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Electronics Engineers definition. The noise No is measured over the linear portion of the receiver
input-output characteristic, usually at the output of the IF amplifier before the nonlinear second
detector. The receiver bandwidth Bn is that of the IF amplifier in most receivers. The available gain
Ga is the ratio of the signal out Soto the signal in Si and
kTo Bn is the input noise Ni in an ideal receiver. The above equation may be rewritten as:

Therefore, the noise figure may be interpreted, as a measure of the degradation of

signal-to noise-ratio as the signal passes through the receiver.

Modified radar equation:

Rearranging the above two equations for Fn , the input signal may be expressed as

If the minimum detectable signal Smin is that value of Si corresponding to the minimum ratio of
output (IF) signal-to-noise ratio (So/No )min necessary for detection, then

Substituting this expression for Smin into the earlier basic Radar equation results in the
following form of the modified radar equation:

………(4)

RADAR EQUATION

Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR):

The results of statistical noise theory will be applied to obtain:

The signal-to-noise ratio at the output of the IF amplifier necessary to achieve a specified
probability of detection without exceeding a specified probability of false alarm.
The output signal-to-noise ratio thus obtained is substituted into the final modified radar equation,
we have obtained earlier.
The details of system that is considered:
IF amplifier with bandwidth BIF followed by a second detector and a video amplifier with
bandwidth BV as shown in the figure below.
The second detector and video amplifier are assumed to form an envelope detector, that is, one
which rejects the carrier frequency but passes the modulation envelope.

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The video bandwidth BV must be greater than BIF/2 in order to pass all the videomodulation.

Figure 1.6: Envelope detector.

Step 1: To determine the Probability of false alarm when noise alone is assumed to be present as input
to the receiver:

The noise entering the IF filter (the terms filter and amplifier are used interchangeably) is assumed to be
Gaussian, with probability-density function given by

Where:
p(v) dv is the probability of finding the noise voltage v between the values of vandv + dv
ψ0 is the variance, or mean-square value of the noise voltage, and the mean value of v is taken
to be zero.
(Compare this with the Standard Probability density function of Gaussian noise

With σ2 replaced by ψ0and (x—x0) replaced by v with mean value of zero)

If Gaussian noise were passed through a narrowband IF filter whose Bandwidth is small compared with its
mid band frequency-the probability density of the envelope of the noise voltage output is shown by Rice to
be of the form of Rayleigh probability-density function

………..(6)

where R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output. The probability that the envelope of the
noise voltage will lie between the values of V1andV2is

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The probability that the noise voltage envelope will exceed the voltage threshold VT is

…………(7)

Whenever the voltage envelope exceeds the threshold VT, a target is considered to have been detected.
Since the probability of a false alarm is the probability that noise will cross the threshold, the above equation
gives the probability of a false alarm, denoted by Pfa.

The probability of false alarm as given above by itself does not indicate that Radar is troubled by the false
indications of Target. The time between the false alarms TFA is a better measure of the effect of Noise on the
Radar performance. (Explained with reference to the figure below)
The average time interval between crossings of the threshold by noise alone is defined as the false- alarm
time TFA

Where TK is the time between crossings of the threshold VT by the noise envelope, when the slope of the
crossing is positive.
The false-alarm probability may also be defined as the ratio of the duration of time the envelope is actually
above the threshold to the total time it could have been above the threshold, i.e.

…………. (8)

Fig 1.7: Envelope of receiver output illustrating false alarms due to noise.

Where tK and TK are shown in the Figure above. The average duration of a noise pulse is approximately the
reciprocal of the bandwidth B, which in the case of the envelope detector is BIF. Equating eqs. 7 and 8 we
get

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……….(9)

A plot of the above equation is shown in the figure below with (VT2/2 ψ0) as the abscissa. As can be seen,
average time between false alarms Tfa is directly proportional to the Threshold to noise ratio and inversely
proportional to the Bandwidth.

Fig. 1.8: Average time between false alarms as a function of the threshold level VT and the receiver
Bandwidth B. ψ0 is the mean square noise voltage

Step 2 :
To determine Probability of detection when a sine wave signal is present along with noise:
Thus far, a receiver with only a noise input was discussed. Next, consider a sine-wave signal of amplitude A
to be present along with noise at the input to the IF filters. The frequency of the signal is the same as the IF
mid band frequency fIF. The output of the envelope detector has a probability-density function given by

………….(10)

where Io ( Z ) is the modified Bessel function of zero order and argument Z.

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When the signal is absent, A = 0 and the above equation for PDF for signal plus noise reduces to the
probability-density function for noise alone. This Equation is sometimes called the Rice probability- density
function.

The probability that the signal will be detected (which is the probability of detection) is the same as the
probability that the envelope R will exceed the predetermined threshold VT. The probability of detection Pd
is therefore:

……….(11)

(After the expression of PDF for Ps(R)[Eq. 10] is substituted into the first part of the above equation we get
the probability of detection as in [eqn.11]). But this equation cannot be evaluated by simple means, and
numerical & empirical techniques or a series approximation must be used.

The expression for Pd given by equation (11) after series expansion is a function of the signal amplitude A,
threshold voltage VT ,and mean noise power Ψ0 . In Radar systems analysis, it is more convenient to use
Signal to Noise power ratio (S/N) rather than signal to noise voltage ratio A/Ψ ½.These 0are related by:

The probability of detection Pd can then be expressed in terms of S/N , and Threshold- Noise ratio V
2
/2Ψ
T .The
0 probability of false alarm is also a function of V 2/2Ψ
T as given
0 by : P = Exp( 2
FA -V /2ψ ).T 0

The two expressions for Pd and PFA can now be combined by eliminating the Threshold- Noise ratio
VT2/2Ψ0that is common in both expressions so as to get a single expression relating the probability of
detection Pd ,Probability of false alarm PFA and signal to Noise ratio S/N.The result is plotted in the figure
below.

A much easier empirical formula developed by Albersheim for the relationship between S/N,PFA and Pd is
also given below :

S/N = A + 0.12AB + 1.7 B

Where A = ln [ 0.62/ PFA] and B = ln [ Pd /(1- Pd) ]

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Fig. 1.9: Probability of detection for a sine wave in noise as a function of the signal-to-noise (power)
ratio and the probability of false alarm

System design sequence:

Both the false-alarm timeTFA and the detection probabilityPdare specified by the system
requirements.
The radar designer computes the probability of the false alarm using the above Tfa& the relation
Pfa = 1/ Tfa . B

Then from the figure above or using the Albersheim’s empirical equation given above the
required signal-to-noise ratio to achieve the above Pfa & Pd is determined.

For example, suppose that the desired false-alarm time was 15 min and the IF bandwidth was 1 MHz. This
gives a false-alarm probability of 1.11 x 10-9. Figure above indicates that a signal-to-noise ratio of
13.1 dB is required to yield a 0.50 probability of detection, 14.7 dB for 0.90, and 16.5 dB for 0.999.

This is the signal-to-noise ratio that is to be used in the final modified Radar Equation we have obtained
earlier.

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Integration of Radar Pulses:

The relation between the signal to noise ratio, the probability of detection and the probability of false alarm
as shown in the figure or as obtained using the Albersheim’s empirical equation applies for a single pulse
only. However, many pulses are usually returned from any target on each radar scan and
can be used to improve detection. The number of pulses oint target as the radar
nB returned from a antenna scans through its beam
width is

nB = θB . fP / θ’S =
θB . fP / 6 ωm

where θB= antenna beam width, deg

fP= pulse repetition frequency, Hz
θ’S = antenna scann ng rate, deg/s
ωm= antenna scan rate, rpm

The process of summing all the radar echo pulses for the purpose of improving detection is called
integration.
Integration may be accomplished in the radar receiver either before the second detector (in the IF) or
after the second detector (in the video).
Integration before the detector is called pre detection or coherent integration. In this the phase
of the echo signal is to be preserved if full benefit is to be obtained from the summing process
Integration after the detector is called post detection or non coherent integration. In this phase
information is destroyed by the second detector. Hence post detection integration is not
concerned with preserv ng RF phase. Due to this simplicity it is easier to implement in most
applications, but is not as efficient as pre detection integration.
If n pulses, all of the same signal-to-noise ratio, were integrated by an ideal pre detection integrator, the
resultant or integrated signal-to-noise (power) ratio would be exactly n times that of a single pulse. If the
same n pulses were integrated by an ideal post detection device, the resultant signal-to-noise ratio would
be less than n times that of a single pulse. This loss in integration efficiency is caused by the nonlinear
action of the second detector, which converts some of the signal energy to noise energy in the rectification
process.

Due to its simplicity, Post detection integration is preferred many a times even though the integrated signal-
to-noise ratio may not be as high as that of Pre-detection. An alert, trained operator viewing a properly
designed cathode-ray tube display is a close approximation to the theoretical post detection integrator.
The efficiency of post detection integration relative to ideal pre-detection integration has been computed
by Marcum when all pulses are of equal amplitude. The integration efficiency may be defined as follows:

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Where n = number of pulses integrated

(S/N )1= value of signal-to-noise ratio of a single pulse required to produce a given probability of
detection(for n = 1)

(S/N )n = value of signal-to-noise ratio per pulse required to produce the same probability of
detection when n pulses ( of equal amplitude ) are integrated

The improvement in the signal-to-noise ratio when n pulses are integrated post detection is n.Ei(n) and is
the integration-improvement factor. It may also be thought of as the effective number of pulses integrated
by the post detection integrator. The improvement with ideal pre detection integration would be equal to
n. Integration loss in decibels is defined as Li(n) = 10 log [1/Ei(n)].
The integration-improvement factor (or the integration loss) is not a sensitive function of either the
probability of detection or the probability of false alarm.

The radar equation with n pulses integrated can be written

where the parameters are the same as in the earlier Radar equation except that (S/N)n, is the signal-to- noise
ratio of one of the n equal pulses that are integrated to produce the required probability of detection for a
specified probability of false alarm. Substituting the equation for integration efficiency

into the above Radar equation gives the final modified Radar equation including integration efficiency.

Radar Cross Section of Targets:

The radar cross section of a target is the (fictional) area intercepting that amount of power which when
scattered equally in all directions, produces an echo at the radar equal to that from the target. Or in other
terms

Where R= distance between radar and target

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Er= strength of reflected field at radar

Ei= strength of incident field attarget
For most common types of radar targets such as aircraft, ships, and terrain, the radar cross section does not
necessarily bear a simple relationship to the physical area, except that the larger the target size, the larger
will be the cross section.

Scattering and diffraction: are variations of the same physical process. When an object scatters an
electromagnetic wave, the scattered field is defined as the difference between the total field in the presence
of the object and the field that would exist if the object were absent (but with the sources unchanged). On
the other hand, the diffracted field is the total field in the presence of the object. With radar backscatter,
the two fie ds are the same, and one may talk about scattering and diffraction interchangeably.

Radar cross section of a simple sphere: is shown in the figure below as a function of its circumference
measured in wavelengths.(2πa/λ where a is the radius of the sphere and λ is the wavelength). The plot
consists of three regions.
1. Rayleigh Region:
The region where the size of the sphere is small compared with the wavelength (2πa/λ 1) is called
the Rayleigh region.
The Rayleigh scattering region is of interest to the radar engineer because the cross sections of
raindrops and other meteorological particles fall within this region at the usual radar
frequencies. 2. Optical region:
It is at the other extreme from the Rayleigh region where the dimensions of the sphere are large
compared with the wavelength (2πa/λ 1). For radar cross section
large
2πa/λ,

the approaches the optical cross section πa2.

3. Mie or Resonance region:

Between the optical and the Rayleigh region is the Mie, or resonance, region. The cross section is
oscillatory with frequency within this region. The maximum value is 5.6 dB greater than the
optical value, while the value of the first null is 5.5 dB below the optic l value. (The theoretical
values of the maxima and minima may vary according to the method of calculation employed.

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Figure 1.10: Radar cross section of the sphere. a = radius; λ= wavelength.

Since the sphere is a sphere no matter from what aspect it is viewed, its cross section will not be aspect-
sensitive. The cross section of other objects, however, will depend upon the direction as viewed by the radar.
(Aspect angle)

Radar cross section of a cone-sphere:

An interesting radar scattering object is the cone-sphere, a cone whose base is capped with a
sphere such that the first derivatives of the contours of the cone and sphere are equal at the joint.
Figure below is a plot of the nose-on radar cross section. The cross section of the cone- sphere from
the vicinity of the nose-on direction is quite low.
Scattering from any object occurs from discontinuities. The discontinuities, and hence the
backscattering, of the cone-sphere are from the tip and from the join between the cone and the
sphere.
The nose-on radar cross section is small and decreases as the square of the wavelength. The cross
section is small over a relatively large angular region. A large specular(having qualities of a
mirror)return is obtained when the cone-sphere is viewed at near perpendicular incidence to the
cone surface, i.e., when θ= 90 - α, where α= cone half angle. From the rear half of the cone- sphere,
the radar cross section is approximately that of thesphere.

The nose-on cross section of the cone-sphere varies, but its maximum value is approximately 0.4λ2
and its minimum is 0.01λ2 for a wide range of half-angles for frequencies above the Rayleigh region.
The null spacing is also relatively insensitive to the cone half-angle.
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Figure 1.11: Radar cross section of a cone sphere with 150 half angle as a function of the diameter in
Wave lengths.

In order to realize in practice the very low theoretical values of the radar cross section for a cone
sphere, the tip of the cone must be sharp and not rounded, the surface must be smooth (roughness
small compared to a wavelength), the join between the cone and the sphere must have a continuous
first derivative, and there must be no holes, windows, or protuberances on the surface.

Shaping of the target, as with the cone-sphere, is a good method for reducing the radar cross
section. Materials such as carbon-fiber composites, which are sometimes used in aerospace
applications, can further reduce the radar cross as compared with that
section of targets produced by highly reflecting
metallic materials.

Transmitter Power:
The peak power: The power Pt in the radar equation is called the power. This is not the
peak

instantaneous peak power of a sine wave. It is the power averaged over that carrier-frequency cycle which
occurs at the maximum power of the pulse.
The average radar power Pav: It is defined as the average transmitter power oover the pulse-repetition
period. If the transmitted waveform is a train of rectangular pulses of width τ and pulse-repetition period Tp
= 1/ f p , then the average power is related to the peak power by

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Duty cycle: The ratio Pav/Pt, τ/TP, or τ.fP is called the duty cycle of the radar. A pulse radar for detection of
aircraft might have typically a duty cycle of 0.001, while a CW radar which transmits continuously has a duty
cycle of unity.

Writing the radar equation in terms of the average power rather than the peak power, we get

The bandwidth and the pulse width are grouped together since the product of the two is usually of the
order of unity in most pulse-radar applications.

Pulse Repetition Frequencies and Range Ambiguities:

The pulse repetition frequency (prf) is determined primarily by the maximum range at which
targets are expected. If the prf is made too high, the likelihood of obtaining target echoes from the
wrong pulse transmission is increased. Echo signals received after an interval exceeding the pulse-
repetition period are called multiple time around echoes.
Consider the three targets labeled A, B, and C in the figure(a) below. Target A is located within the
maximum unambiguous range Runamb [= C.TP /2] of the radar, target B is at a distance greater than
Runamb but less than 2Runamb and the target C is greater than 2Runamb but less than
3Runamb The appearance of the three targets on an A-scope is shown in the figure (b)below. The
multiple-time-around echoes on the A-scope cannot be distinguished from proper target echoes
actually within the maximum unambiguous range. Only the range measured for target A is correct;
those for B and C are not.
One method of distinguishing multiple-time-around echoes from unambiguous echoes is to
operate with a varying pulse repetition frequency. The echo signal from an unambiguous range
target will appear at the same place on the A-scope on each sweep no matter whether the prf is
modulated or not. However, echoes from multiple-time-around targets will be spread over a
finite range as shown in the figure (c) below. The number of separate pulse repetition
frequencies will depend upon the degree of the multiple time around targets. Second-time
targets need only two separate repetition frequencies in order to be resolved.

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Fig. 1.12: Multiple-time-around echoes that give rise to ambiguities in range. (a) Three targets A, B and
C, where A is within Runamb, and B and Care multiple-time-around targets(b)the appearance ofthe three
targets on the A-scope (c) appearance of the three targets on the A-scope with a changingprf.

System Losses:

The losses in a radar system reduce the signal-to-noise ratio at the receiver output. They are two
kinds, predictable with certain precision beforehand and unpredictable. The antenna beam- shape
loss, collapsing loss, and losses in the microwave plumbing are examples of losses which
are predictable if the system configuration is are real and cannot be
known. These losses ignored.

Losses not readily subject to calculation and which are less predictable include those due to field
degradation and to operator fatigue or lack of operator motivation. They are subject to considerable
variation and uncertainty.

Plumbing loss: This is loss in the transmission lines which connects the transmitter output to the antenna.
(Cables and waveguides). At the lower radar frequencies the transmission line introduces little loss, unless
its length is exceptionally long. At higher radar frequencies, loss/attenuation will not be small and has to be
taken into account.

Connector losses: In addition to the losses in the transmission line itself, additional losses occurs at each
connection or bend in the line and at the antenna rotary joint if used. Connector losses are usually small,
but if the connection is poorly made, it can contribute significant attenuation. If the same transmission line
is used for both receiving and transmission, the loss to be inserted in the radar equation is twice the one-
way loss.

Duplexer loss: The signal suffers attenuation as it passes through the duplexer. Generally, the greater the
isolation required from the duplexer on transmission, the larger will be the insertion loss. Insertion loss
means the loss introduced when the component is inserted into the transmission line. For a typical duplexer
it might be of the order of 1 dB.
In S-band (3000 MHz) radar, for example, the typical plumbing losses will be as follows:

100 ft of RG-113/U A1 waveguide transmission line (two-way): 1.0 dB

Loss due to poor connections (estimate): 0.5 dB
Rotary-joint loss: 0.4 dB
Duplexer loss: 1.5 dB
Total plumbing loss: 3.4 dB

Beam-shape loss: The antenna gain that appears in the radar equation was assumed to be a constant equal
to the maximum value. But in reality the train of pulses returned from a target with scanning radar is
modulated in amplitude by the shape of the antenna beam. To properly take into account the pulse- train
modulation caused by the beam shape, the computations of the probability of detection (as explained
earlier) would have to be performed assuming a modulated train of pulses rather than constant-amplitude
pulses. But since this computation is difficult, a beam-shape loss is added to the radar equation and a

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Radar Lecture Unit 1: Basics of Radar and Radar
Systems Notes equation

maximum gain is employed in the radar equation rather than a gain that changes pulse to pulse.
Scanning loss: When the antenna scans rapidly enough , the gain on transmit is not the same as the gain on
receive. An additional loss has to be computed, called the scanning loss. The technique for computing
scanning loss is similar in principle to that for computing beam-shape loss. Scanning loss is important for
rapid-scan antennas or for very long range radars such as those designed to view extraterrestrial objects.

Collapsing loss: If the radar were to integrate additional noise samples along with the wanted Signal-to-
noise pulses, the added noise results in degradation called the collapsing loss.

Non ideal equipment: The transmitter power in the radar equation was assumed to be the specified output
power (either peak or average). However, all transmitting tubes are not uniform in quality, and even any
individual tube performance will not be same throughout its useful life. Also, the power is not uniform over
the operating band of frequencies. Thus, for one reason or another, the transmitted power may be other
than the design value. To allow for this variation, a loss factor of about 2 dB is introduced.

Receiver noise figure also varies over the operating frequency band. Thus, if the best noise figure over the
band is used in the radar equation, a loss factor has to be introduced to account for its poorer value
elsewhere in the frequency band.
If the receiver is not the exact matched filter for the transmitted waveform, a loss in Signal-to-noise ratio
will occur.
A typical value of loss for a non-matched receiver might be about 1 db. Because of the exponential relation
between the false-alarm time and the threshold level a slight change in the threshold can cause a significant
change in the false alarm time. In practice, therefore, it may be necessary to set the threshold level slightly
higher than calculated so as to insure a tolerable false alarm time in the event of circuit instabilities. This
increase in the threshold is equivalent to a loss.

Operator loss: An alert, motivated, and well-trained operator performs as described by theory. However,
when distracted, tired, overloaded, or not properly trained, operator performance will decrease. The
resulting loss in system performance is called operator loss.

Field degradation: When a radar system is operated under laboratory conditions by engineering personnel
and experienced technicians, the above mentioned losses give a realistic description of the performance of
the radar. However, when a radar is operated under field conditions the performance usually deteriorates
even more than that can be accounted for by the above losses. To minimize field degradation Radars should
be designed with built-in automatic performance-monitoring equipment. Careful observation of
performance-monitoring instruments and timely preventative maintenance will minimize field degradation.

There are many causes of loss and inefficiency in a Radar. Although each of them may be small, the sum
total can result in a significant reduction in radar performance. It is important to understand the origins
of these losses, not only for better predictions of radar range, but also for the purpose of keeping them to
a minimum by careful radar design.
Radar Lecture Unit 1: Basics of Radar
Systems Notes

Important formulae:

Range of a Radar R = cTR / 2

Maximum unambiguous Range R unambig. = C /2fp
Basic Radar equation : Rmax = [ (Pt .G. Ae. σ)/ (4π)2. Smin ]1/4
Gain of an antenna G = 4π Ae /λ2
Noise figure of a receiver Fn = No/ kTo BnGa Also
given by

If the minimum detectable signal Smin is that value of Si corresponding to the minimum
ratio ofoutput (IF) signal-to-noise ratio (So/No )min necessary for detection, then

And modified Maximum possible range in terms of the IF amplifier output signalto
noise ratio and noise figure

Relationships between Probability of false alarm,Probability of detection and S/N :

Pfa = 1/ Tfa . B

PFA = Exp( -V T2/2ψ0).

▪

Albersheim empirical relationship between S/N, PFA and Pd:

S/N = A + 0.12AB + 1.7 B

Where A = ln [ 0.62/ PFA] and B = ln [ Pd /(1- Pd) ]

The radar equation with n pulses integrated :

Integration efficiency :

Final Radar equation including Integration efficiencywith n pulses integrated:

Radar Lecture Unit 1: Basics of Radar
Systems Notes

Illustrative Problems:

Example1: A certain Radar has PRF of 1250 pulses per second. What is the maximum unambiguous
range? Max. Unambiguous Range is given by

R unambig. = C /2fp
R unambig. = 3x10 /2x1250 mtrs = 120X103mts = 120Kms
8

Example 2: A ship board radar has 0.9 micro sec transmitted pulse width. Two small boats in the
same direction are separated in range by 150 mts. Will the radar detect the two boats as two
targets?

Radar Range Resolution: The range resolution of a Radar is its ability to distinguish two closely
spaced targets along the same line of sight (LOS). The Range resolution is a function of the pulse
length, where the pulse length LP= c x τ/2(Two way range corresponding to the pulse width)

Radar Range resolution = 3x108x0.9x10-6/2 = 135 mtrs.

Since the boats are at 150 Mts. apart, which is greater than the range Resolution of 135mtrs., the
radar can detect the 2 boats as 2 separate targets.

Example 3: A Pulse Radar transmits a peak power of 1 Mega Watt. It has a PRT equal to 1000 micro
sec and the transmitted pulse width is 1 micro sec. Calculate (i)Maximum unambiguous range (ii)
Average Power (iii)Duty Cycle (iv) Energy transmitted & (v)Bandwidth

(i) Maximum unambiguous range = c.TP /2 = 3x108x1000x10-6/2 = 150x103 mtrs = 150 Kms

(ii) Average Power = PP x τ / TP= 1x106 1x10-6 /1000x10-6= 1000 watts = 1kw

(iii)Duty Cycle = τ / TP= 1x10-6 /1000x10-6= 0.001

(iv) Energy transmitted = PP x τ (Peak power xTime) = 1x106 x1x10-6= 1

Joule (v)Bandwidth = 1/τ = 1/10-6= 1Mhz

Example4: The Bandwidth of I.F. Amplifier in a Radar Receiver is 1 MHZ. If the Threshold to
noise ratio is 12.8 dB determine the False Alarm Time.

Tfa = False Alarm Time Tfa= [1/BIF ] Exp VT2/2ψ0 where BIF = 1X 106 HZ
Radar Lecture Unit 1: Basics of Radar
Systems Notes
Threshold to Noise Ratio = 12.8 dB

i.e. 10 Log10[V T2/2ψ ]0 = 12.8db

VT 2/2ψ0= Antilog10 [12.8/10] = 19.05

Tfa= 1/(1X 106) Exp 19.05 = 187633284/106= 187.6 Seconds

Example5: The probability density of the envelope of the noise voltage output is given by the Rayleigh
probability-density function

where R is the amplitude of the envelope of the filter output for R 0. If Pfa needed is 10-
5
. Determine the Threshold Level.

The probability of false alarm PFA in terms of the threshold voltage level is given by :

PFA= Exp(-VT 2/2ψ0 ) = 10-5

Taking logarithms on both the sides we get

- 5 Log e10 = (-VT2/2ψ0

) 5 x 2.3026 = (VT 2/2ψ0 )

VT 2 = 11.5 x 2 ψ0

V T= 23 x ψ0= x ψ0

Example 6: The bandwidth of an IF amplifier is 1 MHz and the average false-alarm time that could be
tolerated is 15 min. Find the probability of a false alarm.
The relationship between average false-alarm time TFA, probability of a false alarm PFA and the IF
bandwidth B is given by :
Pfa = 1/ Tfa . B

Substituting B = 1 MHz ie 106 and Tfa=15 mnts. i.e. 900 secs. we get PFA=1.11 X 10—9

Example 7: What is the ratio of threshold voltage to the rms value of the noise voltage necessary to
achieve this false-alarm time?
This is found out using the relationship PFA = Exp (-VT2/2ψ0 )
from which the ratio of Threshold voltage to rms value of the noise voltage is given by
VT/ ψ0 = 2 ln (1/Pfa ) = 2 ln 9X108 = 6.45 = 16.2dB
Radar Lecture Unit 1: Basics of Radar
Systems Notes
Example 8: Typical parameters for a ground-based search radar are : 1. Pulse repetition frequency :300 Hz,
2. Beam width : 1.50, and 3. Antenna scan rate: 5 rpm (300/s). Find out the number of pulses returned from
a point target on each scan.
Solution : The number of pulses retuned from a point target on each scannBis given by:
nB = θB . fP / θ’S = θB . fP / 6 ωm
Substituting the above values we get : nB = 1.5 x 300 / 30 = 15

Questions from Previous Year Examinations:

1.(a) Derive Radar range equation in terms of MDS (minimum detectable signal) (b) What is
maximum unambiguous range? How is it related with PRF?

2.(a) Explain the various system losses in a Radar (b) The bandwidth of The IF amplifier in a Radar
is 1 Mhz and the threshold noise ratio is 13 db. Determine the false alarm time.

3.(a) Explain the basic principles of Radar and discuss about various parameters which improve the
performance of the Radar (b) Discuss about Radar frequencies and list out the Applications of
Radars.

4.(a) In a Radar receiver the mean noise voltage is 80 mv and the IF BW is 1 Mhz. If thetolerable
false alarm time is 25 mnts., calculate the threshold voltage level and the probability of false alarm.
(b) Bring out the advantages of Integration of Radar pulses.

5 (a) Discuss about the factors that influence the prediction of Radar range. (b) Define noise
bandwidth of a radar receiver. How does it differ from 3-dB band width? Obtain the expression for
minimum detectable signal in terms of noise bandwidth, noise figure and other relevant
parameters. [8+8]

6. (a) Write the simplified version of radar range equation and explain how this equation does not
adequately describe the performance of practical radar? (b) What are the specific bands assigned
by the ITU for the Radar? What the corresponding frequencies? [8+8]

7. (a) Explain how the Radar is used to measure the range of a target? (b) Draw the block diagram
of the pulse radar and explain the function of each block. [8+8]

8. (a) A low power, short range radar is solid-state throughout, including a low-noise RF amplifier
which gives it an overall noise figure of 4.77dB. If the antenna diameter is 1m, the IF bandwidth is
500kHz, the operating frequency is 8 GHz and the radar set is supposed to be capable of detecting
targets of 5m2 cross sectional area at a maximum distance of 12 km, what must be the peak
transmitted pulse power? (b) The average false alarm time is a more significant parameter than
the false alarm probability. Give the reasons. (c) Why post detection integration is not as efficient
as pre-detection integration of radar pulses? [8+4+4]
Radar Lecture Unit 1: Basics of Radar and Radar
Systems Notes equation
CW and Frequency
Modulated Radar

CW and Frequency Modulated Radar

• Doppler Effect
• CW Radar-Block Diagram

• Isolation between Transmitter and Receiver

• Non-zero IF receiver
• Receiver Bandwidth Requirements
• Applications of CW radar
• Related Problems

• FM-CW radar
• Range and Doppler measurement
• Block diagram and Characteristics
• FM-CW altimeter
• Multiple Frequency CW radar
Doppler Effect
• Doppler effect implies that the frequency of a wave when transmitted by the source
is not necessarily the same as the frequency of the transmitted wave when picked
by the receiver.
• The received frequency depends upon the relative motion between the transmitter
and receiver.
• If transmitter and receiver both are moving towards each other the received
frequency higher, this is true even one is moving.
• If they are moving apart the received signal frequency decreases and if both are
stationary, the frequency remains the same. This change in frequency is known as
Doppler shift.
• Doppler shift depends upon the relative velocity between radar and target

• If R is the distance from the radar to target, the total number of wavelengths λ
contained in the two-way path between the radar and the target are 2R/λ.
• Each wavelength corresponds to a phase change of 2π radians. The total phase
change in the two way propagation path is then

• If the target is in motion relative to the radar, R is changing and so will the phase.
Differentiating w.r.t time gives the rate of change of phase, which is the angular
frequency

• = is the radial velocity or rate of change range with time

• is the rate of change of with time is the angular frequency, where is
the Doppler frequency shift.
• The relative velocity may be written as Vr= V.cos θ where V is the target speed and
θ is angle made by the target trajectory and the line joining radar and target. When
θ=0 the Doppler frequency is maximum. The Doppler is zero when the trajectory is
perpendicular to the radar line of sight (θ= 900).

Figure: Doppler frequency

fd as a function of radar
frequency and target
relative velocity

CW RADAR
• It is possible to detect moving targets by radiating unmodulated Continuous wave
energy instead of radiating in the form of pulses. Continuous Wave radars makes
use of Doppler effect for target speed measurements.

Figure : (a) Block diagram of a

Simple CW radar
(b) Response characteristic of
the doppler filter
• Consider the simple CW radar shown the block diagram. The transmitter generates
a continuous (unmodulated) oscillation of frequency which is radiated by the
antenna.
• A portion of the radiated energy is intercepted by the target and is scattered, some
of it in the direction of the radar, where it is collected by the receiving antenna.
• If the target is in motion with a velocity Vr relative to the radar, the received signal
will be shifted in frequency from the transmitted frequency by an amount as
given by the equation
• The plus sign associated with the Doppler frequency shift applies if the distance
between target and radar is decreasing (approaching target) that is, when the
received signal frequency is greater than the transmitted signal frequency. The
minus sign applies if the distance is increasing (receding target).
• The received echo signal at a frequency enters the radar via the antenna and
is heterodyned in the detector (mixer) with a portion of the transmitter signal fo to
produce a Doppler beat note of frequency fd. The sign of fd is lost in this process.

• The beat frequency amplifier eliminates the echoes from stationary targets and
amplifies the Doppler echo signal.
• The low-frequency cutoff must be high enough to reject the d-c component caused
by stationary targets, but yet it must be low enough to pass the smallest Doppler
frequency expected. Sometimes both conditions cannot be met simultaneously and
a compromise is necessary. The upper cutoff frequency is selected to pass the
highest Doppler frequency expected.

Advantages of CW Radar
• CW Doppler radar has no blind speed.
• CW Doppler radar is capable of giving accurate measurements of relative
velocities.
• CW Doppler radars are always on, they need low power and are compact in size.
• They can be used for small to large range with high degree of efficiency and
accuracy.
• The performance of radar is not affected by stationary object.
Disadvantages of CW Doppler radar
• The maximum range of CW Doppler radar is limited by the power that radar can
radiate.
• The target range can not be calculated by CW Doppler radar.
• There is possibility of ambiguous results when number of targets are more.
Applications of CW Radar
• CW Doppler radars are used where only velocity information is of intrest and actual
range is not needed. E.g: in LAW and Enforcement radar applications
• Measuring motion of wave on water level.
• Runway monitors.
• Cricket ball speed measurement.

Isolation between transmitter and receiver

• A single antenna serves the purpose of both transmission and reception in the
simple CW radar. In principle, a single antenna is sufficient as the necessary
isolation is obtained by the separation in frequency (as a result of doppler effect), in
practice there is considerable transmitter leakage.
• However, there are two reasons why the amount of transmitter leakage power
should be kept at a low value.
1. The maximum power the receiver input circuitry can withstand, without
being physically damaged or having its sensitivity reduced, is quite low.
2. The transmitter noise which enters the receiver from the transmitter
reduces receiver sensitivity.
• The amount of isolation required depends on the transmitter power and the
accompanying transmitter noise as well as the ruggedness and sensitivity of the
receiver.
• For example, If the safe value of power which might be applied to a receiver is
10mW and if the transmitter power is 1 kW, the isolation between transmitter and
receiver must be at least 50 dB.
• In long range CW applications, it is the level of the noise accompanying the transmitter
leakage signal, rather than the damage this leakage might cause to the receiver circuitry,
which determines the amount of isolation required.
• The amount of isolation which can be readily achieved between the arms of practical hybrid
junctions such as the magic-T, rat race, or short-slot coupler is of the order of 20 to 30 dB.
• In some instances, when extreme precision is exercised, an isolation of perhaps 60 dB or more
might be achieved. But one limitation of the hybrid junction is the 6-dB loss in overall
performance.
• The largest isolations are obtained with two antennas one for transmission, the other for
reception-physically separated from one another. Isolations of the order of 80 dB or more are
possible with high-gain antennas. The more directive the antenna beam and the greater the
spacing between antennas, the greater will be the isolation.
• The separate antennas of the AN/MPQ-46 CW tracker-illuminator of the Hawk missile system
are shown

• The correct degree of isolation between transmitters and receivers can be

implemented by one of two methods:
1) Use two antennas, physically separated by a given distance, or;
2) Use the appropriate duplexer with a single-antenna system.
Intermediate-frequency receiver
Limitation of Zero IF receiver:
• Receivers of super heterodyne receiver type are also called homodyne receivers, or
super heterodyne receivers with zero IF.
• However, this simpler receiver is not very sensitive because of increased noise at
the lower intermediate frequencies caused by flicker effect.
• Flicker-effect noise occurs in semiconductor devices such as diode detectors and
cathodes of vacuum tubes. The noise power produced by the flicker effect varies as
1/fα where α is approximately unity.
• At the lower range of frequencies (audio or video region), where the Doppler
frequencies usually are found, the detector of the CW receiver can introduce a
considerable amount of flicker noise, resulting in reduced receiver sensitivity.
• For short-range, low-power, applications this decrease in sensitivity might be
tolerated
• But for maximum efficiency with CW radar, the reduction in sensitivity caused by
the simple Doppler receiver with zero IF cannot be tolerated.

Non zero IF Receiver:

• Flicker effect noise reduces the receiver sensitivity of a CW Radar with zero IF
(Simple Doppler radar). In order to increase the sensitivity and efficiency we go for
CW Radar with Non-zero IF.
• Figure above shows the block diagram of a CW radar whose receiver operates with
a nonzero IF. Separate antennas are shown for transmission and reception.

• Instead of the usual local oscillator found in the conventional super heterodyne
receiver, the local oscillator (or reference signal) is derived in the receiver from a
portion of the transmitted signal mixed with a locally generated signal of frequency
equal to that of the receiver IF.

• Since the output of the mixer Consists of two sidebands on either side of the carrier
plus higher harmonics, a narrow band filter selects one of the sidebands as the
reference signal.

• The improvement in receiver sensitivity with an intermediate-frequency super

heterodyne might be as much as 30 Db.

Limitations of CW radar with Non Zero IF

• False targets

• Unable to detect the range of the target

Receiver bandwidth requirements

• Bandwidth B, BW or Δf is the difference between the upper and lower cut-off
frequencies of a radar receiver, and is typically measured in hertz.

• In case of a baseband channel or video signal, the bandwidth is equal to its upper
cut-off frequency. In a Radar receiver the bandwidth is mostly determined by the IF
filter stages.

• IF amplifier should be wide enough to pass the expected range of Doppler

frequencies.

• Usually expected range of Doppler frequencies will be much higher than the
frequency spectrum occupied by the signal energy . So a wide band amplifier is
needed.
• which result in an increase in noise and a lowering of the receiver sensitivity and
S/N.
• If the frequency of the Doppler-shifted echo signal are known beforehand,
narrowband filter-that is just wide enough to reduce the excess noise without
eliminating a significant amount of signal energy might be used.
• If the received waveform were a sine wave of infinite duration, its frequency spectrum would
be a delta function as shown in the figure (a) below and the receiver bandwidth would be
infinitesimal.

• But a sine wave of infinite duration and an infinitesimal bandwidth cannot occur in nature.
The more normal situation is an echo signal which is a sine wave of finite duration.

• The frequency spectrum of a finite-duration sine wave has a shape of the form
[sinπ(f-f0)δ]/π(f-f0)]
where f0 and δ are the frequency and duration of the sine wave, respectively, and f is
the frequency variable over which the spectrum is plotted (Fig b).

Filter Banks in CW radar Receiver

• A bank of narrowband filter is required to measure the frequency of echo signals.
The filter bank also increases signal to noise ratio of radar receiver.

Figure: (a) Block diagram of IF Doppler filter bank (b) frequency-response characteristic of Doppler filter bank.
• BW of each filter is wide enough to accept the signal energy. But not so wide to
accept the noise.
• The more the filters used less will be the SNR loss and less chance of missing a
target.
• The ability to measure the magnitude of Doppler frequency and improvement in
signal to noise ratio is better in IF filter bank than in video filter bank.
• Also the sign of Doppler shift (+ or -) is available which is not present in video
filter bank.
• Each filter of filter bank has different bandwidth.

Sign of the radial velocity

• In many applications of CW radar it is of interest to know if the target is
approaching or receding. This might be determined with separate filters located on
either side of the intermediate frequency.
• If the echo-signal frequency lies below the carrier, then the target is receding;
whereas if the echo frequency is greater that the carrier, then the target is
approaching.

Figure: Spectra of received signals. (a) No Doppler shift, no relative target motion; (b) approaching
target; (c) receding target.
• However, the Doppler-frequency spectrum ”folds over” in the video because of the
action of the detector, and hence the information about whether the doppler shift is
positive or negative is lost. But it is possible to determine its sign from a technique
borrowed from single-sideband communication.
• If the transmitter signal is given by,
Et = Eocos wot
• The echo signal from the moving target will be,
Er = K1E0cos [(wo + wd)t + φ]
where, E0 = amplitude of the transmitted signal
K1 = a constant determined from the radar equation
wo = angular frequency of transmitted signal, rad/sec
wd = dopper angular frequency shift, rad/sec
φ = a constant phase shift, which depends upon the range of initial
detection (i.e., distance between the radar and the target)

• The sign of the Doppler frequency, and therefore the direction of target motion,
may be found by splitting the received signal into two channels as shown
• In channel A the signal is processed as in a simple CW radar. The receiver signal and a portion
of the transmitter signal heterodyne in the detector (mixer) to yield a difference signal,
EA = K2E0cos( wdt + φ)
• The channel B has π/2 phase delay introduced in the reference signal. The output of the
channel B mixer is

EB = K2E0 cos( wdt + φ +π/2)

• If the target is approaching (positive doppler),the outputs from the two channels are,

EA = K2E0 cos(wdt + φ)
EB = K2E0 cos(wdt + φ +π/2)
on the other hand, if the target is receding (negative doppler),

EA(−) = K2E0 cos(wdt - φ)

EB(−) = K2E0 cos(wdt - φ - π/2)
• The sign of wd and the direction of the target’s motion may be determined according to
whether the output of channel B leads or lags the output of channel A.
• One method of determining the relative phase relationship between the two channels is to
apply the outputs to a synchronous two-phase motor. The direction of motor rotation is an
indication of the direction of the target motion.

Applications of CW radar

• Police speed monitor

• Rate-of-climb meter (During aircraft take off)
• Vehicle counting
• As a replacement for “5th wheel speedometer” in vehicle testing
• Antilock braking system
• Collision avoidance
• In railways as speedometer instead of tachometer
• Advance warning system for approaching targets
• Docking speed measurement of large ships
• Intruder alarms
• Measurement of velocity of missiles, baseball etc