ALLAMA IQBAL OPEN UNIVERSITY

ISLAMABAD

Submitted By : Aqsa Saleem

Registration I’D : 0000985263

Level : [Link] ( 1st Semester )

Course : General Methods of Teaching (8601)

Semester : Spring 2025

Submission Date : 20/07/2025

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Question number 1

What is effective teaching? Discuss the characteristics of effective teaching.

Definitions of teaching

Teaching can be defined as a complex process of imparting knowledge, skills, and values to
learners. It is an art, a science, and a craft that requires creativity, technical skill, and a
passion for learning.

Teaching is defined as:

A process in which students are prepared for learning by providing initial structure to clarify
planned outcomes and indicate derived learning strategies."

Definition of effective teaching

The concept of “Effective Teaching” is considered as a range of factors that collectively

work together and result in effective learning. Most of the people agree that the basic

purpose of teaching is to enable learning. An elaboration to this concept is required to

fulfill the needs of today’s youth in a knowledge-driven society where information

rapidly increases at great scale. Therefore the concept of teaching should move beyond

the lower order skills of acquisition and reproduction of knowledge and facts.

The students require equipping them with more recent and advanced body of knowledge,

and enabling them to apply, upgrade and create knowledge.

Five Major Roles of a Teacher for Effective Teaching

The purpose of teaching is to help students learn. To do this, teachers must play five major
roles:

Subject matter expert

Teachers must have a thorough understanding of the subject matter they are teaching and
be able to go beyond the standard textbook materials.

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(2). Pedagogical expert:

Teachers must be able to set appropriate learning goals and objectives, communicate them
clearly, and help students achieve them.

(3). Excellent communicator

Teachers must be able to communicate effectively both orally and in writing.

(4). Student-centered mentor:

Teachers must be able to encourage each student to learn and help them take their learning
to higher levels.

(5). Systematic and continual assessor

Teachers must be able to assess student learning and their own teaching effectiveness.

alton-Lee's ten characteristics of quality teaching:

Effective teaching helps students reach their full potential.

(i). Caring and inclusive communities

positive learning classroom environments foster better learning

(ii). Links between school and community

School culture should reflect surrounding community.

(iii). Responsive teaching:

Teacher should adapt their methods to m individual needs.

(iv). Effective and sufficien learning opportunities:

Students should have access to diverse and engaging experiences.

(v). Multiple tasks and contexts

Varied learning activities support learning styles.

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(vi). Aligned curriculum goals

learning objectives should be clear and consistent across different subjects.

(vii). Feedback-based pedagogy

should provide timely and feedback to help students improve

(viii). Promoting learning orientations

Encourage students to develop self regulation, metacognition, thinking skills.

(ix). Constructive goal-oriented assessment

Teachers and students should work together to set and evaluate learning goal

Seven Means of Assisting Performance:

Modeling:

Teachers demonstrate desired behavior for students

Providing feedback:

Teachers inform students about their performance and help them self-correct.

Using contingencies:

Teahers apply rewards and punishments desirable behavior and discourage negative
behavior.

Questioning:

Teachers ask questions assess students' understanding stimulate their thinking.

Structuring tasks

Teachers provide clear down complex tasks into manageable steps to guide students
learning.

Explaining:

Teachers pre explanations to help students understand new concepts.

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Aspects of effective teaching

 Effectively managing a classroom,Starting each class with a clear objective,

 Engaging students with questioning strategies,
 Consolidating the lesson at the end of a period, and
 Diagnosing common student errors and correcting them.
Principles of Effective Teaching
Four Aces of Effective Teaching
Outcomes:
Clear learning goals help students understand where they're headed and how to get
there. It guides the teacher in designing and delivering course content and assessing
student learning.
(2). Clarity:
Effective teachers provide clear explanations and ensure that course concepts are
easily understood.
Engagement:
Learning by doing is [Link] should create an environment where students can
actively practice what they're learning, and engage them throughout the lesson.
(4). Enthusiasm: Teachers' enthusiasm for the subject, coupled with professionalism,
confidence, and knowledge, creates a positive learning environment. Interaction and
active participation reinforce this enthusiasm.
Factors of Effective Teaching
Gurney, (2007) suggests five key factors that contribute to an effective learning and
teaching environment

(1)teacher Knowledge, Enthusiasm, and Responsibility for Learning: Teachers should

share their knowledge with students and encourage student participation

(2) Classroom Activities That Encourage Learning: students should be actively engaged in
the learning process through exploration, experimentation, and discussion.

(3)Assessment Activities That Encourage Learning Through Experience

Assessment should be an ongoing process that helps students identify their strengths and
weakness.

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(4)Effective Feedback That Establishes the Learning Processes in the Classroom:

Feedback should be specific, timely, and actionable.

(5).Effective Interaction between the Teacher and the Students:

Teachers should create a positive and supportive learning environment that respects,
encourages, and stimulates learning.

Characteristics of an effective teacher:

Personal qualities

[Link]:

Treat all students equitably to avoid long-lasting negative impressions.

[Link] Attitude:

Maintain a positive outlook and use praise to encourage active student participation.

[Link]

Be well-prepared to minimize behavior problems and disruptions.

[Link] Touch: Build personal

connections by using students' names, showing interest, and sharing relatable stories.

[Link] of Humor:

Use humor to ease tension and make learning enjoyable.

[Link]:

Employ creative and engaging teaching methods.

[Link] to Admit Mistakes:

Acknowledge and apologize for errors as a positive model for students.

[Link]:

Demonstrate a willingness to forgive and guide students toward improvement.

[Link]:

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Earn respect by giving respect and maintaining sensitivity for students' feelings.

[Link] Expectations

Have high standards and consistently challenge students to excel.

[Link]:

Create an emotionally safe learning environment and reduce the impact of hurtful
situations.

[Link] of Belonging:

Foster a sense of unity and belonging among students to enhance learning.

Teacher characteristics from the administrators point of view:

[Link] enthusiasm:

Teachers who are enthusiastic about their subject matter and teaching can make learning
fun and engaging for students.

[Link] your content:

Teachers should have a deep understanding of the subject matter they teach and be able to
keep up with the latest developments in their field.

[Link] organized:

Organized teachers are able to manage their classrooms and students effectively, which
allows them to spend more time on teaching.

4. Teach actively

Teachers should be actively involved in teaching, moving around the classroom, and
interacting with students.

[Link] a good attitude:

Teachers should have a positive attitude and be respectful of their students.

[Link] successful classroom management:

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Teachers should establish clear rules and expectations for their students and be consistent
in enforcing them.

[Link] instruction

Teachers should pace their instruction appropriately so that students have enough time to
learn the material.

[Link] good people skills

Teachers should be able to work well with others, including their students, colleagues, and
parents.

[Link] communicative:

Teachers should be able to communicate clearly and effectively with their students.

[Link] effectively:

Teachers should use questioning to engage students in thinking and learning.

[Link] instruction:

Teachers should differentiate their instruction to meet the needs of all learners

[Link] success into your class:

Teachers should create opportunities for all students to succeed.

[Link] high expectations:

Teachers should have high expectations for their students and communicate those
expectations clearly.

[Link] a pleasant atmosphere:

Teachers should create a classroom environment where students feel comfortable and
respected.

[Link] flexible:

Teachers should be able to adjust their teaching plans and methods as needed.

Professional Qualities:

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[Link]:

Works well with others,communicates clearly, and is open to feedback.

[Link] and Integrity:

Trustworthy ,respectful of others and professional

[Link]:

Values all students, creates a safe and welcoming environment, and recognizes students'
identities.

[Link] to Learning: Always looking for ways to improve, open to new ideas, and
values assessment.

5. Emotional Maturity: Self confident ,enthusiastic, dependable, and manages emotions

effectively.

Reference

Alton-Lee, A. (2003). Quality teaching for diverse students in schooling: Best evidence
synthesis. Wellington: Ministry of Education.

Aitken, Dr Graeme (nd). The inquiring teacher: Clarifying the concept of teaching
effectiveness. From: TKI First time principals Module 2 Elements of teaching effectiveness.
URL: [Link] Anderson L. (1991).
Increasing Teacher Effectiveness, UNESCO. International Institute for Educational Planning,
Paris.

Arif, H. M. (2003). Human Development and Leaming, Majeed Book Depot, Lahore, Pakistan.

Bulger S. M. and Mohr D. J. (2002) Stack the Deck in Favor of Your Students by Using the
Four Aces of Effective Teaching. Journal of Effective Teaching, Vol. 5, No. 2, 2002

Callahan, S.G. (1996). Successful Teaching in Secondary schools, Foresman and Company,
Atlata.

Cruickshank, D. R., Jenkins, D. B., & Metcalf, K. K. (2003). The act of teaching. New York, NY:
McGraw-Hill.

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Dilworth, E.M. (1991), Diversity in Teacher Education: New Expectations. Jossey-Boss
Publishers, SanFrancisco,

Duke, L. D & K. J. Rehage (1979). Classroom Management, the University of Chicago Press,
Chicago.

Eisner, E.W. (2002). The kind of schools we need. Phi Delta Kappan, 83, 576-583.

Fisher, R. (1992). Teaching children to think. Basil Blackwell. London.

Gill, S. & Reynolds A. (1999). Educational expectations and school achievement of urban
African American children. Journal of School Psychology, 37, [Link], T.; Brophy, J.
2000. Looking in classrooms, 8th ed. New York, Longman. GURNEY, PHILIP (2007). Five
Factors for Effective Teaching, New Zealand Journal of Teachers' Work, Volume 4, Issue 2, 89-
98, 2007.

Question number 2

Define lesson planning in your own words. Describe briefly the steps involved
in lesson planning.

lesson plan is a detailed plan of the objectives and activities for a particular class. It is an
important part of the teaching and learning process. A lesson plan reflects what a teacher
wants to achieve in each class and how it will be achieved?

Need Of Lesson Planning

A lesson plan serves as a vital guide for teachers, outlining what will be taught and how it
will be effectively conveyed during class time.

Need of Lesson Planning

Lesson plan is a roadmap of the instruction.

 It helps teachers to achieve their goals and objectives.

 It helps to avoid problems or get rid of them.
 It gives a reality check of everyday performance.
 It improves the habit and attitude of the students.
 It improves the teaching skills of the teacher
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 It makes teaching ordinary and easy

Benefits of Lesson Planning for Teachers

(1). Improved student learning:

A well-planned lesson can help teachers to deliver the content in a more effective and
engaging way, which can lead to improved student learning outcomes.

(2). Better time management:

Lesson planning can help teachers to make the most of their instructional time by ensuring
that they have a clear plan for the lesson and that all of the activities are aligned with the
learning objectives.

(3). Increased teacher confidence

Having a well-planned lesson can help teachers to feel more confident in their teaching
abilities, which can lead to a more positive and productive learning environment for
students.

(4). Reduced stress

Lesson planning can help teachers to reduce stress by helping them to be more organized
and prepared for their lessons.

(5). Improved teaching skill:

Lesson planning can help teachers to improve their teaching skills by encouraging them to
reflect on their teaching practice.

Process of lesson planning

A successful lesson plan addresses and integrates these three key components:

i). Objectives for student learning

(ii). Teaching/learning activities

(iii). Strategies to check student understanding.

(1). Pre Planning Stage

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Before teaching, teachers should develop a lesson plan for the class by answering the
following questions:

Key Questions to Consider

 What are my objectives for this class?

 What are the objectives for this class, written in behavioural terms?
 Why is this material important?
 What content will be covered in the particular class?
 What will the students already know?
 What materials will be needed?

(2). Designing a Lesson Plan

Three main elements of a lesson plan:

Introduction:

Warm up students, provide context, and connect the lesson to students' lives.

Development

Engage students in active learning, use a variety of teaching methods, and give students the
chance to apply the taught skills.

Conclusion:

Tie it all together by summarizing the main points, explaining their relevance, and
previewing the next lesson.

Ask for Questions

Dedicate the last few minutes for students to ask questions and explore ideas
independently.

Summarize Main Points:

Recap the main points and explain how they relate to the overall course, promoting
conceptual understanding.

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Preview the Next Lesson

Highlight the connection between lessons, demonstrating their relevance and fostering a
conceptual understanding.

Recapitalize or One-Minute Writing:

With a couple of minutes remaining, ask students to write the main idea of the class and
one question about the content, promoting reflection and reinforcing key concepts.

The Post-Planning Stage

After planning a lesson, teachers should take the time to assess whether students learned
the material and whether the lesson was effective. This can be done through simple and
informal methods such as observing students work or collecting their thoughts on the
lesson.

Approaches to Lesson Planning

1. Gagne’s Nine Events of Instruction

 Gain Attention
 Inform Learners of Objectives
 Stimulate Recall of Prior Learning
 Present the Content
 Provide Learning Guidance
 Provide Practice Opportunities
 Give Feedback
 Assess Performance
[Link] Hunter’s Seven Steps
[Link] Ready to Learn
 Review
 Anticipatory Set
 State Objectives
 [Link]
Input & Modeling

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[Link] for Understanding
 Formative Assessment
 Guided Practice
[Link] Practice
Practice and apply skills
3. 5E Model of Lesson Planning
Engagement – Spark interest
Exploration – Hands-on learning
Explanation – Concept clarification
Elaboration – Apply & extend knowledge
Evaluation – Assess understand
Steps in lesson planning
Effective teaching depends greatly on how well classroom activities are planned in
advance. Teachers follow several key steps to design a successful lesson. Below are
six major steps that can guide teachers in creating effective lesson plans. Each step
includes helpful guiding questions
1. Define Learning Objectives
Start by identifying what you want students to learn and be able to do by the end of
the lesson. This step sets a clear direction for your teaching. Ask yourself:
What topic will I cover?
What do I want students to learn and understand?
What specific skills or knowledge should they demonstrate at the end?
What are the key takeaways for students?
Once your objectives are clear, arrange them based on how important they are. This
helps in managing class time and making sure essential goals are met. Reflect on
What are the most important ideas or skills I want students to gain?
Why do these matter?
If time runs short, which objectives are essential?
Which ones can be left out if needed?
2. Prepare the Introduction

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After setting your objectives, plan how you’ll begin the lesson. Since students might
already know something about the topic, it’s useful to find out their prior knowledge.
You could ask a question, take a quick survey like “Raise your hand if or collect
written responses to get a sense of what they know.
Design a creative and engaging start to the lesson that sparks interest. You might
include a short story, real-life example, video, or a thought-provoking question.
Consider
How will I find out what students already know?
What misconceptions or common ideas might they have about this topic?
What strategy will I use to introduce the topic?
3. Design Learning Activities (Main Part of the Lesson)
Prepare a variety of methods to explain the lesson topic, such as real-world
examples, comparisons, and visual aids, to engage all types of learners. Once your
activities are ready, estimate how much time each will take. Ensure there's enough
time for both practice and checking student [Link] questions like:
How will I explain this topic clearly?
Can I show it in a different way for better understanding?
What can I do to make students more involved?
What real-life situations or visuals can help explain the concept?
What tasks will help students grasp the idea better?
4. Check for Understanding
After teaching the topic with examples, it's important to confirm that students are
actually understanding. Plan how you’ll check their learning think of questions to ask
and decide whether students will respond verbally or in writing. Predict their
possible answers and adjust your questions [Link] yourself
What questions should I ask to check their understanding?
How can I know they’re following the lesson?
Based on our goals, what tasks can students do to prove they have understood?
5. Summarize and Connect to the Next Lesson
Wrap up the lesson by reviewing the key points. You can do this yourself or involve
students by asking them to help summarize or write down the main ideas. This not
only helps reinforce learning but also gives you a chance to assess their

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[Link] help students see how this lesson links to what they’ll learn
next. This connection builds interest and helps them see the bigger picture of what
they have learning.
Creat a realistic timeline
A realistic timeline will reflect your flexibility and readiness to adapt to the specific
classroom environment. Here are some strategies for creating a realistic timeline:
• Estimate how much time each of the activities will take, then plan some extra
time for each.
When you prepare your lesson plan, next to each activity indicate how much
time you expect it will take
• Plan a few minutes at the end of class to answer any remaining questions and
to sum up the key points
• Plan an extra activity or discussion question in case you have time lef
REFERENCES
Anderson and Krathwohl (2001). Lesson planning. Adapted by Anderson and
Krathwohl
(2001) from:
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
Ahrenfelt, J, & Neal, W. (2006).100 Ideas for Essential Teaching Skills (Continuum One
Hundred). New York: Continuum.
Carey, L. & Dick, W. (1978). The Systematic Design of Instruction. (1 ed.), Glenview:
Scott, Foresman, ISBN 9780673151223
Chamot, A.U. Dr., Keatley, C. Dr. & Kennedy, D. (2004). Planning a Lesson. The
National Capital Language Resource Center, Washington, DC
Gagne, R. & Briggs, L. (1974). Principles of instructional design (1 ed.), New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston, ISBN 9780030081712, hdl:2027/mdp.39015004151000
Serdyukov, P. & Ryan, M. (2008). Writing Effective Lesson Plans: The 5-Star Approach.
Boston: Allyn & Bacon,.
Salsbury, D.E., & Schoenfeldt, M. (2008). Lesson Planning: A Research-Based Model
for K-12 Classrooms. Alexandria, VA: Prentice Hall.

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Skowron, J. (2006). Powerful Lesson Planning: Every Teachers Guide to Effective
Instruction. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Thompson, J.G. (2007). First Year Teacher's Survival Guide: Ready-To-Use Strategies,
Tools & Activities For Meeting The Challenges Of Each School Day (J-B Ed:Survival
Guides). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
Tileston, D.E.W. (2003). What Every Teacher Should Know About Instructional
Planning Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.
Wynne, R. (2001). Learner Centred Methodologies. Overview of Course Design and
Planning Process. Ireland
Wolfe, S. (2006). Your Best Year Yet! A Guide to Purposeful Planning and Effective
Classroom Organization (Teaching Strategies). New York: Teaching Strategies.

QUESTION NO 3

Differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Describe the factors

that influence students' motivation.

Definition of motivation

Motivation is the internal and external forces that drive individuals to engage in goal-
directed [Link] word motivation is derived from a Latin word 'movers' which means
to move. Thus, motivation is an external force which accelerates a response or Behavior.

Ways In Which Different Psychologists Articulate Their Understanding of Motivation

"The term motivation refers to the arousal of tendency to act to produce one or more effect"
Allport (1935)

"Motivation is constant, never ending, fluctuating and complex and it is an almost universal
characteristic of particularly every organismic state of affairs." Maslow(1960)

"The process of arousing, sustaining and regulating activity" Crow. L. D.(1953)

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"The central factor in the effective management the process of learning."B.R. Annandi
(1981)

"Motivation in school learning involves arousing, persisting, sustaining and directing

desirable behavior." Lepper, Mark R.(1998)

Extrinsic Motivation

Motivation is about the factors that push or pull a person toward doing or avoiding a certain
activity. In classrooms, teachers often rely on extrinsic motivation to encourage students to
learn or perform in a specific way. This type of motivation is considered powerful because it
drives a person to act based on the outcome they expect, rather than the activity [Link]
simple terms, extrinsic motivation means being driven by rewards or benefits that come
after completing a task, not from the task itself. As Morris & Maisto (2002) explain:

"Extrinsic motivation refers to rewards that are obtained not from the activity, but as a
consequence of the activity."

This motivation usually involves external rewards such as praise, food, free time, money,
grades, or points. These are all things that come from outside the individual and are
separate from the task itself, but they still influence behavior.

Example:

A child might do household chores not because they enjoy them, but because they get an
allowance in return. Similarly, a student may study hard not out of love for the subject, but
to get a good grade.

Extrinsic motivation means the push to do something comes from outside the person. These
outside rewards bring satisfaction or enjoyment that the task itself might not provide. A
person who is extrinsically motivated will still complete a task, even if they’re not interested
in it, just to get the reward at the [Link] reward can be something small like a smiley face
sticker or something big like money, fame, or recognition. For instance, a student who
doesn’t like math may still try hard to solve problems just to earn a good grade — that’s a
clear example of extrinsic motivation.

Intrinsic Motivation

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Intrinsic motivation comes from within a person. It is driven by internal factors like curiosity,
interest, confidence, and the sense of satisfaction that one gets while doing a task. When
someone is intrinsically motivated, they do an activity simply because they enjoy it — not
because they are trying to earn a reward or avoid a punishment. These individuals are often
deeply focused and engaged in what they’re doing because the activity itself is meaningful
and enjoyable.

Example:

A child may play a game just for fun, not because they expect any prize. Similarly, a student
might study hard for a test simply because they find the topic interesting and enjoy learning
it. Intrinsic motivation is about doing something because you genuinely enjoy it or find it
fulfilling. It doesn’t depend on any outside rewards or pressure. Psychologists have been
studying intrinsic motivation since the early 1970s, especially in the fields of education and
social behavior. Studies show that intrinsic motivation is closely linked to higher academic
success and greater enjoyment in learning.

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A taxonomy of human motivation

Factors influencing the development of students motivation

According to Jere Brophy (1987), motivation to learn is a skill that students develop over
time. It is shaped not only by personal experiences but also by observing others, receiving
clear expectations, and through guidance or influence from important adults — especially
teachers and [Link] environment at home plays a key role in forming children’s early
attitudes toward learning. When parents support their children's curiosity — by listening to
their questions, encouraging exploration, and introducing them to new ideas and resources
they send the message that learning is valuable, enjoyable, and worth the effort.

Children raised in an environment that builds their self-esteem, independence, confidence,

and belief in their own abilities are usually more willing to take risks in learning. On the
other hand, if children see themselves as lacking ability or competence, they are less likely to
try challenging tasks and more likely to give up when they face failure.

As children enter school, they begin to form beliefs about their own success or failure in
academics. How they explain their successes (for example, through effort, ability, or even

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luck) and their failures (such as not trying hard enough or not understanding the work)
affects how they deal with learning challenges.

Teachers’ own beliefs about learning and their expectations for students also play a major
role. If a teacher believes students can learn and communicates that belief clearly, students
are more likely to believe in themselves. As Deborah Stipek (1998) states:

“To a very large degree, students expect to learn if their teachers expect them to learn.”

In addition, the broader environment of the school including its policies, goals, and
classroom culture — influences student motivation. The way schools approach learning can
either strengthen or change students’ attitudes and beliefs about their abilities.

As children grow, their motivational patterns can also shift. For instance, younger children
are often more optimistic and continue to try even after failing several times. Older students,
however, may begin to view effort and failure differently. While younger children see effort
positively, older ones may see repeated failure despite trying hard as proof of low ability.
This can negatively affect their confidence more than failure that happens due to lack of
trying.

How to Help Motivate Learners

According to Carol Ames (1990, 1992), there are six key factors that can influence how
motivated students feel to learn

1. Type of Tasks Given to Students

The kind of tasks students are assigned can strongly affect their motivation. When learners
believe they can succeed and that their efforts will be worthwhile, they are more likely to
stay engaged. Some tasks might be exciting and meaningful, while others may seem dull or
difficult. That’s why it’s important to select tasks carefully — because what motivates one
student may not work for another2. Level of Freedom Given to Students

Allowing students some choice in their work can boost motivation. When students are
allowed to pick tasks that align with their interests or strengths, they tend to feel more

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involved. However, it’s important to keep a balance too much freedom can become
confusing, while too little can feel restrictive or boring.

3. Recognition for Students’ Efforts and Achievements

Acknowledging students for their individual progress, effort, and creativity rather than just
outcomes encourages them to keep trying. Celebrating perseverance, especially when they
tackle challenging tasks, can be more motivating than simply praising results.

4. Grouping and Peer Interaction

Students are often influenced by how they interact with classmates. Working in groups
where cooperation is encouraged (instead of competition) can improve motivation and lead
to better learning outcomes, particularly in tasks that involve communication and problem-
solving. Interacting with peers helps students feel a sense of belonging, which increases
their willingness to participate and learn.

5. Evaluation Methods

When too much focus is placed on grades or ranking students, learners may become more
focused on doing well than actually understanding the material. This can discourage those
who struggle. Teachers should aim to reduce pressure by helping students focus on learning
rather than just finishing tasks or getting high marks. Giving useful feedback and showing
how learning connects to real-life applications can make evaluation more meaningful.

6. Time Management in the Classroom

Teachers often struggle to fit everything into the limited school hours. When students feel
rushed or overwhelmed, motivation can drop. It helps when teachers allow more flexible
time, break lessons into manageable parts, and adjust the pace of learning based on
students' needs. Students also stay more motivated when they feel supported and have
enough time to complete tasks thoughtfully.

Strategize with Struggling Students

When students are struggling with poor academic performance, low self-efficiency or low

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motivation, one strategy that may help is to teach them how to learn. That is, to outline
specific strategies for completing an assignment, note taking or reviewing for an exam.
Examples of learning strategies

Pre action phase (preparing for task) take a reasonable risk, work toward goals

that are challenging but attainable, work in manageable, bite-size pieces, take

responsibility for your actions, believe In your own effort and capability, set a plan

and work from it.

Action phase(search environment,ask question,visualize

Reaction phase( use feedback from prior tasks monitor your actions and giving yourself
instruction)

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REFERENCES

Ames, Carole A.(1990). “Motivation: What Teachers Need to know.” Teachers College

Record 91,3 (Spring 1990): 409-21..

Condry, J., and J. Chambers. (1978). “Intrinsic Motivation and the Process of [Link]

The Hidden Costs of Reward, edited by M.R. Lepper and D. Greene. 61-84. Hillsdale,

New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.

Eggen, P. &Kauchack, D. 2004. Educational psychology:windows on classrooms. 6th ed.

New Jersey:Pearson.

F. Tuzzolino and B.R. Annandi,(1981). “A need Hierarchy Framework for Assessing

Corporate Social Responsibility,” Academy of Management Review, pp. 21-28.

Krause, K. L., Bochner, S., & Duchesne, S.( 2003). Educational psychology for learning

and teaching. Australia:Thomson.

Lepper, Mark R.(1998) “Motivational Considerations in the Study of Instruction.”

Cognition and Instruction .289-309.

Maehr, Martin L., and Carol Midgley. (1991). “Enhancing Student Motivation: A School

wide Approach.”.

Maslow, A.H. (1960). “A Theory of Human Motivation,” in Robert A. Sutermeister,

people and productivity, New York: McGraw Hill Book Co,. 2nd edition, 1960

Morris, C.G. & Maisto, A.A. [Link]: An introduction. 11th ed. New Jersey:

Prentice Hall.

Plotnik, R,. 1999. Introduction to psychology. 5th ed. Belmont:Brooks/Cole-Wadsworth.

Santrock, J.W. 2006. Educational psychology: Classroom update: Preparing for

PRAXIS TM and practice. 2nd ed. New York: McGraw [Link], Deborah.(1988) Motivation
To Learn: From Theory To Practice. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

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Q. No. 4

Write a detailed note on the scientific method covering each step/stage of

the scientific method.

The Scientific Method

Scientists use a methodical, logical approach called the scientific method to investigate
natural phenomena, find solutions to problems, and construct reliable knowledge. It is
based on careful observation, controlled experimentation, and logical reasoning. This
method helps eliminate bias, ensures accuracy, and provides repeatable results that others
can verify.

Whether solving a complex scientific problem or answering a simple question about

everyday life, the scientific method offers a framework that anyone can use to approach a
problem logically and effectively.

Importance of the Scientific Method

The scientific method is central to all branches of science, including biology, chemistry,
physics, and earth science. It makes science more reliable and objective by ensuring that
findings are supported by observable, empirical, and measurable evidence.

The Essential Stages of the Scientific Method

The following steps are typically included in the scientific method:

1. Observation

Observation is the first and most important step in the scientific method. It involves using
the senses (sight, smell, hearing, touch, and sometimes instruments) to gather information
about the world. An observation often leads to a question or curiosity about how or why
something happens.

Example:

A plant grows faster in sunlight than in shade, according to a scientist. This observation
sparks interest in understanding the reason behind the difference.

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Key Points:

 can be descriptive (qualitative) or measurable (quantitative)

 Requires attention to detail
 Often leads to asking a scientific question

2. Asking a Question

Once an observation is made, the next step is to ask a clear, focused, and researchable
question. This question defines the purpose of the investigation.

Example:

“Why does this plant grow faster in sunlight than in the shade?”

The Key Points:

 The question should be specific and testable

 It guides the entire research process
 It should be based on observation and curiosity

3. Forming a Hypothesis

An educated guess or a possible response to the question is called a hypothesis. It is based

on prior knowledge, previous studies, and logical reasoning. A hypothesis must be able to
be tested and proven wrong.

Example:

“If a plant receives more sunlight, then it will grow faster because sunlight helps in
photosynthesis.”

The Key Points:

 Written as an “if…then…” statement

 hints at a possible relationship between the two can be tested to confirm or refute
it.

4. Conducting an Experiment

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The planned experiment is a way to test the hypothesis under controlled circumstances.
Because it provides the evidence required to accept or reject the hypothesis, this step of the
scientific method is the most important.

Key Elements of an Experiment:

Independent Variable:

The factor that is changed (e.g., amount of sunlight)

Dependent Variable:

The result that is measured (e.g., plant growth)

Controlled Variables:

Constant factors like water and soil type

Example:

Set up two pots with the same species of plant. Keep them in the same room, give equal
water and soil, but place one in the sunlight and the other in the shade. Measure their
growth over a period.

Key Points:

 should be controlled and repeatable.

 Data must be carefully recorded
 Safety and ethics must be considered

5. Analyzing Data

After the experiment, the data collected is analyzed to see if it supports or refutes the
hypothesis. This involves organizing the information, using graphs, charts, or statistical tools
to interpret the results.

Example:

Record the height of plants daily and calculate average growth. Create a bar graph to show
the difference between growth in sunlight and shade.

Key Points:

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 Helps identify patterns or trends
 May involve mathematical calculations
 Leads to a clear understanding of the results

6. Drawing a Conclusion

The conclusion is the final summary of what the experiment revealed. Based on the
collected data, it provides a direct response to the original question

Example:

“The plant exposed to sunlight grew 3 times faster than the one kept in the shade. This
supports the hypothesis that sunlight increases plant growth due to photosynthesis.”

Key Points:

 States whether the hypothesis was supported or rejected

 Should be based solely on evidence
 could lead to new questions or hypotheses

. 7. Communication results

Getting Results Across The last step in the scientific method is sharing the results with
others. In order for others to review, replicate, or build on their work, scientists write
research papers, give presentations at conferences, or publish their findings in journals.
Example:

A student may write a lab report, or a scientist may publish findings in a scientific journal.

Key Points:

 Promotes transparency and peer review

 Helps advance scientific knowledge
 Encourages collaboration and feedback

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Steps of scientific method

Scientific theory [Link]

A hypothesis proposed explanation that is put to the test through experimentation is called
a hypothesis. A theory is an well-supported explanation of natural phenomena that has been
repeatedly tested and confirmed by multiple studies (the Theory of Evolution, for example).
Scientific Laws

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Newton's Law of Gravity, for instance, is a scientific law that describes what always happens
under certain conditions but does not explain why. The explanation comes from theories.

Real-Life Example of the Scientific Method

Let’s consider a real-world example:

Problem:

A student notices that their phone battery drains faster when it's cold outside.

Steps Followed:

[Link]:

In cold weather, the battery drains quickly.

[Link]:

Does cold temperature affect phone battery life?

3. Hypothesis:

If the phone is used in cold weather, then the battery will drain faster.

4. Experiment:

Use two phones of the same model — one in a cold environment, one at room
temperature. Measure battery percentage every hour.

5. Data Analysis

Plot battery percentage over time for both phones.

6. conclusion

the cold phone drained 30 percent faster, proving the hypothesis.

[Link]:

Present findings in a school science fair or blog post.

Benefits of the Scientific Method

Objectivity:

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Removes personal bias from the process

Reproducibility:

Others can repeat the experiment for verification

Problem Solving:

Helps solve real-world issues in medicine, technology, environment, etc.

Innovation:

Invention and discovery are the results of innovation.

Limitations of the Scientific Method

Not Suitable for Everything:

It cannot answer questions related to emotions, morality, or personal beliefs.

Dependence on Technology:

Advanced experiments may require expensive tools.

Human error:

Errors in measuring or observing can have an impact on the results.

Ethical Restrictions:

Some experiments cannot be performed due to moral concerns (e.g., testing on humans or
animals).

Conclusion

The scientific method is the foundation of modern science and has revolutionized how we
understand the world. By following a step-by-step approach—observation, question,
hypothesis, experiment, analysis, conclusion, and communication—scientists can explore
ideas, test assumptions, and develop new technologis.

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References

Giere, R. N. (2006). Understanding Scientific Reasoning (5th ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson
Wadsworth.

Chalmers, A. F. (2013). What Is This Thing Called Science? (4th ed.). Hackett Publishing.

McMillan, J. H. (2016). Fundamentals of Educational Research (7th ed.). Pearson Education.

Trochim, W. M. K. (2020). Research Methods: The Essential Knowledge Base. Cengage

Learning.

American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS). (2021). Science and the
Scientific Method. Retrieved from [Link]

National Science Teachers Association (NSTA). (2020). Understanding the Scientific Method.
Retrieved from [Link]

Harlen, W. (2010). The Teaching of Science in Primary Schools (5th ed.). Routledge.

Lederman, N. G., & Abell, S. K. (Eds.). (2014). Handbook of Research on Science Education:
Volume II. Routledge.

Bybee, R. W. (2013). The Case for STEM Education: Challenges and Opportunities. National
Science Teachers Association Press.

Cothron, J. H., Giese, R. N., & Rezba, R. J. (2006). Students and Research: Practical Strategies
for Science Classrooms and Competitions (3rd ed.). Kendall Hunt Publishing.

Science Buddies. (2023). Steps of the Scientific Method. Retrieved from

[Link]

Khan Academy. (n.d.). The Scientific Method. Retrieved from [Link]

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QUESTION NUMBER 5

Differentiate between inductive and deductive methods of teaching and

explain the procedure /cycle of based learning(PBL).

Introduction

Teaching and learning are dynamic processes centered on the transfer and construction of
knowledge, skills, and values. Innovative teaching techniques, in addition to conveying
information, encourage students to question, investigate, and think critically. Two
fundamental approaches that represent distinct instructional styles are the inductive and
deductive approaches to teaching.

In contemporary education, the Problem-Based Learning (PBL) approach has become a

potent tool for fostering independent learning, teamwork, and problem-solving abilities. To
give a thorough grasp of how each approach promotes learning, this assignment will
compare and contrast inductive and deductive approaches and expound on the PBL cycle's
procedural elements.

2. The Inductive Approach to Education

Definition and Significance

The inductive method is a learner-centered technique in which broad concepts or rules are
developed through specific observations, examples, or activities. Students are urged to
evaluate data and draw their own conclusions rather than beginning with definitions or
formulas.

Definition:

The inductive method is a teaching strategy that moves from the specific to the general. It
allows students to observe, analyze, and construct knowledge by themselves, promoting
inquiry-based learning.

Essential Elements

 The foundation of learning is exploration.

 The learning method involves active student participation.

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 promotes critical thinking, analysis, and introspection.
 The role of the instructor is to facilitate, not to impart knowledge.
 frequently include experiments, case studies, or real-world issues.

Procedures for the Inductive Approach

Example Presentation:

The instructor gives several particular instances or situations.

Observation and analysis:

Students examine and evaluate the parallels or patterns found in the samples.

Formulation of Rules:

Students are urged to determine the overarching principle or rule. Verification: The rule is
put to the test by using fresh instances.

Generalization

An ultimate inference or hypothesis is made and verified.

Advantages

 fosters profound comprehension.

 improves the capacity for critical thought and problem-solving.
 enhances participation and engagement among students. promotes a lifelong love
of study.

Constraints:

 time-consuming.
 Unsuitable for all subjects or large classrooms
 calls for planned teaching resources.
 may cause misunderstandings if poorly enabled.

Realistic Instances:

Math:

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Students look for patterns in numbers and figure out a formula.

Science:

Students carry out a number of tests and draw conclusions on the law of conservation of
mass

Grammar:

Students independently determine the rules after reading several past tense sentences.

3. Teaching Meaning and Definition through the Deductive Method

In the structured, teacher-centered deductive method, learning starts with a general rule
and progresses to specific instances and applications. Clarity, organization, and efficiency
are the main focuses of this conventional method.

Definition: The deductive method of instruction starts with a theory or general information
presentation, then moves on to examples and practice problems to help students
understand what they have learned

Key features

 The main characteristics are explanation-driven and teacher-led.

 shifts from broad to detailed.
 emphasizes idea clarification and straightforward instruction. prioritizes
memorization, organization, and discipline.

Procedures for the Deductive Approach:

Presentation of the Rule:

The instructor presents a law, rule, or idea.

Example-Based Explanation:

The instructor provides particular examples to illustrate the concept.

Student Practice:

Students carry out tasks according to the guidelines.

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Feedback and Assessment:

The teacher assesses students' comprehension and offers comments

Advantages

 efficient with time and well-organized.

 Good for teaching technical content and information.
 Simple to standardize and evaluate.
 Good for big gatherings.

Limitations

 cuts down on chances for students to explore.

 may promote rote memory over comprehension.
 less interesting for pupils.
 does not foster the growth of higher level thinking.

Realistic Instances

Mathematics:

The teacher provides practice questions after explaining the area of a triangle formula.
Grammar:

After teaching the passive voice rule, students practice changing sentences.

Science:

Before doing experiments, theoretical examples are used to teach the laws of motion.

Comparison between inductive and deductive methods

Criteria Inductive Method Deductive Method

Approach Specific to General General to Specific

Nature Student-centered Teacher-centered

Process Discovery-based Explanation-based

Focus Concept formation Concept clarification

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Engagement High student involvement Passive listening

Time Required More time-consuming Less time-consuming

Usefulness For skill development and inquiry For concept explanation and practice

Example Inferring grammar rules from teaching grammar rules firs

examples

5. PBL, or problem-based learning Definition and Objective

With problem-based learning, students work together to solve challenging, real-world

situations in order to gain knowledge. Students investigate and apply the knowledge they
acquire to address real-world problems rather than merely absorbing it.

Features and Principles

Self-directed and active learning is the norm. Issues are poorly organized and necessitate
more thorough examination. Teams of students collaborate. The teacher's job is to
facilitate, not to lecture. a focus on multidisciplinary education.

Objectives of PBL

 Foster self-sufficient learners.

 Develop your critical and creative thinking skills.
 Encourage teamwork and dialogue.
 Develop your investigative and critical thinking abilities.
 Promote the practical application of knowledge.

Process of pbl

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The PBL Cycle: A Comprehensive Description

Step 1: Outlining the issue

An issue from the actual world is presented to the students. It need to be intricate, flexible,
and pertinent to their field of study. This issue acts as a catalyst for learning.

Step 2: Brainstorming and Problem Analysis

Students determine what they need to learn and what they already know about the issue.
They enumerate learning problems that need to be looked into and researched.

Step 3 :Identifying Learning Objectives

the group creates research questions and assigns duties to team members. They make clear
the learning activity's goals.

Step 4: Independent Study

Every student uses reliable sources, such as book

Synthesis and Application in Step Five

The students get back together and present their research. They combine data, evaluate
dependability, and create a collaborative solution.

Step 6: Resolving Issues

A final proposal or solution is made. This could be a performance, report, presentation, or

model, depending on the assignment.s, online journals, films, or expert interviews, to do
independent research.

Step 7: Evaluation and Introspection

Facilitators and students both evaluate the procedure. What did the trick? Why didn't it?
This stage helps pupils hone their abilities and get ready for more education.

PBL benefits

include fostering responsibility and active learning. Promotes cooperation and dialogue.
Enhances decision-making and problem-solving abilities. helps pupils get ready for obstacles
in real life. Increases motivation and

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Constraints and Difficulties

Students who are not accustomed to self-directed study may find it daunting. needs a lot of
preparation and funding. Evaluation is more complicated than with conventional
techniques. A teacher needs to be adept at managing a group and facilitating.

6. Summary

When instruction fosters genuine involvement and adjusts to the requirements of the
students, it works best. The deductive approach provides efficiency, clarity, and
organization, whereas the inductive approach fosters deep learning, reasoning, and
discovery. Each approach has a proper place in the classroom based on the goals, content,
and environment. Student-centered education is the focus of the Problem-Based Learning
(PBL) cycle, a contemporary pedagogical movement. Apart from combining the advantages
of both deductive and inductive approaches, it also equips students with the abilities
required to handle challenging, real-world issues. Teachers should work toward a well-
rounded teaching approach, using various techniques to create classroom environments that
foster competence, comprehension, and curiosity.

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7. References

Barrows, H. S. (1986). A taxonomy of problem-based learning methods. Medical Education,

20(6), 481–486.

Bruner, J. S. (1960). The Process of Education. Harvard University Press.

Prince, M. J., & Felder, R. M. (2006). Inductive teaching and learning methods: Definitions,
comparisons, and research bases. Journal of Engineering Education, 95(2), 123–138.

Savery, J. R. (2006). Overview of problem-based learning: Definitions and distinctions.

Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 1(1), 9–20.

Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (9th ed.). Pearson
Education.

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