HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

GENERAL PROPERTIES OF MUSCLE TISSUES

➢ Contractility
➢ Muscles – derived from the Latin “musculus” o shortening forcefully
meaning “mouse” (mus) o major property
➢ Myology – Study of muscles ➢ Excitability
➢ Myocytes – Muscle cells o responding to electrical stimuli called
➢ Myogenesis – Development of Muscles in the Action Potentials (comes from nerves)
body o Action potentials in muscles are referred
➢ Mesoderm – Muscle originates from the to as muscle action potentials; those in
embryological tissue layer nerve cells are called nerve action
➢ Sarcolemma – Sarco = flesh; Cell membrane and potentials
external lamina o Autorhythmic electrical signals arising
➢ Sarcoplasm – Cytoplasm of muscle cells in the muscular tissue itself (reflexes)
➢ Sarcoplasmic Reticulum – Smooth Endoplasmic o Chemical stimuli, such as
Reticulum of Muscle neurotransmitters released by neurons,
hormones, or changes in pH
3 TYPES OF MUSCLES ➢ Extensibility
Major Functions: o stretching beyond normal resting length
➢ Movement of the Body – responsible for major but still being able to contract
body movements ➢ Elasticity
➢ Posture Maintenance – constantly maintaining o springing back to its original resting
tone (sitting, standing) length
➢ Respiration – contraction of muscles in the
diaphragm when breathing
➢ Producing Body Heat – heat released as by
product of muscle contraction - Attached to the skeleton; covers bone and
(thermoregulation) cartilage framework
➢ Communication – speaking, writing, body - Also known as Striated Muscle (Visible striations
language or stripes in the muscle fibers)
➢ Constriction of organs and vessels – (smooth - Primarily voluntary control of contractions
muscles) helps propel food to digestive tract,
excrete waste material
➢ Heartbeat – contraction of the cardiac muscle
propels blood to other organs

- Consists of muscle fibers, which are long,

cylindrical multinucleated cells with diameters of
10-100 μm
- Elongated nuclei are found peripherally just
under the sarcolemma
- Reserve Progenitor cells called satellite cells
(immature muscle cells) remains adjacent to
most fibers of differentiated skeletal muscle
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

PARTS OF SKELETAL MUSCLES ➢ Myofilaments or filaments – small protein

Layers of Connective Tissue present in all types of structures within the myofibrils
muscle; seen well in skeletal muscle: o Thick filaments – 16 nm in diameter and
1-2 m long and composed mostly of the
protein myosin.
o Thin filaments – 8 nm in diameter and 1-
2 m long and composed mostly of the
protein actin
➢ Filaments inside a myofibril are arranged in
compartments called sarcomeres
➢ Sarcomeres – are the basic functional units of a
myofibril; contractions in a microscopic level;
composed of thick and thin filaments; segment
of myofibril

1. Endomysium – dense irregular tissue

surrounding the external lamina of individual
muscle fibers. ➢ Z discs – narrow, plate shaped regions of dense
2. Perimysium – thin connective tissue layer that protein material separate one sarcomere from
immediately surrounds each bundle of muscle the next. Thus, a sarcomere extends from one Z
fibers termed a fascicle disc to the next Z disc
3. Epimysium – external sheath of dense irregular ➢ A band – (anisotropic band) the darker middle
connective tissue, surrounds the entire muscle part of the sarcomere which extends the entire
length of the thick filaments
Other Parts of Skeletal Muscles ➢ I band – (isotropic band) Is a lighter, less dense
➢ Muscle fiber – elongated, multinuclear cells area that contains the rest of the thin filaments,
composed of several myofibrils but no thick filaments and a Z disc passes
➢ Myofibril – long, cylindrical filament bundles in through the center of each I band
the sarcoplasm of myocytes ➢ H zone – located in the center of each A band
➢ Somatic Motor Neuron – stimulates skeletal contains thick but not thin filaments
muscle to contract. ➢ M line – so named because it is at the middle of
➢ Blood Vessels the sarcomere; at the center of the H zone
• Arteries
• Veins
• Capillaries – supply Oxygen to muscle
fibers

MICROSCOPIC ANATOMY OF MUSCLE

Muscle Proteins:
➢ Sarcoplasmic Reticulum – membranous smooth
1. Myosin
ER in skeletal muscle fibers
➢ main component of thick filaments and
➢ Transverse or T-tubules – long fingerlike
functions as a motor protein in all three
invaginations of the cell membrane encircling
types of muscle tissue
each myofibril near the aligned A- and I- band
➢ Has a Head and Tail region:
boundaries of sarcomeres
o Myosin Tail – points toward the
➢ Terminal cisternae – expanded structures
M line in the center of the
adjacent to each T-Tubule; plays an important
sarcomere. forming the shaft of
role in our muscles when contracting
the thick filament
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

o Myosin Heads – project 5. Dystrophin – links thin filaments of sarcomere to

outward from the shaft in a integral membrane proteins in sarcolemma
spiraling fashion, each
extending toward the six thin Neuromuscular Junction:
filaments. - The point of contact of motor neuron axon
branches with the muscle fiber.
- Also called Synapse
- Action Potentials – electrical signals carried by
neurons that stimulate muscle fiber action

2. Actin
➢ Individual actin molecules join to form - Components of the Neuromuscular Junction:
an actin filament that is twisted into a o Presynaptic Terminal – Axon terminal
helix. o Synaptic Cleft – Space between
➢ Myosin-binding Site where a myosin presynaptic terminal and the muscle
head can attach. fiber
➢ Proteins that make up the Actin o Motor End Plate – muscle plasma
Myofilament: membrane
o G-actin – globular subunit of o Synaptic Vesicle – Spherical Sacs that
actin; provide structural support contain the neurotransmitter
o F-actin – fibrillary; chain of 200 Acetylcholine
G-actin subunits; cell stability - Neurotransmitter – molecule that is released
and morphogenesis allowing neuron to communicate with its target
o Tropomyosin – covers active
sites of G-actin; will open during
muscle contraction
o Troponin – has 3 Subunits THE SLIDING FILAMENT MECHANISM
• Trop I (TnI) – regulates - Muscle contraction occurs because myosin
actin myosin interaction heads attach to and “walk” along the thin
• Trop C (TnC) – binds to filaments at both ends of a sarcomere,
Calcium (essential for progressively pulling the thin filaments toward
contraction) the M line.
• Trop T (TnT) – anchors - Thin filaments slide inward and meet at the
troponin to actin center of a sarcomere, moving so far inward that
their ends overlap.
- Z discs come closer together, and the sarcomere
shortens
- However, the lengths of the individual thick and
thin filaments do not change. Shortening of the
sarcomeres causes shortening of the whole
muscle fiber, which in turn leads to shortening of
the entire muscle.

Contraction
- occurs as the overlapping thin and thick
filaments of each sarcomere slide past one
another

Structural Proteins:
1. Titin – Structural protein connecting Z Disc to M
Line; stabilizes thick filament position
2. α-actinin – Structural protein of Z Disc; attaches
actin to titin
3. Myomysein – Structural protein of M line of
Sarcomere; connects adjacent thick filaments
4. Nebulin – wraps around the entire length of thin
filament; anchors Z Disc to thin filaments
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

1. Nerve impulse triggers release of ACh from the

synaptic knob into the synaptic cleft.
ACh binds to ACh receptors in the motor end - ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the only energy
plate of the neuromuscular junction, initiating a source that can be used directly to power muscle
muscle impulse in the sarcolemma of the muscle activity; ATP must be regenerated continuously
fiber if contraction is to continue.
2. As the muscle impulse spreads quickly from the - Tropomyosin re-covers active sites, and
sarcolemma along T tubules, calcium ions are filaments passively slide back to their relaxed
released from terminal cisternae into the state
sarcoplasm - There are 3 pathways that working muscles use
3. Calcium ions bind to troponin. to regenerate ATP:
Troponin changes shape, moving tropomyosin o Direct phosphorylation of ADP by
on the actin to expose active sites on actin creatine phosphate
molecules of thin filaments. o Aerobic pathway (mitochondria in
Myosin heads of thick filaments attach to myocytes)
exposed active sites to form cross bridges. o Anaerobic glycolysis and lactic acid
formation

4. Myosin heads pivot, moving thin filaments

toward the sarcomere center. ATP binds myosin
heads and is broken down into ADP and P.
Myosin heads detach from thin filaments and
return to their prepivot position. 1. The principal tissue in the heart wall
The sarcomere shortens and the muscle 2. Between the layers of cardiac muscle fibers, the
contracts contractile cells of the heart, are sheets of
connective tissue that contain blood vessels,
nerves, and the conduction system of the heart
3. Cardiac muscle fibers have the same
arrangement of actin and myosin and the same
bands, zones, and Z discs as skeletal muscle
fibers

5. When the impulse stops, calcium ions are

actively transported into the sarcoplasmic
reticulum
Tropomyosin re-covers active sites, and
filaments passively slide back to their relaxed
state.

4. Intercalated discs – are unique to cardiac muscle

fibers. These are microscopic structures that are
irregular transverse thickenings of the
sarcolemma that connect the ends of cardiac
muscle fibers to one another
5. Cardiac muscle tissue has an endomysium and
perimysium but lacks an epimysium
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

1. Visceral (single unit) smooth muscle tissue (more

common type)
2. Found in the skin, forms part of the walls of small
arteries and veins and of hollow organs such as
the stomach, intestines, uterus, and urinary
bladder
3. Like cardiac muscle, visceral smooth muscle is
autorhythmic (involuntarily controlled)
➢ Prime Mover – muscle that has the major
responsibility for causing a particular movement
➢ Antagonists – Muscles that oppose or reverse a
movement
➢ Synergists – help prime movers by producing the
same movement or by reducing undesirable
movements
➢ Fixators – specialized synergists. They hold a
bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime mover
so all the tension can be used to move the
insertion bone.

- Thin filaments containing actin, the smooth

muscle isoform of tropomyosin and 2 smooth
muscle specific proteins, caldesmon and
calponin
o Tropomyosin – is present in smooth
muscle, serving to enhance actin myosin
interactions
o Calponin – molecules may exist in equal
number as actin, and has been proposed
to be a load bearing protein (assist in the
resiliency of smooth muscles)
Criteria of Naming Muscles:
o Caldesmon – has been suggested to be
1. Direction of Muscle Fibers
involved in tethering actin, myosin, and
2. Relative Size of Muscle
tropomyosin, and thereby enhance the
3. Location of Muscle
ability of smooth muscle to maintain
4. Number of Origin
tension
5. Location of Muscle’s Origin and Insertion
- Thick filaments containing myosin II molecules
6. Shape of the Muscle
are oriented in one direction on one side of the
7. Action of the Muscle
filament
Arrangement of Fascicles:
Functional Aspects of Smooth Muscle
1. Circular – Fascicles arranged in concentric rings.
➢ Specialized for slow, prolonged
Generalized as “Sphincters”
contraction
2. Convergent – Fascicles converge toward a single
➢ Nerve terminals in smooth muscles are
tendon insertion
observed only in the connective tissue
3. Parallel – Length of fascicles run parallel to the
adjacent to muscle cells
long axis
➢ Smooth muscles also secrete connective
4. Pennate – “Feather” pattern; fascicles attach
tissue matrix
obliquely to a central tendon

1. Muscles can’t push – they can only pull as they

contract
2. Muscles are arranged so that whatever one
muscle (or group of muscles) can do other
muscles can reverse
3. In general, groups of muscles that produce
opposite movements lie on opposite sides of a
joint
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR THIGH, HIP AND PELVIS

SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES OF THE HEAD AND NECK

MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR SHOULDER, TRUNK

AND ARM

SUPERFISCIAL MUSCLES OF THE LEGS

MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR SHOULDER, TRUNK

AND ARM

SUMMARY OF ANTERIOR SUPERFICIAL MUSCLES

MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR THIGH, HIP AND

PELVIS
HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY WITH PATHOPHYSIOLOGY (LECTURE)

- No known cure for muscular dystrophies,

treatment is aimed at control of symptoms to
maximize the quality of life

OTHER IMBALANCES
➢ Cramps – painful, spastic contractions of skeletal
muscle; due to multiple causes such as
dehydration and ion imbalance
➢ Fibromyalgia – Non-life-threatening, chronic,
widespread pain in skeletal muscle with no
known cure; also known as chronic muscle pain
syndrome.
➢ Hypertrophy – enlargement of skeletal muscle
due to an increased number of myofibrils, as
occurs with increased muscle use in cardiac
muscle, usually a result of other disease,
commonly hypertension.
➢ Atrophy – decrease in muscle size due to a
decreased number of myofilaments; can occur
due to disuse of a muscle, as in paralysis; can also
occur in cardiac muscle due to certain
pathologies such as chronic heart failure
➢ Muscular Dystrophy – group of genetic disorders
EFFECTS OF AGING ON SKELETAL MUSCLE
in which muscles degenerate and atrophy;
Sarcopenia or Muscle Atrophy
usually affects skeletal muscle and sometimes
- Age-related reduction in muscle mass and
cardiac muscle.
regulation of muscle function
➢ Tendinitis – inflammation of a tendon or its
- Loss of muscle fibers begins as early as 25 years
attachment point due to overuse of a skeletal
of age, and by age 80, the muscle mass has been
muscle.
reduced by approximately 50% due primarily to
➢ Fibrosis – scarring of damaged cardiac or skeletal
loss of muscle fibers
muscle due to deposition of connective tissue.
- Surface area of the neuromuscular junction
➢ Fibrositis – inflammation of fibrous connective
decreases
tissue, resulting in soreness after prolonged
- Number of motor neurons also decreases.
skeletal muscle tension; not progressive
- Some of the muscle fibers that lose their
innervation when neuron dies are reinnervated
by a branch of another motor neuron

MYASTHENIA GRAVIS
- Rare autoimmune disease that can affect
muscles during adulthood
- Characterized by drooping upper eyelids,
difficulty in swallowing and talking, and
generalized muscle weakness and fatigability.
- Shortage of acetylcholine receptors at
neuromuscular junctions caused by antibodies
specific for acetylcholine receptors
- Death usually occurs when the respiratory
muscles can no longer function, which leads to
respiratory failure

MUSCULAR DYSTROPHY
- Muscular dystrophy-dystrophin and dystrophin-
associated proteins
- 2 types of dystrophy:
o Duchenne type
▪ Onset: Between 3 & 5 years,
progresses rapidly
▪ Inability to walk: By age 12; at
20 must use respirator to
breathe.
o Becker type
▪ Onset: Between 3 & 5 years, but
progresses at slower rate
▪ Inability to walk: 25 to 30