INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
GCEST 104
INTRODUCTION TO
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING &
CIVIL ENGINEERING
KTU 2024 SCHEME
S1 CE & ME
PART 2
CIVIL ENGINEERING
BISHOP JEROME INSTITUTE, KOLLAM
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CONTENTS
TITLE PAGE NUMBER
Syllabus 3
Module 3
3.1General Introduction to Civil Engineering
3.1.1 Relevance of Civil Engineering 5
3.1.2 Major Disciplines of Civil Engineering 7
3.2 Introduction to Buildings
3.2.1 Types of buildings as per NBC 9
3.2.2 Load bearing and non-load bearing building structures 13
3.2.3 Components of a residential building and their functions 13
3.2.4 Selection of site for a residential building 17
3.3 Building Area and Definitions 18
3.4 Building Rules and Regulations 19
Module 4
4.1 Conventional construction materials
4.1.1 Bricks 22
4.1.2 Stones 31
4.1.3 Sand 39
4.1.4 Timber 43
4.1.5 Cement 51
4.2 Cement Concrete 57
4.3 Tests on hardened and fresh concrete 62
4.4 Steel 66
4.5 Soil 71
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SYLLABUS
Module 3
General Introduction to Civil Engineering: Relevance of Civil Engineering in the overall
infrastructural development of the country.
Brief introduction to major disciplines of Civil Engineering like Structural Engineering, Geo-
technical Engineering, Transportation Engineering, Water Resources Engineering and
Environmental Engineering.
Introduction to buildings: Types of buildings according to character of occupancy as per NBC,
Load bearing and non-load bearing building structures, components of a residential building and
their functions (concept only).
Selection of site for a residential building.
Building Area Definitions: Built up area, Plinth area, Floor area, Carpet area and Floor area ratio
of a building as per KBR. Building rules and regulations: Relevance of NBC, KBR & CRZ
norms (brief discussion of relevance only).
Module 4
Conventional construction materials: Brick, stone, sand, cement and timber- Classifications,
Qualities, Tests and Uses of construction materials.
Cement concrete: Constituent materials, properties and types.
Tests on fresh and hardened concrete - slump test, cube compressive strength as per IS Codes.
Steel: Structural steel sections and steel reinforcements – types and uses.
Soil-Origin of soil-weathering of rocks, types of weathering
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Course Assessment Method
(CIE: 40 marks, ESE: 60 marks)
Continuous Internal Evaluation Marks (CIE):
Assignment/ Internal Internal
Attendance Micro project Examination-1 Examination- 2 Total
(Written) (Written)
5 15 10 10 40
End Semester Examination Marks (ESE): In Part A, all questions need to be answered and in Part
B, each student can choose any one full question out of two questions
PART A PART B TOTAL
2 Questions from each module. Each question carries 9 marks.
● Two questions will be given
● Total of 8 Questions, each from each module, out of which 60
carrying 3 marks 1 question should be answered. ●
Each question can have a
maximum of 3 sub divisions.
(8x3 =24marks) (4x9 = 36 marks)
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INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
MODULE 3
3.1GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO CIVIL ENGINEERING
Civil Engineering is the oldest branch of engineering. Institution of Civil Engineers has
described Civil Engineering as ‘the art of directing great sources of nature for the use and
convenience of man’. Civil Engineering deals with the planning, design, construction,
maintenance and management of physical infrastructure networks. Civil engineers work with
structures. They design and supervise the construction of roads, bridges, tunnels, dams,
buildings, airports, harbors and much more. Civil engineers have one of the world’s most
important jobs. They build our quality of life. With creativity and technical skill, civil engineers
plan, design, construct and operate the facilities essential to modern life, ranging from highway
to energy efficient buildings. Civil engineers are problem solvers, meeting the challenges of
pollution, traffic congestion, drinking water and energy needs, earthquakes, floods, urban
redevelopment and community planning. As the technological revolution expands, as the world’s
population increases, and as environmental concerns mount, civil engineering skills will be
needed throughout the world. It can be truly said that we cannot have modern civilization
without civil engineers. Whatever area you choose, be it design, construction, research, planning,
teaching or management, civil engineering offers a wide range of career options.
3.1.1 Relevance of Civil Engineering in the Infrastructure Development of the
Country
Infrastructure is the framework of all supporting system consisting of transportation,
communication, energy, irrigation facilities etc. that help a community to grow and develop.
Infrastructural development of a country contributes to the economic development of a particular
nation. Higher the infrastructure facilities, higher will be the growth prospects. Infrastructural
development causes increase in food production, employment opportunities, increase in per
capita income and eradication of poverty, thereby overall development of the country.
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The infrastructural development has the following major impacts on the country:
➢ Healthy and comfortable housing facility
➢ Improvement in communication and transportation
➢ Safe water supply
➢ Safe and scientific waste disposal
➢ Generation of electricity from nuclear, solar, thermal and wind energy
➢ Improved standard of living
➢ Increase in food production
➢ Protection from drought and flood
Role of civil engineers in infrastructural development are:
➢ Construction of residential and industrial buildings in urban and rural areas
➢ Construction of roads, railways, ports, harbors and airports
➢ Construction of towers
➢ Construction of dams and canals
➢ Construction of water treatment plants
➢ Construction of sewerage system and waste disposal plants
➢ Maintenance and repair of facilities
In general; the functions of a Civil Engineer are Town and city Planning, Design, Construction
and Maintenance of different Civil Engineering structures.
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3.1.2 Major Disciplines of Civil Engineering
As a broad branch of engineering, Civil Engineering has various disciplines or branches.
1. Surveying and remote sensing.
2. Geotechnical Engineering
3. Structural Engineering
4. Construction Management
5. Water resources Engineering
6. Environmental Engineering
7. Transportation Engineering
8. Architecture and town planning
1. Surveying
Surveying is defined as the science of determining the position of objects on or beneath
the surface of the earth. Surveying is the science of map making. To start any development
activity in an area the relative positions of various objects in the horizontal and vertical
directions are required. This is obtained by surveying the area. Earlier, the conventional
instruments like chain, tape and leveling instruments were used. In this electronic era, modern
equipment like distance meters and total stations are used to get more accurate results easily. The
modern technologies like photogrammetry and remote sensing have made surveying easier
2. Geotechnical Engineering
This subject deals with soils, rock and foundations of all structures like buildings, roads,
railways, dams, tunnels etc. Before starting any work, soil samples are required to be collected
from the field, brought to the laboratory and tested to find out the properties of the soils. The
foundations are then designed taking into account the load of the structure.
3. Structural Engineering:
This discipline deals with the design of structures. The structure should be safe and able
to give the service for which it was intended. The load acting on the structure has to be identified
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and the stresses are to be calculated. The design should be economical also. The loads are dead
load, live load, wind load and seismic load.
4. Construction Management:
Branch of civil engineering deals with the construction management of various structures
like buildings, dams, water supply schemes, roads, railways, air ports, sea ports etc. First detailed
engineering survey has to be made. Then design the structure and carry out the construction.
Proper quality control has to be made by the site engineer so that the structure will be safe and
also it should be economical. The work should be completed within the target dates as to avoid
cost escalation. So many software packages are available now days for design, drawing and
project planning.
5. Water Resources Engineering:
The availability of water from these sources like rivers, lakes ponds and streams have to
be analyzed and actual use planned accordingly. Water as told earlier is required for irrigation,
industries, drinking and transportation. This also deals with the flow and conveyance of fluids
such as water and sewage. The knowledge on this subject is required for the design of bridges,
dams, channels, canals, water supply and sanitary engineering. It also deals with the application
of fluid mechanics principles to problems dealing with the collection, storage, control, transport
of water and sewage.
6. Environmental Engineering:
Environmental engineers design and supervise systems to provide safe drinking water
and to prevent and control pollution in water, in the air on the land and in the ground water.
7. Transportation Engineering:
Transportation engineering deals with the construction and maintenance of roads,
railways, airways, off Shore Structures etc. For the transportation of men and material a good
transportation network is very essential. This forms one of the essential requirements of the
infrastructure development of the country. Roads connect small villages to the major cities and
industrial towns; railways help in transporting passengers and goods in large quantities more
effectively.
8. Architecture and town planning:
Aesthetically good structures are required. Towns and cities are to be planned properly.
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3.2 INTRODUCTION TO BUILDINGS
3.2.1 Types of Buildings as Per National Building Code of India
Buildings may be classified according to various parameters like occupancy, fire
resistance, load transfer and materials used.
a) Classification of buildings as per occupancy-
Group A – Residential
Group B - Educational
Group C - Institutional
Group D - Assembly
Group E - Business
Group F - Mercantile
Group G - Industrial
Group H - Storage
Group J– Hazardous
Group A – Residential Buildings
These are the buildings in which accommodation is provided for normal residential
purposes with or without cooking or dining or both facilities except any building classified under
Group C. Group A buildings are further classified as A1 to A5.
• A1 – Lodging Houses - These are buildings in which under the same management,
separate sleeping accommodation for a total of not more than 40 persons on transient or
permanent basis with or without dining facilities but without cooking facilities for
individuals is provided.
• A2 – One or two private dwelling houses – These are occupied by members of a single
family and have a total sleeping accommodation for not more than 20 persons.
• A3 – Dormitories – These are buildings in which group sleeping accommodation is
provided with or without dining facilities for persons who are not members of the same
family in a room or a series of closely associated rooms under joint occupancy and single
management. Examples – hostels, military barracks
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• A4 – Apartment houses (Flats) –These are buildings under single management in which
living quarters are provided for three or more families.
• A5- Hotels (upto 4 star only) –These are buildings under single management in which
sleeping accommodation is provided for hire to more than fifteen persons.
• A-6 :- Hotels (5 star and above)
Group B: Educational Buildings
The buildings used for schools, colleges, or other training institutions that involve
assembly during the day for instruction, education are considered educational buildings.
Sub divisions
• B1 – Schools up to senior secondary level with not less than 20 students.
• B2 – All other training schools with less than 100 students
Group C: Institutional Buildings
A building or part of a building that is used for the purposes such as medical or other
treatment or care of persons suffering from physical or mental illness, disease or infirmity; care
of infants, or aged persons in which the liberty of inmates is restricted are categorized as
institutional buildings. They normally provide sleeping accommodation for the occupant. They
are further sub - divided as:
• C1- Hospitals and sanatoria (chronic illness treatment)
• C2 – Custodial Institution
• C3- Penal and mental institutions
Group D: Assembly Buildings
These shall include any building or part there of where a group of not less than 50 people
gather for amusement, recreation, social, religious and for similar purposes. Eg. Cinema halls,
theatres, exhibition halls, museums, restaurants etc. These buildings are further sub divided into
• D-1: Buildings having stage and fixed seats more than 1000.
• D-2: Buildings having stage and fixed seats less than 1000
• D-3: Buildings without stage and accommodation for 300 or more persons but no
permanent seating arrangements
• D-4: Buildings without stage and accommodation for less than 300 persons.
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• D-5: All other structures for assembly of people not covered by sub divisions D-1 to D-4.
Eg- Circus tents
• D-6: Buildings having mixed occupancy providing facilities such as shopping, restaurants
etc.
• D-7: All other buildings for assembly of people not covered under D-1 to D-6
Group E: Business Buildings
These shall include any building or part of a building which is used for the transaction of
business. Eg. Court houses, Libraries, town halls etc.
• E-1: Offices, banks, professional establishments like offices of architects, engineers,
doctors, lawyers etc.
• E-2: Laboratories, research establishments.
• E-3: Computer installations
• E-4:- Telephone exchanges
• E-5:- Radio broadcasting stations and TV Stations
Group F: Mercantile Buildings
This group includes any building or part of a building that is used as a shop, store either
whole sale or retail. These are sub divided into
• F1: Shops, stores markets with area up to 500 m2.
• F2: Underground shopping centers, departmental stores with area more than 500 m2.
• F-3:- Underground shopping centers.
Group G: Industrial Buildings
These include buildings or part of a building in which materials of all kinds are
fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed.
• G1- Buildings used for low-hazard Industries: These are buildings where danger to life
and property may arise from panic or fire from external sources only.
• G2- Buildings used for moderate-hazard Industries: The processes in the industries are
liable to give rise to a fire that will burn with moderate rapidity.
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• G3- Buildings used for high-hazard Industries; the processes in the industries are liable to
give rise to a fire that will burn with extreme rapidity.
Group H: Storage Buildings
These are buildings used for the storage or sheltering of goods, vehicles or animals.
Group J: Hazardous Buildings
These are buildings used for storage, handling, and manufacturing of highly explosive
materials or products which are liable to burn with extreme rapidity producing poisonous gases
or explosions.
b) Classification of buildings according to fire resistance
• Type I - All structural components should be four-hour fire resistant
• Type II - All structural components should be three-hour fire resistant
• Type III - All structural components should be two-hour fire resistant
• Type IV - All structural components should be one-hour fire resistant
c) Classification according to method of load transfer or type of construction
i. Load-bearing structure: The load of roof and floors is transferred to the
foundation by thick walls.
ii. Framed structure: The load of roof and floors is transferred to the foundation
through columns and footings. Walls serve as partitions only.
d) Classification of buildings according to the materials used
RCC (Reinforced Cement Concrete) structure, Steel Structure, Composite Structure
3.2.2 Load Bearing and Non-Load Bearing (Framed) structure
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• Load-bearing structure:
The load of roof and floors is transferred to the foundation by thick walls.
• Framed structure:
The load of roof and floors is transferred to the foundation through columns and footings.
Walls serve as partitions only.
Comparison of load bearing and framed structure:
Load bearing structure Framed structure
Load from roof and floors are transferred to Load from roof and floors are transferred
foundation by walls through beams and columns to footings
Walls need foundation throughout Footings are required for columns only
Thickness of load bearing walls should be at
Only exterior walls need 200 mm thick
least 200mm
Too many openings for doors, windows and
No restrictions
ventilators are not permitted
Suited for residential purpose - one or two
Suitable for multi storied buildings
storey only
3.2.3 Components of a Residential Building
Typically, a building consists of two parts. They are: Sub-structure and Super structure.
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1) Sub-structure or foundation: is the portion of the building, below ground level, which
transmits the load of super structure to the soil. It is the most critical part of the building which
safeguards the building against the forces of wind, uplift, soil pressure etc. Any fault in
foundation leads to collapse of the building. The important functions are
i. It distributes the total load coming on the building uniformly to a large bearing area.
ii. It provides a level and firm surface for the construction of superstructure.
iii. It prevents unequal or differential settlement of the structure.
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iv. It ensures the stability of the building against sliding, overturning etc.
v. It ensures the stability of the building against undermining due to floodwater or
burrowing animals.
2) Plinth: It is the middle part of the building above the surface of the surrounding ground up to
the surface of the floor. (i.e floor level) Sometimes it is also called as basement. The minimum
height of the plinth is usually kept as 45cm. Usually a coping (projection) of finely dressed
stones or of concrete is provided at the top of the plinth. The functions are
i. It transmits the load from superstructure to the sub structure.
ii. It acts as a retaining wall for the filling inside the plinth or raised floor.
iii. It protects the building from dampness and moisture penetration.
iv. It improves the architectural appearance of the building.
3) Super structure: is that component of the building which is constructed above the plinth
levels. It includes walls and piers, floors, doors and windows, lintels, sunshades, roofs, steps and
stairs and finishes for walls.
a. Walls and piers: The main function of walls is to divide the space into different rooms.
Also, walls support the loads from the roof upper floors to the foundations. Piers or pillars
are thickened sections of the walls placed at intervals to carry the concentrated loads. Walls
are built with bricks, stones, or with concrete. The features of walls are:
i. The walls should be strong enough to carry the loads safely its self-weight as well as
imposed loads from roof/upper floors.
ii. The external walls should provide sufficient resistance against weathering agencies like,
sun, wind, rain and snow.
iii. It should be stable against overturning by lateral forces.
iv. It should have adequate resistance against fire.
v. Walls should have sufficient heat and sound insulation.
vi. Walls should provide sufficient privacy and security against burglary.
b) Floors: Floors are provided to divide a building into different stories for creating more
accommodation one above the other. The main function of the floor is to give support to
occupants, furniture and equipment of a building and other functions are:
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i. The floors should be strong enough to carry the loads safely its self-weight as well as
imposed loads.
ii. The floor should provide a clean, smooth, impervious, durable and weather resistant.
iii. It should have adequate resistance against fire.
iv. Walls should have sufficient heat and sound insulation.
c) Steps and stairs: Steps and stairs are provided for access to the building or to the other floors
of the building. The location of the stairs is decided in such way that it can be accessed easily
and quickly from all parts of the building. All requirements of the walls are to be satisfied by
stairs also.
d) Doors and Windows: Doors are provided to give access to outside of the building as well as to
connect inner rooms of the building. Window is an opening provided for ventilation and natural
light. These should be:
i. Doors and windows should be weather resistant.
ii. It should have adequate resistance against fire.
iii. It should have sufficient heat and sound insulation.
iv. Doors and windows should provide sufficient privacy and security against burglary.
e) Beams and Lintels: Beam is a horizontal structural member, which carries floor slab or roof.
Lintel is a beam that supports the masonry work over openings in the walls.
f) Sunshade: It is a projection provided outside a building above the doors and windows to
prevent direct sunlight and rain to the rooms.
g) Roof: Roof is a cover for the building, to protect it from rain, wind, snow, sunlight etc.
Roofs may be flat, sloping or curved type.
i. Roofs should be strong, stable and weather resistant.
ii. It should have adequate resistance against fire.
iii. It should have sufficient heat and sound insulation
h) Parapet: A short masonry wall built on top of the roof of a building is called parapet. It serves
as an enclosure above the roof and as an element for good appearance.
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i) Weathering course: It is the layer provided over the roof slab to protect the roof from
weathering agencies like sunlight, rain and wind.
j) Finishes for walls: Finishes for walls are pointing, plastering, painting, distempering etc. The
main functions are:
i. These finishes protect walls from effects of weather.
ii. It covers the defective materials or poor workmanship to some extent.
iii. It improves the aesthetic appearance of the building.
3.2.4 Selection of Site for Residential Buildings
Before constructing a building, a suitable site has to be selected. The factors to be
considered while selecting site for a building are:
1. Site should be located where following facilities are available: -
• General amenities like schools, colleges, hospitals, banks etc.
• Utility services like water supply, electricity, telephone line, gas connection
• Transportation facilities like road access, bus stops, and railway stations
• Shopping facilities
2. Site should not be undulating as it will increase the cost of leveling.
3. Site should be spacious enough to ensure unobstructed light and ventilation
4. The area of the site should be such that it satisfies the requirements of owner with possibilities
of future expansion.
5. Site should be situated in an elevated place with sufficient slope to enable quick drainage of
water.
6. Site should be situated in a locality which is well developed or fast developing one.
7. Site should suit the purpose or type of building.
8. Site must not be irregularly shaped.
9. Site should be in a locality where natural and man-made environments provide healthy living
and working conditions.
10. Site should be away from quarries, factories, industries etc as they are pollution prone areas.
11. Site along sea shore should not be preferred.
12. The soil at the site should have high bearing capacity to reduce the cost of foundation.
13. Site should not be a waterlogged area.
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3.3 BUILDING AREA AND DEFINITIONS
1. Permit: A permission or authorization in writing by the authority to carry out the work.
2. Site (Plot): A piece of land enclosed by definite boundaries.
3. Set back line: A line usually parallel to the boundary and laid down by the authority beyond
which nothing can be constructed.
4. Open space: An area forming an integral part of the plot left open to the sky. Open space
provided across the front is called front open space, for rear side it is rear open space and for
side it is wide open space.
5. Plinth: Portion of a structure between the surface of the surrounding ground and the surface of
the floor, immediately above the ground.
6. Floor: The lower surface in a storey on which one walks.
7. Plot area: The area enclosed between plot boundaries.
8. Covered area: Ground area covered by the building immediately above the plinth level.
Gardens, well, drainage, culvert, compound wall, gate, uncovered stair case, ramps etc are
excluded from the covered area.
9. Plinth area: The build covered area measured at the floor level of the basement. 'Plinth area'
means area of the building at the plinth level it does not include the area of open porch (not
enclosed by wall) and uncovered staircase.
10. Floor area: The buildup covered area in all floors including basement floor.
11. Carpet area: The covered area of the usable rooms at any floor level (excluding area of
walls, area of staircases, lift walls, escalators, etc.). In the absence of other data, for calculating
carpet area, twenty percent of floor area shall be deducted from total floor area.
12. Floor area ratio (FAR): The quotient obtained by dividing the total floor area on all floors
by the plot area.
Total floor area of the floors
FAR =
Plot area
13. Coverage: It is the covered area of a building. Normally expressed as percentage of plot area
14. Built-Up area: It is taken by adding carpet area with wall thickness and other usable areas
(dry balcony, terrace etc.) in the building. It is always more than carpet area.
Plinth area is used for in individual houses and villas
Built-up area is used for apartments and builder floors
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3.4 BUILDING RULES AND REGULATIONS
3.4.1 National Building Code (NBC)
A building code, or building control, is a set of rules that specify the minimum standards
for constructed objects such as buildings and non-building structures. The main purpose of
building codes is to protect public health, safety and general welfare as they relate to the
construction and occupancy of buildings and structures. The building code becomes law of a
particular jurisdiction when formally enacted by the appropriate governmental or private
authority. Building codes are generally intended to be applied by architects, engineers,
constructors and regulators. They are also used for various purposes by safety inspectors,
environmental scientists, real estate developers, subcontractors, manufacturers of building
products and materials, insurance companies, facility managers, tenants and others
Code has twelve parts.: -
• Part 0 – Integrated approach
• Part 1 – Definitions
• Part 2 – Administration
• Part 3 – Development control rules & general building requirements.
• Part 4 – Fire & life safety
• Part 5 – Building materials
• Part 6 – Structural design
• Part 7 – Construction management, practices & safety
• Part 8 – Building services
• Part 9 – Plumbing services (Including solid waste management)
• Part 10 – Landscape developments, signs and outdoor display structures.
• Part 11 – Approach to sustainability
• Part 12 – Assets & facility management.
3.4.2 Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ)
Under the Environment Protection Act, 1986 of India, notification was issued in February
1991, for regulation of activities in the coastal area by the Ministry of Environment and
Forests (MoEF). As per the notification, the coastal land up to 500m from the High Tide Line
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(HTL) and a stage of 100m along banks of creeks, estuaries, backwater and rivers subject to tidal
fluctuations, is called the Coastal Regulation Zone (CRZ). CRZ along the country has been
placed in four categories. The above notification includes only the inter-tidal zone and land part
of the coastal area and does not include the ocean part. The notification-imposed restriction on
the setting up and expansion of industries or processing plants etc. in the said CRZ. Coastal
Regulation Zones (CRZ) are notified by the Government of India in 1991 for the first time.
Under these coastal areas have been classified as CRZ-1, CRZ-2, CRZ-3, CRZ-4. And the same
were retained for CRZ in 2003 notifications as well.
• CRZ-1: These are ecologically sensitive areas these are essential in maintaining the
ecosystem of the coast. They lie between low and high tide line. Exploration of natural gas
and extraction of salt are permitted
• CRZ-2: Built up area. Area up to shore line of the cost. No unauthorized constructions or
structures are seen here. Rural and urban area are not included in this zone.
• CRZ-3: Rural and urban localities which fall outside the 1 and 2. Only certain activities
related to agriculture even some public facilities are allowed in this zone. Rural areas, only
agriculture related activities and public facilities allowed in the zone
• CRZ-4: This lies in the aquatic area up to territorial limits. Fishing and allied activities are
permitted in this zone. Solid waste should be let off in this zone.
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3.4.3 Kerala Building Rules:
Based on Kerala state’s environment and landscape, Kerala has a separate building rule.
These rules are called KBR 1999. It came applicable for all municipality in Kerala and it came
into force at once. These rules are applicable for all lands which are proposed to be develop for
construction, for redevelopment and all development of building, existing or propose in any
village panchayat area to which the provision of these rules stand extended. The rules are
applicable for public and private buildings as follows: -
➢ Where a building is constructed
➢ Where a building is altered
➢ Occupancy or use of a building is changed
➢ Extension of a building
➢ Whole or part of a building is removed
➢ Also, for permit application renewal etc.
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