to protect them from external
Tammari community. The primary objective of this study is
weathering.
to conduct a thorough assessment of the advantages,
Moreover, in cold climates, external earthen plasters are
feasibility, and effectiveness of using biopolymer stabili-
not recommended unless there is sufficient roof overhang,
zation methods to enhance the performance attributes of
a stone or concrete base, and a surface coating (Minke,
earthen plaster. This research stands out due to its holistic
2012). This recommendation stems from the need to
approach, which integrates eco-compatible stabilizers and
avoid thermal and moisture-induced cracking. The plaster
eco-friendly stabilization techniques. The investigation fo-
should exhibit low vapor diffusion resistance to facilitate
cuses on a UNESCO World Heritage case study involving Tata
easy removal of condensed water from the wall (Minke,
Somba houses in Benin and Togo. In addition to its infor-
2012).
mative nature, this research holds value in terms of pre-
The use of raw earth in architectural facades and walls
serving cultural heritage, recovering traditional knowledge,
presents several challenges, including low mechanical
and advancing sustainable architecture. Seven distinct

Fig. 1 Eco-compatible architecture philosophy.

627
D. Ben Ghida

strength, vulnerability to rainfall, and high susceptibility to (Rescic et al., 2021), each associated with different costs
cracking during drying. Soils lack the necessary strength, and benefits. There are differing opinions regarding the
stability, and durability required for building construction optimal percentage of lime in earth required for effective
(Walker, 1995). stabilization. Delot (2015) proposes a lime concentration of
Common issues with earthen plaster include: 15%, arguing that more lime than clay is necessary, a ratio
that may not always be hygrometrically advantageous for
1) Cracks and microcracks: They can be attributed to un- interior plaster not exposed to external aggressions. He
even shrinkage, particularly in clayey soils, rapid drying, adds that stabilizing at 2% or 3% can weaken the plaster due
and excess mortar water. Factors such as structural to insufficient lime to bind. Conversely, Losini et al. (2019)
movements, temperature fluctuations, moisture varia- propose that a lime concentration of 5% can be effective,
tions within the plaster, and highly absorbable sub- thereby allowing clay to always act as the binder in the
strates can intensify these issues. Improper binder-to- mixture and enabling the materials to be reused at the end
filler ratios, absence of fibrous reinforcement, and of their life. Clearly, the optimal proportion of stabilizers is
applying the plaster too thickly can lead to cracking. specific to each soil type and its intended application,
Ensuring proper preparation and attention to binder ra- whether indoor or outdoor.
tios and application thickness is essential for reducing Lime minimizes shrinkage (Delot, 2015) improves
these problems. strength, stiffness, and plasticity (Losini et al., 2019),
2) Mold: Often due to its natural ability to retain moisture, making it especially beneficial for clayey soils (Delot, 2015).
especially when applied during high humidity seasons, It also facilitates a high pH environment necessary for dis-
leading to slow drying. Poor ventilation amplifies hu- solving clay minerals and enhances compressive strength
midity levels, further promoting mold growth. Natural over time when exposed to warm, humid conditions (Delot,
admixtures, like straw, can feed mold in damp condi- 2015).
tions. Shaded areas, subpar materials, and external However, there are also drawbacks of lime. Firstly, it is
leaks can exacerbate the issue. Proper application and generally more expensive than Portland cement. Addition-
environmental considerations are crucial to prevent ally, the production of lime powder involves the calcination
mold in such plasters. of limestone at high temperatures (around 900e1000 C),
3) Erosion, chalking, and leaching: Extended exposure to resulting in the emission of a significant amount of CO2.
elements, particularly rain and wind, can erode the Furthermore, when used for stabilization, lime can react
plaster’s surface. UV rays degrade the plaster’s binder, with clay, affecting the plasticity and water demand of the
leading to chalkingda powdery residue on the surface. mixture. As a result, lime is more commonly utilized for
Leaching, another concern, emerges when moisture dis- surface finishing and plastering tasks rather than as a pri-
solves minerals in the plaster, leaving crystallized salts mary stabilizing agent (Losini et al., 2019).
after evaporation. Such issues can be further compounded Conversely, gypsum improves shear strength (Mattone
by improper mixing, which creates weak points in the et al., 2016), decreases drying shrinkage, hastens the
plaster. Poor application techniques, such as plastering setting time (which makes it less appreciated to use), and
during rainy conditions or failing to ensure a strong bond inhibits cracking when mixed in proportions of 1:4 or 1:5
with the substrate, can exacerbate erosion and chalking. (Delot, 2015).
4) Blistering, swelling, and detachment: They are often Nevertheless, gypsum does not confer water resistance
stem from factors like moisture infiltration, contami- to the earthen plaster (Delot, 2015; Svoboda and
nants in the mix causing insufficient adhesion to the Procházka, 2012). Portland cement increases compressive
substrate, and rapid drying in hot, dry, windy conditions. and flexural strengths (Kariyawasam and Jayasinghe, 2016),
Excessively clayey soil can crack or detach when drying. reduces drying shrinkage, and decreases porosity, making it
particularly suited for sandy soils.
These inherent shortcomings can be rectified through a While each stabilizer offers specific benefits, their
stabilization process, which includes mechanical, physical effectiveness is contingent on the soil type, and their pro-
and/or chemical stabilization. Stabilization is a complex portions need to be meticulously adjusted to optimize the
process that necessitates a comprehensive understanding plaster’s attributes. Despite enhancing strength, Portland
of the raw earth material’s properties, which can signifi- cement is incompatible with several substrates and can
cantly vary depending on location and geological conditions impair the hygrothermal properties of traditional con-
(Losini et al., 2019; Minke, 2012; Moquin, 1994; Vissac struction materials.
et al., 2016, 2017). Moreover, factors such as the type of Although these chemical stabilizers can indeed be effi-
construction, the intended use of the building, and avail- cacious, their utilization can potentially compromise the
able resources must be considered when selecting a stabi- sustainable potential of earth-based materials due to their
lization technique. The success of a stabilization project environmental impact and costs. As a result, architects and
ultimately hinges on the careful integration of these factors builders bear the responsibility of meticulously evaluating
from the beginning. the environmental and financial ramifications of the ma-
terials and techniques they employ. It is imperative that
2.2. Chemical stabilization they actively seek and implement the most environmen-
tally sustainable, cost-effective, and responsible solutions
The most commonly used chemical stabilizers for for their projects, thereby preserving the ecological
earth plaster are lime, Portland cement, and gypsum integrity of earth architecture.

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2.2.1. Bio(Natural)-polymer stabilizers style indigenous to the regions of Benin and Togo, as
Depending on the region, climate, and culture, a variety of detailed in Table 1. This objective seeks to answer funda-
traditional natural stabilizers are also employed. Natural mental questions regarding the utilization of biopolymer
stabilizers are called biopolymers, which are complex stabilizers and techniques, with a focus on addressing “Why
molecules sourced from biological entities (living organ- should they be used?” and “How should they be employed?”
isms) such as plants, bacteria (Das et al., 2022), and animal This involves evaluating the benefits, advantages, and
biomassdbiopolymers are created through biological pro- appropriate implementation strategies for these stabilizers
cesses, serving as an environmentally responsible substitute in the context of sustainable architecture.
for petroleum-derived stabilizers. They are organic com- The impetus for this exploration is the investigation of
pounds, comprising renewable chains of molecules. Their architectural techniques and restoration methods rooted in
biodegradable and harmless nature foster resource con- traditional earthen plaster stabilization practices tailored
servation and environmental protection (Das et al., 2022). to the unique characteristics of this regional architecture.
Biopolymers possess the capacity to alter the physical Additionally, the article takes a descriptive approach to
and chemical interactions amongst clay particles, signifi- illuminate the potential applications of seven distinct
cantly influencing the properties of earthen plaster. biopolymer components within todays practice. According
Natural stabilization of plasters can be carried out either to Creswell and Clark (2017), exploratory research plays an
in the mass (incorporated into the body of the plaster) or by important role when measurements are unattainable, var-
surface impregnation. iables remain undisclosed, or there is an absence of an
The specific effects of biopolymerization depend on the established framework to guide the study.
source of the biopolymers and the type of clay used. When a field exhibits a multitude of perspectives and
However, one consistent result of biopolymerization is the complex questions necessitate an exploratory study, a
stabilizing effect it provides. Biopolymerization can thorough mixed methods approach becomes particularly
enhance the strength, water resistance, adhesion, and pertinent, as articulated by Creswell and Clark (2017) and
plasticity of earthen plaster, making it a more durable and Seidman (2019). The documentary corpus encompasses a
versatile building material. diverse array of sources, including doctoral theses, national
The specific outcomes of biopolymerization largely and administrative reports, academic articles, and books in
depend on the origin of the biopolymers and the particular both French and English. This collection of sources provides
clay type in use. However, a universal effect of bio- a comprehensive foundation for the study, incorporating a
polymerization is the stabilization it imparts. Through this wide range of perspectives and insights from various lin-
process, the strength, water resistance, adherence, and guistic and academic contexts.
plasticity of earthen plaster are augmented, rendering it a The mixed methods analysis strives to rectify potential
more resilient and adaptable material for construction limitations by harnessing the strengths of both approaches,
purposes. thereby mitigating any inherent biases and weaknesses, a
Four main categories of biopolymers traditionally used principle advocated by Creswell and Clark (2017) and
for stabilization (Anger and Fontaine, 2013; Vissac et al., Greene et al. (1989). Structuring parallel observations into
2017) can be identified in Tata Somba homes: a cohesive line of reasoning facilitates the synthesis of
findings, as outlined by Greene et al. (1989).
Polysaccharides are known for creating a framework
between clay particles due to their ability to form gels 4. Tata SombadBenin & Togo
and their adhesive properties.
Lipids are recognized for their lubricating qualities Tata Somba refers to a traditional fortified home that is
during the application and for enhancing water resis- believed to have originated sometime between the 16th
tance, owing to their hydrophobic nature. and 18th centuries (UNESCO, 2002). There is no definitive
Proteins have binding capabilities that can reduce the evidence pinpointing the exact emergence date of this
water sensitivity of earth plasters by acting as a binder architectural style in Africa (Laurick, 2012). Some authors
between clay particles.
Polyphenols have the ability to bind clay particles
together, which can impart significant cohesion to the
material, potentially leading to water impermeability.
Table 1 Research case study.
Case Study Tata Somba
3. Research methodology
Location Benin & Togo
This article primarily focuses on exploratory research (Jebb Climate Tropical savanna
et al., 2017; Stebbins, 2001) and employs a single case Type Two-story mini castle-like rural
study research methodology (Yin, 2018). This approach is houses
ideally suited for discovery, exploration, and empirically Structural system Lumber post-and-beam þ Load
identifying phenomena within the collected data (Jebb bearing banco walls
et al., 2017; Stebbins, 2001). It is particularly relevant Construction materials Soil, lumber, and biopolymers
when the main goal is to analyze and explore a real-life Architectural style Batammariba
context that has received limited research attention (Yin, UNESCO world heritage 2004
2018), such as “The Tata Somba”, a distinct architectural

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D. Ben Ghida

even trace its origins back to the first century BC (Maurice,

Table 2 Design characteristics of a Tata Somba. Compiled
1957; as cited in Laurick, 2012). This architectural style is
from Joffroy et al. (2003); Widera (2021).
characterized by two-story houses that are prevalent in the
rural areas of North-West Benin and North-East Togo Architectural Description
(Laurick, 2012; UNESCO, 2002), these houses are built and element
used by the Tammari community. Walls Walls are constructed in 30 cm layers and
Designed as a defense against slave traders targeting dry over several days, reaching heights
individuals for the New World and European colonizers of up to 3.70 m. Their conical design
(Aymeric Nsangou, 2022), this unique architecture received offers stability. Banco walls taper in
recognition and was inscribed on the UNESCO World Heri- thickness from 25/42 cm to 12/25 cm.
tage List in 2004. This variance in wall thickness
contributes to their thermal mass,
4.1. Architecture absorbing daytime heat and releasing it
gradually at night.
Tata Somba dwellings are distinct circular banco (or banko) Thatched roofs There are two roof types. Over
structures. It bears resemblances to cob construction sys- bedrooms, there is a conical wooden
tem in terms of matrix composition, structural approach, structure wrapped in raphia or kenaf
and wall construction methodology. Both banco and cob ropes, used to attach spiraled pre-woven
walls are carefully erected layer by layer of soil. Each layer straw. For granaries, a thinner earth-
is given ample time to dry before laying the subsequent formed conical dome is first created,
one, guaranteeing consistent construction. The walls covered in straw, except for the top
gracefully narrow as they rise, allowing for the feasibility of access. This access is topped with a
two-story edifices due to their strong load-bearing capa- removable straw hat with a wooden
bilities, more construction details are listed in Table 2. handle. Shield effectively against rain.
Tata Somba huts feature conical thatched roofs and flat Terraces and They are supported by lumber forks
terraces, serving dual purposes as warehouses and homes. floors made of shea or ironwood trees, which
The walls of these structures are built in increments of hold beams and wooden slats covered in
30 cm, with granary walls being notably thinner, see Fig. 2. earth. Terraces are sealed with cow
The designs of the dwellings may vary across different dung-enhanced soil for better
areas. The fortified homes are built by men during the dry waterproofing. Top turret terraces rest
season (DecembereApril), while women add unique mark- beams directly on wall tops, sloped 2%
ings to personalize them during the plastering process. e5% for rainwater drainage.
A distinctive characteristic of these huts is the elevated Foundations Houses lack traditional foundations,
floor, accessed via a ladder carved from tree trunks that relying on cleaned ground for drainage.
culminate in a fork. This level houses bedrooms with Lumber forks supporting the roof are
compact crawl-through entrances, as illustrated in Fig. 3. In anchored deeply into the soil.
Tata dwellings, each inhabitant possesses their individual Opennings Tata Somba structures, with their 60 cm
space. The entrance is designed narrow, serving as a barrier wide wooden doors and windowless
against moisture and excessive heat. On the upper floor, design, often see a rise in indoor
grain and corn are dried and stored. The granaries are also temperatures. Ventilation is limited to a
used to hide the most valuable items. It can be accessed via sole air outlet to the upper terrace and
an external ladder that opens to the top of the thatched roof. the main door entrance, which are not
A tata can have a lifespan of up to 15 years (Yavo, 2013), enough for effective natural ventilation.
and maintenance is key to ensuring its durability. These This is evident from the high CO2
structures hold immense social, philosophical, and religious concentrations resulting from the
significance. Directional orientation is paramount in tradi- animals housed on the ground floor.
tional beliefs: East, associated with rain and storms, is Moreover, these openings do little to
unfavorable, while West symbolizes happiness. The house is moderate indoor temperatures,
therefore oriented away from the East. The North and and illumination levels remain low, up
South, meanwhile, represent feminine and masculine as- to 4 lx.
pects, respectively. Structure The structural framework is founded on
Lighting a fire consistently in the vestibule of the ground irregular lumber forks. The post-and-
floor serves two functions: it dries the walls and reinforces beam support for the terrace operates
the floor’s post-beams against termite invasions, as noted independently of the exterior load-
by Hadi et al. (2020), by leaving a layer of smoke on the bearing walls, bolstering the overall
lumber structure. This practice shares similarities with the safety.
Japanese technique, Shou Sugi Ban.

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Fig. 2 Front elevation and sections of a Tata Somba house (Otammari Type)dAttacora. Source: Author, adapted from Joffroy
et al. (2003).

4.2. Plaster or bark as a coating may further enhance and saturate this
color. This soil, often termed “lateritic soil”, owes its distinct
The plaster used in construction is a mixture of sifted earth hue to the presence of iron oxides, particularly sesquioxides.
(Natta et al., 2017; Kervella and Daubas, 2021), cow dung When iron comes into contact with oxygen and water, typi-
(Kervella and Daubas, 2021) or sheep dung (Yavo, 2013), cally through weathering processes, it forms these iron ox-
and water in a [Link] ratio (Kervella and Daubas, 2021). The ides, resulting in a reddish or reddish-brown coloration. Such
locally extracted sandy soil consists of 60% sand with par- soils are abundant in iron sesquioxides, with the dominant
ticle sizes ranging from 60 mm to 2 mm, 30% silt with sizes clay being of the kaolinite variety. The dried plaster is then
from 2 to 60 mm, and 10% clay with particles smaller than coated with shea water (Natta et al., 2017), and decoction of
2 mm, as shown in Fig. 4. néré pods/bark (Joffroy et al., 2003).
They also note that it is common practice to repurpose In addition, parts of the structure exposed to the ele-
soil from termite mounds for the construction of homes. ments may benefit from the application of fatty residues
The sandy soil, clay content <10% (Noukpakou and obtained during shea butter production, which can be
Pauporté, 2022) is taken either from specific deposits regularly applied during the preparation of néré mustard or
near streams and rivers. The cow dung can be fresh or shea butter to create a patina that enhances aesthetic
fermented. In the latter case, the wet dung is placed in a qualities (Noukpakou et al., 2022). The terraces are made
hole for two days and covered with earth before its use waterproof by applying cow dung, decoction of néré, and
(Noukpakou et al., 2022). shea water (Natta et al., 2017), which is then compacted
The reddish-brown hue of Tata Somba structures is manually (Noukpakou et al., 2022). On the other hand, the
credited to the employment of tropical ferruginous soil in granaries (upper stores) are constructed using soil from
their construction. Additionally, as suggested by Joffroy et al. termite mounds, mixed with fonio and/or rice straws (Natta
(2003), the application of a decoction made from néré pods et al., 2017).

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D. Ben Ghida

Fig. 3 Floor plans of a Tata Somba house (Otammari type)dAttacora. Source: Author, adapted from Joffroy et al. (2003).

Usually, women undertake the final plastering process, 5. Data analysis and findings
which is consistently maintained on an annual basis,
particularly during significant community events. This 5.1. Plaster traditional stabilizers
maintenance allows for alterations to the decorations or
the addition of symbolic patterns (Joffroy et al., 2003).
5.1.1. Dried néré pods
The aqueous solution made of water and néré pods/bark
(Locust bean pods tree) is allowed to macerate for a period
of 12e24 h before undergoing a boiling process for
CLAY < 2 μm approximately 2 h. This process includes the addition of
limonite stones (Vissac et al., 2016, 2017) or a substantially
rusted iron piece (Vissac et al., 2016), serving as a source of
SILT 2 μm → 60 μm
iron oxide.
The tannins present in the néré pods react with iron
oxides Fe2O3, resulting in the production of hydrophobic
iron tannates and the release of trivalent iron ions Fe3þ
SAND 0.6 μm → 2 mm
(Vissac et al., 2017). Improving the plaster water resistance
and enhancing its smoothness. The protective coating is
0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% used in several layers on walls, and floors (Vissac et al.,
2017). Additionally, tannin-activated earth plasters using
Fig. 4 Soil content and granulometry for Tata Somba plaster. Fe2O3 demonstrate substantial resilience, enduring erosion
Source: Author, data from Noukpakou et al. (2022). for at least nine years (Vissac et al., 2016).

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5.1.2. Liana sap 5.1.5. Termite mound soil

The sap from the Lina plant is a gel-like substance that is The emulation of nature was an inherent part of the
similar to the powder from the Baobab tree. When the thought process for ancient builders. They gleaned signifi-
Baobab powder is mixed with water, it becomes a sticky cant bioclimatic architectural principles and advanced
gel. Both the Baobab gel and the Lina sap individually construction technologies through observing termite
contribute to altering the consistency of the mixture, mounds.
slowing down the drying process (Joffroy, 2016; Vissac Termite mounds are composed of soil, a composite of
et al., 2017). It also aids in reducing cracks by func- organic and mineral materials such as quartz (SiO2), clays,
tioning as an adhesive for clay particles (Joffroy, 2016; kaolinite Al2Si2O5(OH)4, and calcite CaCO3 (Enagbonma and
Vissac et al., 2017). The integration of this viscous Babalola, 2019; Mujinya et al., 2013). This mix is fortified by
water enhances the application of the plaster, as it in- termite secretions, predominantly lignin (Anger and
creases its plasticity and adhesion, and enhances cohe- Fontaine, 2013; Enagbonma and Babalola, 2019), as well
sion. This occurs as the macromolecules effectively bind as the saliva of worker termites (Contour-Ansel et al.,
the mineral particles together (Joffroy, 2016; Vissac 2000). These organic components, combined with termite
et al., 2017). excrement and plant debris (Anger and Fontaine, 2013),
serve as natural stabilizers, binding clay particles and
5.1.3. Neem leaves powder and fibers enhancing the mound’s structural integrity (Contour-Ansel
Neem leaves, known for their pesticidal properties attrib- et al., 2000). Termites engage in frequent repair of their
uted to Azadirachta Indica, are often used as a natural walls, further contributing to the resilience of the structure
fungicide and insecticide when steeped in water (Rakshit (Van Thuyne et al., 2023).
and Mishra, 2024). Recent research has explored the use The chemical composition and distinct design of termite
of waste from neem fiber in the manufacture of adobe mounds, inclusive of features like chimneys and buttresses,
blocks. Babé et al. (2021) found that integrating neem play a vital role in the stability and climate control of the
straw into the mud mix could augment water resistance mounds, effectively regulating interior temperature and
and decrease thermal conductivity in adobe bricks. Spe- humidity (Singh et al., 2019).
cifically, the inclusion of neem leaves and neem straw led
to a reduction in thermal conductivity by 55% and 23% 5.1.6. Fonio and/or rice straws
respectively, in comparison to standard adobe bricks. Babé The use of fiber straws in plaster has been shown to
et al. (2021) also highlighted that the advantageous effect decrease the occurrence of cracks, as noted by Ashour and
of neem leaves on resistance to rainfall was only notice- Wu (2010). The fermentation of fibers plays a critical role in
able at a low dosage of less than 2%, and when the mud strengthening the plaster by forming gels that enhance the
matrix was fermented for a mere 3 days. In their experi- workability of the mixture. During this process, complex
mental investigation Raghuram et al. (2023) found that polysaccharides act as biopolymers, promoting the binding
neem powder increases the compressive strength of of mineral particles and reducing the likelihood of cracking
concrete. in the plaster (Vissac et al., 2017). The ingredients and
Neem leaves powder was not traditionally used in Tata maceration time can significantly vary depending on factors
Somba architecture. However, Noukpakou and Pauporté such as temperature and humidity (Vissac et al., 2017). This
(2022) proposed incorporating approximately 5% neem can range from a few days to several weeks.
powder into the soil mixture or utilizing water from
macerated neem leaves as the primary water source. This 5.1.7. Cow dung
inclusion acts as a natural insecticide and acaricide, of- Cow dung, rich in short, undigested fibers composed of cel-
fering protection against termites on Attacora houses. The lulose, hemicellulose, and lignin, as well as extracellular
use of neem powder instead of fibers reduces pore pro- polymeric substances (EPS), plays a crucial role in earthen
duction, thereby not compromising the durability of the architecture (Holst and Müller-Loennies, 2007; Millogo et al.,
final plaster. 2016). These EPS, polymers often present in the environment
surrounding bacteria, including animal dung, contribute to
5.1.4. Shea butter/water the fermentation process during maceration (Holst and
Shea butter is typically incorporated into the plaster mud Müller-Loennies, 2007). This process results in a reaction
mix immediately before application. This serves to enhance between the cow dung and kaolinite and fine quartz,
various properties of the plaster, including water resistance generating organic matter and insoluble silicate amine.
by limiting absorption, as supported by Vissac et al. (2017) This reaction, in turn, engenders a more homogeneous
and Losini et al. (2021). microstructure and reduces porosity, which enhances the
Additionally, the inclusion of shea butter softens the compressive strength of the material (Millogo et al., 2016).
texture of the plaster and reduces the production of sur- EPS molecules create fibrous bridges and bind soil par-
face dust. Despite these benefits, the use of shea butter is ticles together by filling pores and enveloping kaolinite
less prevalent due to its high cost (Joy, 2010; Losini et al., aggregates into a consolidated mass, increasing soil
2021; Maison du Patrimoine de Djenné, 2008; Togola and Al compressive strength by up to 740% (Rao et al., 2023). The
Karjousli, 2014). To further enhance water resistance, shea inclusion of cow dung not only improves the workability of
water, which is a byproduct of shea butter production and the plaster but also provides excellent reinforcement that
rich in vegetable fats, can be used as an alternative mitigates cracking due to the short cellulose fibers softened
(Kervella and Daubas, 2021). by fermentation.

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The short fibers inherent in cow dung also contribute performance of fiber-reinforced earth mixes (Minke, 2012).
to improved flexural strength (Millogo et al., 2016). Identifying the ideal composition for mud plaster presents
Notably, the incorporation of cow dung significantly en- challenges, as it is influenced not only by clay, silt, and
hances the water resistance of adobe, suggesting its po- sand ratios (Minke, 2012), but also by factors like the grain
tential as a building material in humid climates (Millogo size distribution of sand, moisture content, clay type,
et al., 2016). preparation method, and the incorporation of additives
For optimal outcomes, Kulshreshtha et al. (2022) advo- (Minke, 2012).
cate for the use of fresh or wet cow dung, which contains a
higher concentration of hydrophobic, small-sized microbial
aggregates. These aggregates, composed of clay-sized 6. Discussion
negatively charged particles and rich in fatty acids, can
enhance the water resistance of the earth mix. Their study Tata Somba houses utilize seven unique biopolymers in the
reveals that the inclusion of wet cow dung can produce an earthen plaster stabilization process, applied manually
earth mix that is 30 times more water-resistant than soil across all surfaces, see Table 3. Laterite soil is used for the
without any stabilizer. final layer of mud roofs and flooring (Pecquet et al., 2004).
Being clayey, lateritic soils slow the movement of rainwater
5.2. Plaster traditional fabrication process through them. The composition of the mud plaster mix
varies from that of the banco, and the mixture used for
5.2.1. Fermentation roof-terraces differs from that used for walls. Despite
According to Henry and Therrien (2018), an effective dung- making up only 0.5% of the mix, shea butter enhances the
earth plaster mix can be achieved by allowing the mixture plaster’s water resistance and aesthetics, although it can
to rest overnight after mixing. Similarly, Henry and Therrien be omitted. Stabilization techniques and methods vary
(2018) also highlight that in Japan, the practice of letting between walls and roofs. In addition to the chemical and
the dung-mud plaster mix ferment for weeks or even years physical stabilization, a mechanical stabilization is applied
is common to enhance its workability, plasticity, and for the roof-terraces in the Tata Somba homes.
strength, and to reduce cracking. The choice of these admixtures and their preparation
Fermentation plays a critical role in breaking down the methods considerably dictate the performance of the final
natural fibers present in animal dung and added rice husks product, necessitating careful planning in the mix design to
or other fibers, which contain cellulose. This process en- ensure a balance between benefits and longevity. It has
hances the binding properties of the mixture. Research by been found that there is no evidence of fine sand being
Sujatha and Kannan (2022) found that the fibrous threads incorporated into the plaster mix, contrary to the claims
produced by the viscous nature of sodium carboxymethyl made by Natta et al. (2017). Given that the soil used for
cellulose NaCMCda naturally derived anionic ether deriv- plastering already contains about 60% sand, the addition of
ative of cellulosedsignificantly improve the geotechnical more sand would yield no benefits.
properties of the soil. By binding the soil together, these By employing waste materials like cow dung and utilizing
fibrous threads can result in an increase in soil compressive water from dried néré pods or bark, earthen plaster can
strength of more than 75%. potentially maintain its integrity for over a decade. None-
Furthermore, fermentation enhances cohesive strength, theless, the durability and effectiveness of the plaster rely
leading to improved durability (Marchand, 2009b; Sujatha heavily on the specific mix design and fermentation process.
and Kannan, 2022). It also aids in eliminating potential Tata Somba harnesses the collective strength of their
termite infestations or termite eggs. An interesting community when it comes to re-plastering their architec-
byproduct of the fermentation process is the change in the tural structures. This underscores that the practice is not
plaster’s color, which can shift from ochre/red to dark gray merely a pragmatic requirement but is profoundly inter-
(Marchand, 2009b). woven with the culture and beliefs of the local inhabitants.
Any improvements in plaster formulation should be mindful
5.2.2. Mix design of and incorporate these cultural aspects.
An enhanced plaster composition for Tata Somba structures It appears that the plaster mix’s fermentation process
has been proposed by researchers from the Catholic Uni- lasts only two days here, contrasting with the three-week
versity of Louvain in Belgium. This mix bolsters water- fermentation period observed at the Great Mosque of
proofing and anti-termite resistance, consisting of Djenné (Chabbi-Chemrouk, 2007; Sacko, 2021). Moreover,
approximately 85% soil, 5% neem powder, 6% cow dung, and both the mix design and the fermentation process of
4% néré powder for solids, with the liquid component being earthen plasters can be adjusted to align with individual
60% water and 40% liana sap (Noukpakou and Pauporté, preferences, the application of traditional knowledge, local
2022). climate conditions, soil characteristics, and the utilization
It is understood that the effectiveness of earthen plas- of specific admixtures, potentially necessitating modifica-
ters can be influenced by the application of various tech- tions based on material availability.
niques. Excessive porosity in the clay matrix can disrupt the Earthen plasters can be affixed to diverse base struc-
bonding process, weakening the link between the fibers and tures, such as wood, stone, brick tile, or cellular concrete,
the earth. with differences in their composition mainly based on the
Variables such as the choice of fibers, their adhesion to type and amount of plant fibers used. Both Cerro and
the clay matrix, and the strength of the bond between soil Baruch (2011) and Noukpakou et al. (2022) recommend a
and fibers within the matrix have an impact on the finishing layer of mud plaster between 5 and 12 mm thick,

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Table 3 Natural soil/plaster stabilizers from Tata Somba (E: Environment, W: Waste, B: Byproduct).
Item Category Admixture Coating Physical Chemical Source Effect(s)
stabilization stabilization
Dried néré pods/ Polyphenols E Water resistance þ Surface
bark water smoothness þ Increase
durability
Cow dung Polysaccharides W Improve workability þ Water
resistance þ Increase
compressive/flexural
strength þ Reduce cracks
Fonio and/or rice B Increase workability/matrix
straws strength þ Reduce cracks
Liana sap E Increase plasticity/
adhesion þ Reduce cracks
Neem leaf powder E Anti-termite (insecticide and
acaricide)
Termite mound Mineralsa E Increase compressive/flexural
soil strength
Shea butter/water Lipids E/B Water resistance
a
Minerals are inorganic substances, therefore do not fall under the category of biopolymers.
Source: Author, 2024

though the specific thickness can vary based on architec- The study underscores the significant role biopolymers
tural requirements. For instance, in a recent straw bale play in augmenting the strength, water resistance, adher-
construction project in Southern France “Izuba Énergies”, a ence, and plasticity of earthen plaster.
30 mm thick initial plaster coat consisting of clay, sand, and The findings can be summarized in the following:
straw fibers was applied, followed by a second 10 mm coat
to fill in the first layer’s cracks and level the walls. The Biopolymers serve as effective additives for the stabili-
final, 10 mm thick coat served as a protective layer, zation of earthen plaster, but it is crucial to recognize
excluding fibers in its composition. the equal importance of soil properties, mix design, and
Clay mineralogy can impact several plaster properties the plaster production process. The suggested amount of
including vapor adsorption and desorption capacity, capil- biopolymer varies based on the percentage of sand in
lary water absorption, linear dry shrinkage, shrinkage the soil, indicating the need for customizing plaster
cracking, mechanical strength, dry abrasion, and thermal compositions to local conditions.
conductivity (Lima et al., 2020). For the plaster to regulate Earthen plaster, stabilized with biopolymers, epitomizes
ambient humidity effectively, its composition should be a contemporary, eco-friendly cost-efficient solution for
fine-tuned considering factors like thickness and porosity to natural construction material, obviating the need for
suit the existing wall (Ranesi et al., 2021). recurrent maintenance costs. Concurrently, it offers an
It is noteworthy that a mere two ingredients are ideal resolution for refurbishing historical earthen based
employed for coating purposes, which underscores the structures.
adaptability and diversity of earthen architecture to local Tammari community have mastered the craft of mud
conditions and resources. architecture for centuries, and their traditional eco-
technology has proven to be effective for their needs
and the environment. Tata Somba serves as yet another
7. Conclusion lesson in architecture without architects, offering valu-
able insights for us to preserve our cultural heritage and
This paper explored the importance of construction mate- build a sustainable future.
rials and eco-compatible architecture in the field of
vernacular architecture and earthen heritage. It examined These findings have not only deepened our understand-
the milestones in international literature that have ing of earthen plaster but have also underscored the po-
contributed to the recognition and enhancement of tential of merging traditional know-how with scientific
vernacular heritage and earthen architecture. insights to craft cost-efficient eco-compatible solutions not
The analysis of natural admixtures provides valuable only for cultural heritage restoration or preservation but
insights into their effect on plaster properties, helping also for today’s architectural landscape. Adapting this age-
optimize plaster composition and application to achieve old eco-technology ensures its relevance in addressing
desired characteristics. The use of natural admixtures can contemporary needs. A profound grasp of its historical or-
reduce the need for unsustainable synthetic admixtures igins is pivotal when modifying this material to suit our
and enhance the sustainability and the cost-effectiveness demands. Our view of earthen architecture has evolved
of building materials. over time. From pioneers like Hassan Fathy to visionaries

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like Francis Kéré, earth architecture has traversed a sig- their origin and contribution to structural stability. Biol. Fertil.
nificant journey, culminating in its acknowledgment as a Soils 31 (6), 508e516.
counterpart to Modern and Post-Modern design. This Creswell, J.W., Clark, V.L.P., 2017. Designing and Conducting Mixed
recognition was solidified with the awarding of the Pritzker Methods Research. Sage Publications, Thousand Oaks, CA.
Daoudi, L., Rocha, F., Costa, C., Arrebei, N., Fagel, N., 2018.
Prize to Francis Kéré in 2022.
Characterization of rammed-earth materials from the XVIth
century Badii Palace in Marrakech, Morocco to ensure authentic
and reliable restoration. Geoarchaeology 33 (5), 529e541.
Declaration of competing interest [Link]
Das, A., Ringu, T., Ghosh, S., Pramanik, N., 2022. A comprehensive
The author declares that there are no known competing review on recent advances in preparation, physicochemical
financial interests or personal relationships that could have characterization, and bioengineering applications of bio-
appeared to influence the work reported in this paper. polymers. Polym. Bull. 80, 7247e7312. [Link]
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