SOLAR ARCHITECTURE

in COOL CLIMATES

COLIN PORTEOUS WITH KERR MACGREGOR

London • Sterling, VA
First published by Earthscan in the UK and USA in 2005
Copyright © Colin Porteous and Kerr MacGregor
All rights reserved
ISBN-10: 1-84407-281-9
ISBN-13: 978-1-84407-281-1
Page design by The Graphics Company
Printed and bound in the UK by Cromwell Press
Cover design by Yvonne Booth

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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data:

Porteous, Colin.
Solar architecture in cool climates / Colin Porteous with Kerr MacGregor.
p. cm.
Includes bibliographical references and index.
ISBN 1-902916-62-X (pbk.)
1. Solar houses--Climatic factors. 2. Sustainable architecture. 3. Solar heating.
I. MacGregor, Kerr. II. Title.
TH7414.P67 2005
728’.370472--dc22
2005008379

Printed on elemental chlorine-free paper

Photograph on previous page by Colin Porteous of Kunstbygning, Århus, Denmark (architect M. Møller)
Contents

LIST OF BOXES vii

LIST OF FIGURES ix

PREFACE xiii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS xix

Chapter 1 North Sun Context 1

Latitude myths challenged 2

Brighton breakthrough / 3
Dynamic complexity – direct versus indirect passive solar models 5
direct gain model – detached house / 5
indirect gain model – dense terrace / 7
sunspaces work due to diverse climatic influences / 10
further modelling confirms North–South trend in UK / 11
Widening the solar agenda 13
institutional divergence – Northern Europe and Canada / 14

Chapter 2 Multiple and Added Solar Value 23

The case for integration 25

flat-plate solar thermal collectors / 25
active experiment – matching supply to demand / 26
passive exploitation of triangular section / 28
formal issues and shed vernacular / 29
multiple active–passive solar roofs / 34
solar retrofit – collection isolated from storage / 36
scope for geometric diversity / 37
aesthetic ambiguity and nuance of solar collection – arcades and atria / 42
solar retrofit as a means of rebranding / 47
The case for isolation 48
multilateral advantage / 49

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Chapter 3 Environmental Comfort and Well-being 57

Microclimatic opportunities 59
ancient precedent to modern urban paradigm / 60
architect as occupant – rural exposure / 64
extroversion and ability of occupants to interact / 67
Quality versus quantity tensions 71
ventilating – evidence from recent Scottish housing / 73
mass as a mediator for open windows / 74

Chapter 4 Adaptive Control 81

Owning the means of proaction 82

participatory bilateralism / 83
early passive solar precedents – bifurcation / 86
solar thermal storage walls inhibit adaptive control / 88
Trombe-Michel principle moves north to Ireland / 89
thermal storage wall in England with movable insulation / 90
thermal storage wall in Scotland with transparent insulation / 91
thermal storage wall in Sweden with isolated solar supply / 93
the case for a ‘human interaction factor’ in predictions / 94
Conservatories conserving? 96
new-build Scottish demonstration / 97
further insights from Scottish urban retrofit / 102
other sunspace paradigms / 108
further thoughts on options for mechanically assisted ventilation / 114
raising architectural stakes – widening performance gap / 116
Sociodemography in focus 118
Scottish experience / 119
Danish and German experiences / 120

Chapter 5 Passive Control 127

Plan and section 128

light orchestration – Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum / 128
light and air – Kuntsbygning in Århus / 135
relevance of latitude to designing for daylight / 138
daylight and air for utilitarian use – sport, production and transport / 139

iv
CONTENTS

daylight and air for educational buildings / 141

sectional consequences of stack-dominated ventilation / 146
Thermal mass dilemmas 147
embedded fluids for heating and cooling / 150
solid solar masonry walls / 153
thermal mass and timber construction / 156
composite construction / 157
cladding, colour and other storage media / 158
Optimizing heat and light balance through glazing 159
mirror-optics and other progress in variable transmission / 159
alternative integrated innovations / 163
external screens – competition for advanced glazing? / 165
transparent insulation / 167

Chapter 6 Machine Control 173

Diffusing, shading and opening – glazing controls 173

wear and tear / 173
optimizing control / 176
shading with heat as a useful by-product / 180
shading with heat as a useless by-product / 180
selective versus exclusive modes / 182
Harvesting hot air – integrated collectors 183
early development and general principles of solar air collectors / 184
development of glazed solar air collectors in Scotland / 185
development of unglazed solar air collectors in Scotland / 188
small window-integrated options / 190
further work on absorbers and dynamic insulation / 190
large-scale, multi-faceted proposal / 191
Fuelling competition – interactive control and management 191
lessons from a solar primary school / 192
tutorials at a university campus / 194
risks of partially heating buffer spaces / 197
free heat to buffers and related energy-efficiency measures / 198
heat pumps versus boilers / 200
small-scale CHP and heat exchangers / 205
wider questions / 206

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Chapter 7 Green Solar Future 211

Conflicting views on global warming and environmental sustainability 212

dimensions of sustainable architecture / 213
solar–green, green–solar interface / 214
eco-footprint, ambitions and constraints / 215
merit and diversity in environmental architecture / 218
The work of two North American practices 219
contextual commonalities and differences / 220
coastal Pacific projects / 223
ubiquitous environmental concerns / 231
coastal Atlantic projects / 233
The need for a ‘value system of complexity’ 237

PICTURE CREDITS 247

INDEX OF SOLAR BUILDINGS AND PROJECTS 249

INDEX OF PEOPLE, PRACTICES, INSTITUTIONS, ETC. 254

INDEX OF DEFINED TERMS AND PRODUCTS 261

INDEX OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS 265

vi
LIST OF BOXES

 1.1 Terms, units and numbers with comparative examples 2

1.2 Basic ‘steady-state’ methodology for estimating space heating loads 3
1.3 Hypothetical dimensions for 1981 theoretical model 4
1.4 Theoretical predictions of useful solar gain in various UK locations, 1981 4
1.5 Context of dynamic modelling and key results for direct gain model, 1984 5
1.6 Theoretical performance data for back-to-back indirect gain model, 1984 10
1.7 Contrasting Lerwick and London (Kew): some climatic detail 11
1.8 Sunspace modelling: Glasgow compared to Kew in dimensional and climatic detail 12
1.9 Germany, Denmark, Sweden and the Netherlands: solar activity 14
1.10 Norway, Finland, UK, Scotland and Canada: solar activity 16
1.11 Global to national statistics on fossil fuel consumption and CO2 emissions 18

 2.1 Passive solar gain: basic definition and critical angle for sunbeam 23
2.2 Flat-plate collectors: specification options 26
2.3 Solar geometry: supplementary notes (refer also to Tables 2.1–2.6) 38
2.4 Transparent insulation 41
2.5 Thermos principle applied to dwellings in the 1930s and 1990s 41

 3.1 Monitored housing in Glasgow: notes on terms and data 73

3.2 Specification at Hockerton 76

 4.1 Details of the 1967 and 1974 Trombe-Michel wall experiments 88

4.2 Christopher Taylor Court: variable estimates of U-values 90
4.3 Strathclyde student residence: air change rate from monitored data 93
4.4 Details of the Stornoway climate, sunspaces and predicted savings 98
4.5 Realization of the Stornoway project: energy consumption factors 100
4.6 More details of the Stornoway project and monitoring 101
4.7 ‘Heatfest’ and its organizers: Easthall, Glasgow 102
4.8 Initial predictions for the Easthall project compared to Stornoway 103
4.9 Political birth pangs of the Easthall European solar demonstration project 103
4.10 Easthall: ventilation and temperature as key influences 105
4.11 Easthall: consumption influenced by distribution of demand for heat 106
4.12 Easthall: auxiliary heating and window opening 107
4.13 Easthall: real versus effective rates of ventilation 108
4.14 Easthall compared to Stornoway: consumption range – influence of advice 108
4.15 Ballantrae rural housing: supplementary information 114
4.16 Graham Square urban housing: supplementary information 117
4.17 Easthall: ventilation related to smoking, children and pets 120
4.18 Ottrupgård Fjernewarme rural co-housing: energy efficiency values 120
4.19 Vauban, Freiburg: details of monitored energy 123

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

 5.1 Predictive methods used for Queens Building in Leicester 147

5.2 Open and closed systems for ducting air 148
5.3 Units of thermal capacitance 149
5.4 Thermal admittance, response and damping 152
5.5 TI saving: Freiburg compared to Glasgow 153
5.6 Impact of TI on length of heating season: Freiburg compared to Glasgow 154
5.7 Influence of selective coating on mass wall 156
5.8 Timber versus concrete and an innovative Austrian solar wall 157
5.9 Colour, mass and phase-change materials 159
5.10 Light-grid: vital statistics for solar versus light transmission 163
5.11 Transparent insulation variants 167

 6.1 Leslie Jesch: a solar champion 175

6.2 The chemistry of ETFE 179
6.3 Examples of earth cooling 182
6.4 George Löf’s breathing solar air collector in Colorado 184
6.5 Simple solar air collectors in Stornoway 185
6.6 Breathing solar air collectors in Easthall 187
6.7 Unglazed air collectors: details of tests 188
6.8 Airing windows: details of PASSYS tests 190
6.9 Airing walls: details of PASSYS tests 192
6.10 LPG family 192
6.11 Netley Abbey design team 192
6.12 Details of monitoring at Netley 194
6.13 Details of monitoring at Jubilee Campus 196
6.14 Monitoring and predictions at Trondheim 198
6.15 PV performance at Petten 199
6.16 PV predictions in Glasgow 200
6.17 Shettlestone housing, Glasgow: thermal storage 201
6.18 Lumphinnans housing, Fife: thermal storage and performance 203
6.19 Background to Helliwell + Smith’s home and studio 204
6.20 Proposed floating dwellings in the Netherlands: quantitative detail 205
6.21 Task XIII apartments, Amstelveen: performance detail and comparison 206

 7.1 Global warming: Mauna Loa, Keeling curve, Vostok ice core, Kyoto etc 212
7.2 Active thermal and electrical systems: barriers challenged 215
7.3 Eco-footprint numbers 216
7.4 Frank Lloyd Wright and Usonia 233
7.5 Vitruvian triad: sense and sensibility? 241

viii
LIST OF FIGURES

Chapter 1 North Sun Context

1.1 Plan of ‘direct gain’ passive solar house by Stillman and Eastwick-Field 6
1.2 3-dimensional ‘cutaway’ of ‘indirect gain’ solar house by Malcolm Newton 8
1.3 First Scottish passive solar housing in Stornoway by Western Isles Islands Council 13
1.4 villaVISION in Tasstrup, Denmark, by the Danish Technological Institute 15

Chapter 2 Multiple and Added Solar Value

2.1 a Rooftop of the Joan Miro gallery in Barcelona 24
b Rooftop sculpture court of gallery in Århus 24
c Nordjyllands Kuntsmuseum in Ålborg 25
2.2 ‘Fantasy’ solar house in Almere: a) active flat plate collector doubles as
a south-facing roof; b) seasonal thermal store makes a statement on the
public side of the house 27–28
2.3 Solar terrace in Zollikofen, Berne: a) PV array visually echoes opening windows
at top of façade; b) blanked by blinds in warm weather 29
2.4 Passive solar house at Garriston, near Dublin 30
2.5 Passive solar house at West Pennant, near Halifax, Nova Scotia 31
2.6 Gymnasium at Oberhambach, by Peter Hübner: a) schematics for different
weather and seasons displayed next to plant room; b) ventilating slot looking west
to triangular sunspace; c) flat plate solar thermal collectors on south-east façade 32
2.7 Multiple solar roof of Energiebalanswoning by Van Straalen, Zeist & BOOM 34
2.8 EVA Lanxmeer eco-village at Culemborg: a) integrated solar roof; b) private side
of another solar terrace – solar array not visible 35
2.9 Detail of roof of swimming pool in Gouda – solar collector replacing former glazing 36
2.10 Two projects in Göteborg: a) solar retrofit of 1950s housing block – roof collector;
b) new-build solar housing with wall collector 37
2.11 Southern façade of Scottish dementia unit 40
2.12 Solar house in Freiburg: a) detail of façade; b) plan; c) section 42
2.13 Wasa City shopping market in atrium at Gävle 43
2.14 New atrium between old terraces at Söderhamn 44
2.15 John Darling Mall at Eastleigh in Hampshire: a) plan; b) view of south end 45
2.16 Inside Akademie Mont-Cenis during construction in the summer of 1999 46
2.17 Images from the proposed BIPV retrofit project for Strathclyde University 47
2.18 The solar cladding features of the STinG project in Glasgow 49
2.19 a Terraced housing in Niewland, Amersfoort – PV arrays on flat roofs are not visible 51
b Flats in Freiburg – solar thermal and PV arrays crown the free aesthetics 51

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Chapter 3 Environmental Comfort and Well-being

3.1 a Looking east in Gravinnehof (mid afternoon in August) 60
b Cross section through access promenades, detailing glass and timber screen 61
c Upper deck with diagonal roof-lights looking west 62
3.2 The Edwards sunspace from a first floor window, with the owner and visitors 65
3.3 ‘Hill House’, South Coast Nova Scotia, looking south 68
3.4 Entrance court of ‘Messenger II’ in Kingsburg – looking south 68
3.5 a The glaciated rock shelf as a terrace for the Kutcher house near Halifax 69
b The paved terrace of the Greenwood or ‘Fishbones’ house on Galiano Island 70
3.6 The outdoor room of the Murphy house on Gambier Island: a) looking inwards to
north; b) outwards to south 71
3.7 The south façade of one of the Hockerton houses 75

Chapter 4 Adaptive Control

4.1 General view of the JUgend FOrum 83
4.2 Schematics for the rotating roof 83
4.3 Internal view of ‘city of mud’ 85
4.4 Trombe-Michel principle applied to Irish agricultural cottage in Carlow – south façade 89
4.5 South façade of Christopher Taylor Court: a) general view; b) close-up 91
4.6 Solar TI façade of a student residence in Glasgow, facing slightly west of south 92
4.7 Schematic of Stile Park solar housing in Stornoway – stacked sun-porches 99
4.8 Plan view of model of passive solar flats at Easthall, with original chimney breast in
key location – stacked glazed-in balconies face southeast or west in demonstration 102
4.9 Solar house at Ayton with double-height, recessed glazed sun-porch 109
4.10 Maisonettes over flats in Ballerup with double-height, corner glazed sun-porch 110
4.11 Self-build, cooperative passive solar houses at Paxton Court, Sheffield:
a) two-storey houses; b) single-storey houses 111
4.12 Lean-to sunspaces at Coldstream 112
4.13 Semi-recessed, double-height sunspaces at Ballantrae 113
4.14 Semi-recessed, double-height and single-height stacked sunspaces at Deventer 115
4.15 Stacked sunspaces at Graham Square in Glasgow – facing 15˚ north of west 116
4.16 South façade of the ‘Wohnen & Arbeiten’ (Living & Working) block in Freiburg 121

Chapter 5 Passive Control

5.1 Cross section of roof monitor at Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum 130
5.2 Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum: a) gallery from entrance looking southeast;
b) still looking southeast, monitors at right angles to southwest edge;
c) turning round to northwest: small galleries to left of corridor 131
5.3 Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum: a) shadows of light fittings enliven light-scoops;
b) sunlight edits floor and display surfaces on summer solstice 132

x
LIST OF FIGURES

5.4 Kuntsbygning in Århus. Curving southwesterly wall of 1993 extension 136

5.5 Kuntsbygning in Århus: a) looking southwest into 2003 extension; b) looking up
into glazed lantern of 2003 extension 137
5.6 Kunsthaus in Bregenz: a) detail of glass rain-screen at external corner on sunny day;
b) looking down staircase, with indirect daylight through ceiling on sunny day 138
5.7 Inside the lighting void over gallery at Davos 139
5.8 Fondation Beyeler, Basel: a) detail at edge of glass roof; b) general view from west 139
5.9 Sports ‘factory’ – schematic section showing system for natural light and ventilation 140
5.10 ‘Showroom’ for PV factory in Freiburg – louvres functionally advertise the product 140
5.11 Bus station at Göteborg: a) inside concourse; b) west-south-west façade 141
5.12 The cone sheds daylight deep into the library at Delft Technical University 142
5.13 Learning Centre, Kirkintilloch – cross section maximises opportunity for natural light 143
5.14 De Kleine Aarde, Boxtel – inside the atrium with all south and north windows open 144
5.15 a Looking up ‘shark’s fin’ tower of atrium at Wasa City at Gävle 147
b Looking up triangular tower of atrium at the Eco-Centre in Jarrow 147
5.16 Bridges in the multi-level circulation spine of Queens Building enliven spatial drama 148
5.17 View into gymnasium at Gleneagles Community Centre, looking towards thermal wall 150
5.18 a Main living space of Howard House, West Pennant, with polished concrete floor 158
b Living space of guest wing, Coastal House 22, with polished concrete floor 158
5.19 a Koster’s mirror-optics – typical sections 161
b ‘Ökasolar’ used at Ökohuis, Frankfurt 161
5.20 Detail of south façade of Brundtland Centre in Toftlund with glazing hierarchy 162
5.21 ‘Visi Heat’ and ‘Thermascrene’ glazing by Solaglas at Whalley house 164
5.22 Berlingske Tidene extension in Copenhagen at night 166

Chapter 6 Machine Control

6.1 External shading mechanisms, Burrell Museum, Glasgow 174
6.2 View looking north past west façade of R & D building in the Rheinelbe Science Park 175
6.3 South façade of school in Glasgow, showing louvres and glazing with blinds 176
6.4 Atrium of Rijkswaterstaat – windows closed with weather sunny but windy 178
6.5 ETFE canopy at Kingsdale School – artificial lights inside while outside is sunlit 179
6.6 a The structural glass roof over the atrium of the Wolfson Building 181
b The inside of the ‘study landscape’ with cedar-slatted blinds occluding daylight 181
6.7 Close-up of the solar absorber in the ‘Trisol’ system used at Dingwall 186
6.8 A roof-integrated solar air collector at Easthall, aligned with the glazed-in balcony 186
6.9 a Mock-up of window integrated solar air collectors on PASSYS test cell 191
b Detail of fabric absorber and air inlet slot 191
6.10 View within linear sunspace at Netley Abbey Infants’ School 193

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

6.11 Inside atrium at Jubilee Campus looking east towards service stack 195
6.12 Conical cowls and cleaning gantry at east end of atrium at Jubilee Campus 197
6.13 Atrium at the Technical University Campus, Trondheim 197
6.14 Winter garden located on top of boiler house at Kilwinning 200
6.15 Solar house at Stokkan: a) cross section showing mechanical servicing;
b) double-height winter garden above plant room 201
6.16 The combined geothermal heat pump and solar system for Shettleston 202
6.17 Solar-geothermal retrofit at Lumphinnans: a) schematic; b) sunspaces 203
6.18 General view of south façade of Task XIII solar apartment block in Amstelveen 206

Chapter 7 Green Solar Future

7.1 The concept of three overlapping dimensions of sustainability – people, place and
prosperity – per William Heath Robinson 213
7.2 Part of south façade of BedZED terrace 217
7.3 Inside and outside the 1985 conversion of the MacKay-Lyons house at Kingsburg 222
7.4 Inside the main living space of the Graham house – note the sectional device for
providing daylight and ventilation deep within the floor plate 223
7.5 Helliwell + Smith’s cliff-side home and studio on Hornby Island 223
7.6 The West Vancouver studio of Blue Sky Architecture: a) curved west facade;
b) straight façade opposite, facing to the north of due east 224
7.7 The Murphy house: a) curvaceous front; b) angular back 225
7.8 The Greenwood or ‘Fishbones’ house on Galiano Island: a) plan; b) elevation;
c) cross section; d) interior view 227
7.9 Japanese Centre for Art and Technology, Kracow: a) external view; b) internal view 228
7.10 The spinal beam of the Murphy house, looking west into the main room 229
7.11 The Gadsby house looking into living area west towards entrance porch 230
7.12 Coastal House 22: a) view south to guesthouse; b) view north to estuary 234
7.13 Coastal House 22: architect’s drawings – plans and elevations 234–235
7.14 Coastal House 22: structure integrated in the main bedroom, looking north 236
7.15 The atrium of the computing technology centre at Dalhousie University, looking west 237
7.16 The ‘look at me’ and ‘look at this’ of the new Scottish Parliament’s exterior 238

xii
PREFACE

It is perhaps odd that many architects are so nervous of science – at least the
kind of physics and engineering that is mostly found in the proceedings of solar
conferences or illustrious journals. After all, they have to deal in quantities in
order to create buildings and are happy to take on the general concept of
firmness – structural stability and the provision of adequate shelter relative to a
particular function. However, they commonly perceive a large gulf between
physical spatial constructs and the physics of energy flux. For a start, the
dimensions of the latter are not static. But then, as soon as people occupy
buildings and move around in them, we have a fourth dimension which is also
not static. It seems that most architects grapple with visible, spatial awareness,
coupled with movement, much more easily than with mainly invisible transfers
of energy. Of course sunlight and daylight are visual phenomena, which are
inspirational. But the implications of energy in terms of its modes of transfer and
the elusive characteristics of thermal admittance, damping and time lag are
tougher to take on and exploit aesthetically. Then we have specialist consultants
who tend to be happier with the engineering certainties of discrete active or
mechanical systems than with the more subtle synergies of building-integrated
passive or inert ones. In any event, evidence of relatively limited uptake suggests
that trying to nourish architects with technical textbooks on solar architecture is
problematic. On the other hand, coffee-table books with seductive photographs,
but minimal accompanying information regarding performance, are unlikely to
be useful. Certain principles do need to be understood.
Thus one aim of this book is to prime architects and other members of their
teams who are working in cool climates, generally associated with higher
latitudes, to design solar buildings, which it is increasingly recognized should or
could also be green or environmental buildings. The implication of high latitudes
is that buildings have to mediate with ambient temperatures, which are well
below acceptable internal comfort levels for a significant part of the year.
However, even in such cool climates, they may also have to tackle overheating
in warm, sunny weather. The stance taken in this book is, firstly, that basic
natural techniques, possibly solar assisted, can get rid of unwanted heat.
Secondly, and more importantly, it is that free solar energy can make a significant

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

impact in bridging the ‘cold gap’, even where winters tend towards cloud and
rain. In simple terms of supply and demand, the contention is that the solar
supply diminishes less rapidly than the demand for heat increases as one
moves away from the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn. This provides
opportunities, particularly for passive solar design. This is where a building
contributes to the capture, storage and delivery of the sun’s energy.
Quantitatively, the sun will displace traditional fuels for space heating, which are
predominantly non-renewable and have damaging combustion products.
Qualitatively, it should also be possible to add to the sensory drama of the
architecture, thus adding pleasure to the lives of occupants.
The competing climatic characteristics that held sway over many of the
pioneering passive solar experiments from the late 1930s up to the 1970s related
to distance from the sea and altitude as well as to solar geometry. There are many
areas, with relatively low latitude, that have considerable heating loads in winter
but also significant amounts of winter sunshine. Supply is well aligned with
demand. Thus it was in the latitudinal zone of 42–43°N in the vicinity of Chicago in
the USA, where many of George Keck’s pioneering solar houses were built in the
1940s, and also in southern France, where the renowned Trombe-Michel
experiment took place in 1967. Many of the following passive solar experiments
in the 1970s were even further south in locations such as New Mexico and
Colorado, where demand for heat is more influenced by geographical
characteristics other than the distance from the Equator. This book assumes that
lack of drive to address both solar heating and cooling at higher latitudes, with
less obvious attributes in terms of weather, is not primarily due to paucity of
information. That is there if one searches for it. The basic problem is lack of
confidence and conviction. To give this a boost, architects need palatable
information on the one hand and convincing arguments on the other.
The geographical scope of this book in terms of case studies could have
included regions such as southern Chile, northern Japan or the South Island of
New Zealand. However, the principle of the authorship being enhanced by
direct personal knowledge of solar buildings used as case studies would have
been compromised in these countries. Such experience underpins the case to

xiv
PREFACE

be discussed and developed in successive chapters. The focus has therefore

been pragmatically limited to more populous northern European countries, with
a coastline to the Atlantic Ocean, North Sea, Norwegian Sea and Baltic Sea,
and to part of the Pacific edge and Atlantic edge of North America. These
regions are also ones where there is an established, but far from fully developed,
market for solar architecture.
Underdevelopment is due to a number of reasons. One is that there is
political scepticism about renewable technologies in general and solar energy in
particular. Also political is a prevailing attitude by elected representatives that
tends to equate energy with the generation of electricity rather than the demand
for heat. This of course handicaps development of solar thermal systems,
especially if they are integrated building design techniques, rather than discrete
products. Then there is a commonly held, and not unnatural, lay view that solar
energy cannot really work in countries or regions where it rains a lot.
Hence the book consciously targets areas with frequent rainfall, winters that
demand that buildings are heated, and summers where high temperatures,
such as those experienced in Northern Europe in 2003, have been historically
quite rare. This does not mean that passive heating techniques suitable for the
climatic zones thus identified are not transferable to more extreme southern or
continental climates, providing some adjustment is made to take account of
varying solar geometry and intensity. Rather, propositions that have been tried
and tested in regions with significant amounts of winter sunshine do not tend to
transfer so readily to those without. This point will emerge more clearly through
the case studies, but is an important one to make at the outset, when defining
geographical and climatic scope.
The ‘cool’ in the title is not quite the same as the meteorological temperate
since some locations are included that are quite some distance from the sea
and could thus be regarded as continental. Rather than define territory too
tightly by northerly latitude, although this aspect is undoubtedly relevant,
approximate climatic boundaries are taken as moderate July mean daily
temperatures (say, no higher than 20–22°C) and annual rainfall of not less than
0.5 metres. The first limit excludes most of southern Europe, roughly beyond a

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

line from below Brittany to the southern boundary of Poland, even though there
are regions here that do have a significant demand for space heating in winter.
It also targets regions such as the coastal part of British Columbia and all of
Nova Scotia, and could include other continental locations with specific climatic
moderators, and some high altitude locations at lower latitudes. The second
limit implies relatively low levels of sunshine, commonly during winter in
particular, when the demand for heat is highest. One might imagine that this
intrinsic out-of-phase characteristic is too great a handicap, but this will be
shown to be not necessarily the case.
Accordingly, the strategy adopted is to show that solar savings can be
brought to the architectural marketplace in apparently challenging territory. The
text will progressively introduce and explore scientific principles and concepts
embedded in the design of buildings, and it will do so predominantly in an
experiential and thematic way. This is done mainly through the medium of first
hand knowledge of their performance, or at least a critical aspect of it. Inevitably,
by choosing particular buildings to discuss key parameters, many other similarly
deserving exemplars are missed. Hence the transference of principles is left to
the reader. Predictive modelling also has a role, initially setting out some of the
key issues for a solar space-heating capability relative to climate and built form.
Unbuilt Scottish projects are included as well as built ones. Since Scotland has
strong historical links to both Canada and Northern Europe, it might be regarded
as a centre of gravity or pivot from which to look east and west. In any case, its
position between the Atlantic and the North Sea might indicate that it would be
one of the least favoured of all the climatic locations examined.
Insights with regard to innovative solar architecture have thus been
garnered through a combination of theory, measurement, observation and
dialogue. A predominant thrust is on how buildings and their systems have
performed compared with the pre-contract expectation. Empirical data are
gained partly through detailed monitoring programmes, which can be compared
with predictive modelling. It is also acquired simply by visiting and speaking to
the occupants, as well as getting into physical contact with the environmental
aura in order to become sensitized to particular thermal attributes or

xvi
PREFACE

shortcomings. This can be particularly valuable when visiting at a time of some

climatic spike, in areas where these are relatively rare, and where control
systems are not functioning as intended at design stage. In other words, there
is an appropriate mix of first-hand hard and soft research. Source material
includes published papers by many authors with expertise in the field, mainly
from the mid 1980s onwards, as well as Scottish Solar Energy Group archives.
The language is consciously architect-friendly, without avoiding necessary
numerical comparators that are also useful to the scientific and engineering
community. Having decided not to dodge physical quantities, their relationships
and the units that define them, the problem is then how to avoid excessive
interruption to thematic flow. The device chosen is to provide in-depth
supporting information as required in blocks of notes parallel to the main text.
Readers then have more choice as to how they engage with the issues. Also,
although there is a coherent structure to successive chapters, each has a stand-
alone quality. The other characteristic of the structure of chapters is to adopt a
position that is sometimes biased more towards the intentions of the originators
than the experience of the users of the built environment, and sometimes vice
versa. In order to give vent to such differences of emphasis there is also
deliberate overlap of the themes that are tackled.
The first two chapters are in the former category, Chapter 1 setting out the
context for solar architecture at high latitudes, Chapter 2 then addressing how
additional costs can be diluted through diverse aesthetic and tectonic means.
The next two chapters swing attention more to the user. Chapter 3 covers
aspects of comfort and microclimate, and then tensions between energy
efficiency and environmental quality. Then Chapter 4 moves into the realm of
proactive control, the manner in which users affect the performance of small
domestic sunspaces and socio-demographic influences. The following two
chapters continue with issues of control, but shift the discourse back more to
the aims of the design team. Chapter 5, in addressing passive configurations,
starts with plan and section, then gets to grips with thermal mass and ends with
the transparent surfaces, summarizing innovation with respect to the balance of
light and heat at various levels of sophistication. Chapter 6, in dealing with

xvii
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

active configurations, continues this line of enquiry, adding in mechanical and

electronic means of control. It then moves on to cover progress with solar air
heating systems and ends by probing a number of performance shortfalls and
surprises arising from multiple parametric interactions between static built
components and dynamic systems of control. The seventh and final chapter
widens the agenda to solar architecture, which may also be described as green
or environmental architecture, and how this is viewed relative to sustainability
and sustainable development. The perspective may be perceived as mainly an
architectural or technical one, but the meshing with the aspirations of the users
through the mutual development of the architectural programme means that
this chapter embraces the role of lay players, mainly clients, who effectively
sponsor responsible environmental innovation.
Thus the book is structured to progressively excavate myths, tensions,
dilemmas and cruxes in a way that should promote flexibility and opportunity to
a relatively diverse audience, including those who use, procure and finance
buildings. The fundamental aim is to facilitate solar architecture in cool climates
out of its current experimental and special interest status and into the
mainstream. This includes refurbishment as well as new-build, recognizing the
potential for solar energy to play a much more significant role in the former than
is presently the case. An explicit objective is that the built environment should
actually shoulder some responsibility in terms of CO2 reduction. This is simple
common sense, but expressly does not imply moving towards an eco-morality
that might be perceived as obsessive. Neither is it intended to further hem
architectural professionals in with unnecessary rules or obligations. Rather,
there is an acceptance that people inhabiting parts of the world with relatively
long dark winters are naturally sympathetic to architecture that makes the most
of daylight and sunlight. Solar knowledge is just the means to an end that has
emotionally uplifting, as well as physically grounded, altruistic dimensions. Thus
it is a straightforward win–win solar sales pitch. It very much embraces good
Colin Porteous design, but endeavours to steer clear of the dispiriting political language of best
Glasgow, spring 2005 value, which seems to be synonymous with worst architecture.

xviii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Since this book draws on many case studies, nearly all of which have been
visited with extremely hospitable and informative guides or hosts, there are
many people to thank. Where there have been several years of involvement from
inception to completion, including monitoring and dissemination, the list of
those to whom gratitude is due is lengthy just for a single project. Therefore, I
find it difficult not to be selective and trust that those who have not been named,
but have played a part in imparting their knowledge and experience to a wider
audience through this medium, will be aware that their contribution is not
forgotten or ignored. I am extremely grateful to all of them.
My own solar research journey began with unheated sunspaces and I have
devoted considerable space to the findings of two particular Scottish projects.
The one in Stornoway would not have happened without my old climbing friend
and architect Alan Holling having the insight to see the potential for a south
sloping site at the same time that I had started in-depth research into passive
solar applications in Scotland. A few years later, when I was leading an urban
community technical aid project, I met up with a remarkable group of tenant
activists in the east end of Glasgow – Easthall Residents’ Association. Three of
their leading lights were David Humble, Helen Martin and Cathy McCormack.
The European Solar Demonstration Project at Easthall would never have
happened without their persistent resolve to tackle fuel poverty in their
community and the cold, damp and mouldy homes that went with it. A spin-off
of the widely publicized solar solution was community and personal
empowerment. Their play, The Damp Busters, was Easthall’s humorous
contribution to Glasgow, City of Culture 1990. Cathy, its main script writer, went
on to become involved on the global health scene, travelling widely to countries
such as Nicaragua, and taking part in follow-up events to the 1992 Rio Earth
Summit such as the one in New York. I also have fond memories of travelling
around Eastern Europe in 1996 with David – our mission to spread Easthall’s
bottom-up story, strewn with political obstacles, to other communities with
similar problems.

xix
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Within the international solar village, I am very grateful to the encouragement

and steer of leading Anglo-Hungarian solar luminary Leslie Jesch. While Leslie
is no longer an active solar researcher and campaigner, I am glad that he is still
in good health and still travelling to interesting places with his wife – even
volcanoes! It was Leslie who valued and publicized solar work in Scotland
through Sun at Work in Great Britain, Sun at Work in Europe and Sun World, with
the able help of Alison Patterson. It was also Leslie who helped to give the
Scottish Solar Energy Group a political voice within Europe. As I indicated, there
are very many people in Europe to whom I owe thanks. Torben Esbensen is
another individual who, like Leslie, has been very supportive of Scottish solar
activity, who hosted our visit to a very special solar building in Denmark and
who has contributed valuable Scandinavian experience to the Scottish North
Sun meetings of 1984 and 1994, not to mention a smaller international meeting
in 1998. Similarly, I would like to thank the architects Christer and Kirsten
Nordström, not only for their warm hospitality to our group when in Göteborg,
but also to Christer for helping to inform and enliven a conference in Glasgow,
and more recently updating me on the tactics with regard to occupants and
performance in his solar housing. Bart Jan van den Brink is another person who
has allowed his small Dutch solar home to be invaded on two occasions by a
party from Scotland, and more recently travelled to visit us in Scotland in order
to help dispel solar myths at a symposium. Such exchanges are invaluable.
In Canada, my partner Mary and I were overwhelmed by the friendliness
and generosity of people in general, but in particular from our architectural
hosts. Readers will note North American solar threads complementing the
weave of European ones, especially the work of Bo Helliwell and Kim Smith
(Blue Sky Architecture) in the west and Brian MacKay-Lyons in the east. Not
only did Bo and Kim put us up and show us around in Vancouver, but also they
lent us their home on Hornby Island. I had been nurturing a desire to visit
Hornby ever since the special issue of Architectural Design was published in the

xx
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1970s. The fulfilment of this ambition, with Bo and Kim’s stunning cliffside home
as our base, was exhilarating, and to meet up with Bo’s former partner Michael
McNamara, still leading Blue Sky Design, an added bonus – not to mention the
ambience of jazz in the local pub. We had not met Brian before, but both found
an immediate rapport with his intense take on architecture that is just as rooted
in the culture and geography of Nova Scotia as that of Bo and Kim’s is in British
Columbia. Within two hours of meeting him, Brian also offered a second home
as our base, only warning us to be careful not to set the house on fire as Aldo
van Eyck had apparently nearly done! Moreover, we owe a vote of thanks to his
administrator, Constance Gould, for rapidly organizing an itinerary of visits to a
number of dwellings along the southern coastal trail of Nova Scotia. Regardless
of how good the relationship between architect and client may be, gaining
access to private homes can be difficult. But in terms of soft environmental
research, it is necessary to both experience the buildings inside, and to learn of
the experiences and attitudes of the users.
Closer to home, I am indebted to the Glasgow School of Art for allowing a
term’s sabbatical, without which timely completion of the script would not have
been possible. Particular colleagues have also made important contributions –
David Buri, our architectural librarian, Vivian Carvalho and Craig Laurie for
scanning many images, and Paul Simpson for reading the script and making
helpful suggestions as to navigating within and between chapters. Outside the
‘Mac’, I thank Sally Patrick for her useful library of newspaper cuttings. Then I
owe a special debt to Mary Patrick, who has patiently supported me in this
venture throughout and provided invaluable advice on the initial draft. Mary also
later did a fine job with the typesetting and layout for the Graphics Company, a
workers’ cooperative in Edinburgh with which I have had a long and fruitful
relationship. I am also grateful to Alison Neathey, a founder member of the
cooperative and its link with the publishers. Finally, having got to James & CP, Mackintosh School of
James and Earthscan, I warmly thank Guy Robinson and Hamish Ironside for Architecture (the ‘Mac’),
their support and editorial input. May 2005

xxi
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

Chapter 1 North Sun Context

The case for solar architecture in cool climates rests to a large extent on a truth
that was revealed to the international solar community well over two decades
ago and then followed up by many other solar scientists and architects keen to
promote the ‘north sun context’. It is therefore fundamental to the thrust of this
book and involves the presentation of certain thermal principles at the outset.
Fortunately, these are not excessively daunting.
In 1981 at the International Solar Energy Society (ISES) World Solar
Congress in Brighton, UK, a paper was presented with analytical information
that indicated that northern European latitudes could be better for solar space
heating than southern ones (MacGregor, 1981). This is not actually as surprising
as it might seem, but requires explanation. For many solar energy applications
in the northern hemisphere, both electrical and thermal, the potential increases
with the supply of solar radiation as one moves south – at least to the vicinity of
the Tropic of Cancer. For example, this is the case for solar photovoltaic (PV)
arrays, provided almost all the collected electrical energy can be utilized. The
same applies to solar heated water for hygienic and utilitarian uses, where there
is a year-round thermal demand. In warmer and sunnier climates, however,
there is more demand for cooling spaces than for heating them. Solar energy
can still be used to offset cooling by other means, but its usefulness for heating
becomes marginal. This generalization is of course subject to topography and
regional climatic factors. A town located at a high altitude, but relatively low
latitude and in a continental setting that is subject to high daily and seasonal
swings in temperature, may have both heating and cooling demands. In
essence, the north is better trend for solar displacement of space heating
acknowledges that as latitude rises, the solar supply diminishes. But it does so
more slowly than the increasing intensity of climatic factors that drive the
demand – lower ambient temperature and higher wind speeds, especially
accompanied by rain. It has to be accepted that the relative merits of latitude
are not immediately obvious. Indeed, in the 1970s a view or prejudice against
solar space heating in the north of the British Isles was certainly apparent.

1
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1.1 Terms, units and numbers with Latitude myths challenged

comparative examples Going back several decades, the UK section of the International Solar Energy
1.1(1) Flat-plate collectors are more fully described Society (UK-ISES) published a review of solar energy (UK-ISES, 1976). It stated:
in Chapter 2. At this stage it is sufficient to say that ‘South-west England and south-west Wales are the best areas for solar space
they belong within the specialist sphere of plumbing heating from the meteorological point of view.’ A government report in the same
and engineering. Such solar components are also year (Long, 1976, pp25–44) was worthy in some respects, but naïve and
termed ‘active’, signifying movement and mechanical misleading in others. It recognized the supply–demand dilemma, but omitted to
intervention, as opposed to ‘passive’, indicating more mention the significance of demand extending the duration of the heating
static modes of energy exchange. season, and did not engage with the potential for using unheated glazed spaces
1.1(2) ‘Global solar radiation’ means all the sun’s as a means of preheating air for ventilation. The term ‘solar ventilation preheat’
energy, both direct (clear sky) and diffuse (through is now commonly used. It is possible for solar energy to tackle a thermal niche
cloud and haze), falling on a surface, which is taken market, which complements other less sensitive enablers of energy efficiency
to be horizontal unless otherwise stated. ‘Irradiation’ such as insulation.
and ‘insolation’ are used to express this energy The report also rightly emphasized the issue of long-term and medium-term
quantified over a period of time (units: joule, J; watt
thermal storage, but was incredibly tentative and misleading with respect to
x seconds, Ws; watt x hours, Wh; kilowatts x hours,
solar energy and architecture. For example, having given complete
kWh etc.). ‘Irradiance’ is the flow of energy at a given
misinformation with respect to the ‘Trombe’ wall (see Chapter 4), the second
moment (units: joules per second, J/s; 1J/s = 1W).
part of the following statement probably belongs in the territory of wishing in
‘Degree days’ (DDs) are the difference over time
between an average internal temperature, usually a hindsight that it could have been erased from the record (Long, 1976, p37): ‘In
‘base’ value having deducted for the impact of free practice, a very important distinction is that flat-plate collectors [1.1(1)] can be
gains (solar and incidental from people, lighting and installed on suitably oriented existing buildings, while, by definition, techniques
appliances), and that outside. It is added up over involving novel architectural design are applicable only to new properties.’ That
a relevant period – as long as base temperature is hard to beat for myopic ignorance. Even though solar heating at that time was
remains above that outside (ambient). mainly contemplated from an additive engineering perspective, the logic of
1.1(3) From 1983–1987 Stornoway in the Western denying existing buildings scope for an integrative architectural one is obscure.
Isles at 58.2°N averaged 469kWh/m2 from At any rate, the received wisdom that opportunities for solar heating in the UK
September to May on a south-facing vertical surface were confined to the south still prevailed at the time of MacGregor’s counter
(Porteous, 1990, p26). This compares with 281kWh/ proposition at Brighton. A book published that year (Oppenheim, 1981), which
m2 for Kew in London at 51.5°N from November set out to explore the potential for solar buildings in cold northern climates,
to April (Page and Lebens, 1986, p162). This six stated: ‘… the most favourable areas lie to the south of Britain, and the least
month period shares a similar average temperature favourable areas to the north.’ Oppenheim supported his assertion with
as Stornoway over nine months: 6.1°C. If we then numbers, similar to the ones used in the scientific reports five years previously.
deduct 6.1°C from the base temperature of 15.6°C
Therefore, in mounting a challenge, a limited amount of mathematical
used by UK-ISES, we get 9.5 to be multiplied by
investigation is necessary.
273 days (= 2593.5DDs). The same difference for
Numbers, which are used evidentially, must have a sound basis. However,
London from November to April is multiplied by 181
days (= 1719.5DDs). Respective supply–demand
the methodology used by UK-ISES and Oppenheim relied on a proportional
ratios are then 0.18 for Stornoway and 0.16 for relationship, both parts of which were fundamentally flawed. A crude index of
London, assuming all of the supply is useful in each climatic suitability was derived from a supply–demand ratio of ‘global solar
case. This is a very different answer to that given by radiation’ to ‘degree days’ 1.1(2). In the first place, the warmer the climate, the
the raw UK-ISES method. It indicates that Stornoway more this index will indicate strong solar potential for heating. Yet, in reality, the
has 12.5 per cent better solar heating potential. As reverse is true. At the point when there is minimal demand for heat, there is
the methodology becomes less crude, the ratio now minimal scope for the solar supply to play a useful part. Most, if not all, of the
favours the more northerly location.

2
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

numerator then has to be discounted. Conversely, the supply should all be 1.2 Basic ‘steady-state’ methodology for
counted in as long as there is a heating demand. But a second flaw is that the estimating space heating loads
demand side of the ratio assumes a standard length of heating season for all
1.2(1) The ‘heat loss coefficient’ was given as 100
locations. The same number of days is used everywhere, although the UK-ISES W/K (watts, a flow of energy, per degree kelvin: 1K
report did acknowledge that northern UK could have a percentage of ‘degree equals 1°C, but a convention is to use the Kelvin
days’ in summer twice that of a sunnier south. So both the supply and demand scale for differences in temperature and Celsius for
is less than it should be as one moves north, while not all the supply computed absolute values.) ‘Specific heat loss’ or ‘heat loss
is likely to be useful in the south. For example, the relevant period of time for coefficient’ is energy lost by ventilation added to that
solar radiation and ‘degree days’ might be six months for London, but at least lost by conduction through the fabric of a building.
nine months for the Western Isles in Scotland 1.1(3). Indicative ratios would The model assumed a 30 per cent efficient 26m2
improve for both locations as a building becomes more energy-efficient, the vertical, south-facing solar collector, but this could
also be conceived as a smaller collector plus passive
proportional gap diminishing somewhat and both heating seasons shrinking. It
solar heat gained through windows.
is always subject to all the solar supply being able to usefully contribute to
heating, which becomes less likely the warmer the climate and the more efficient 1.2(2) The following scenario fleshes out the
the construction. computation: if free gains from lighting and
If the impacts of wind and rain are also evaluated, the contrast will increase. appliances amount to 400W, and are divided by
A further problem is that the totals for degree days are based on an initial the specific heat loss of 100W/K, the resultant
differential of 4K represents the free heating effect.
assumption with regard to the energy efficiency of the buildings. The more
Deducted from an average demand setting of 20°C,
thermally efficient a building becomes, the shorter will be the period in each
normal for a well-insulated dwelling, it gives a first
case, as well as the lower the gap in temperature driving the need for heat. But
‘base’ level of 16°C. Solar gains can be similarly
a significant geographical time difference would remain and, in reality, the
computed (ie deducting the ratio of solar gains in
relativity of supply and demand is very dependent on the design of buildings, watts to the specific heat loss) to arrive at a final
even for one location. Moreover, solar radiation on a horizontal surface is not internal ‘base’ temperature. It is the difference
particularly relevant to solar geometry in winter. That falling on a south-facing between this and the temperature outside that drives
vertical surface, or a steeply sloping surface, is more likely to displace fossil the space-heating load. If the outside temperature
fuels for heating. So, for example, one might expect the incident irradiation from averages 5°C over 212 days from October to
September to May in the Western Isles to be greater than that from November April, and the solar gain effectively contributes 5K
to April in London. Overall, although the idea of such a ratio as a ready reckoner (500W divided by 100W/K), the internal ‘base’
of potential may appeal, it would need to be carefully devised to eliminate an temperature falls to 11°C. If the product of the heat
loss coefficient of 100W/K and 6K (ie 11 – 5) is then
erroneous southern bias.
multiplied by 212 days and a coefficient of 0.024
(to convert from watts x days to kWh), we arrive at
Brighton breakthrough
an approximate net demand for space heating of
The analysis presented at Brighton was subject to assumptions for a simple 3000kWh. At the same time, useful solar contribution
theoretical model for a small dwelling, which was well insulated. It was such a is over 2500kWh (500W x 212 days x 0.024). This is
powerful dispeller of previous myths that some numerical detail is required. The a basic ‘steady state’ analysis, which does not allow
house was not designed, but rather assumed to have a low specific heat loss or for the fluctuating climatic characteristics such as
heat loss coefficient, as well as a particular size and efficiency of solar collection. driving rain or dynamic effects of thermal storage,
1.2(1) For a representative UK location, this suggested a contribution of about noting that fluxes of energy in and out of storage
2500kWh over a heating season from October to April. Residual or net space tend to cancel out in dwellings with a 24-hour
heating loads would then be in the order of 3000kWh. 1.2(2) These numbers occupancy cycle.

are important in that they signify a considerable level of energy efficiency. Most
householders would be pleasantly surprised if they found that they had only

3
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1.3 Hypothetical dimensions for 1981 used 3000 units for heating in a year. They might also be surprised that their bill
theoretical model could have been more than eighty per cent higher but for the contribution from
the sun.
If, for example, the model takes plan dimensions
of 12m x 4.5m (giving a footprint of 54m2), the By assuming an energy-efficient model, the analysis was both forward-
height rises from 2.35m to 4.35m, the south-facing looking and avoided southern locations being deceptively favoured. Although a
windows and glazed doors are 9m2, the solar poorly insulated model would have lengthened the heating season for all
collector is 17m2 and other windows are kept to a locations, an efficient model moves towards eliminating space heating entirely.
minimum, then the heat loss through the fabric with It is also important to emphasize that all the values used are reasonable and
U-values (thermal transmittance coefficients) circa could translate into built form. The house might, for example, have a relatively
0.2W/m2K would be about two-thirds of an assumed long and high south façade, with a mono-pitched roof sloping down to the north
total of 100W/K. The balance due to ventilation across a relatively narrow depth. 1.3 This is an archetypal passive solar form.
implies an average hourly rate of air change of 0.6,
Roughly half of this might be either collector or window, with minimal glazing
a value that is more likely to be achieved with the
elsewhere and impressively low U-values or thermal transmittance coefficients
aid of mechanical heat recovery than by reliance on
for all opaque surfaces. Alternatively, if conceived as part of a terrace, the U-
natural ventilation. The residual space-heating load
values could afford to rise a bit. This kind of solar dwelling could match the
expressed per unit area would then typically be in the
range 50–60kWh/m2. assumed heat loss coefficient.
The results showed higher solar savings with increasing latitude. For
example, at the most northerly latitude of Lerwick in the Shetland Isles at 60°N
1.4 Theoretical predictions of useful solar
the solar contribution was nearly four times greater than in the most southerly
gain in various UK locations, 1981
location of Messina in Sicily at 38°N. Even within the UK, Lerwick’s solar input
1.4(1) The useful solar gain was predicted to be was nearly 60 per cent greater than that for London 1.4(1). The explanation for
4240kWh in Lerwick compared to 2670 in London. this surprising conclusion was the better usefulness of solar energy at high
1.4(2) The useful solar gain was predicted to be latitudes due to the greater, longer and flatter profile for heating demand. This
4250kWh in Eskdalemuir, only 10kWh higher than more than compensated for the slightly lower solar radiation levels, the
Lerwick; and respective net loads for space heating reduction, as already stated, being a lot less marked on vertical surfaces than
were 3500kWh and 3160kWh. on tilted or horizontal ones. Altitude was also relevant. For example, at
Eskdalemuir in the Scottish Borders at 250m, the solar contribution was
predicted to be marginally greater than for Lerwick at sea level, while the
residual demand for space heating was also somewhat higher 1.4(2). Later
work, which examined the relative climatic suitability for solar space heating in
different parts of Scotland (MacGregor and Balmbro, 1984), found that the best
location was in the north at Wick (58.4°N), while the worst was in the south at
Greenock (55.9°N), the difference being 45 per cent.
In Norway, Olseth and Skartveit (1986), using another analytical method
known as ‘F-chart’, investigated the relative performance of an active solar
heated building in different locations. Again it was found that solar savings are
generally greater at higher latitudes, for example 10 per cent higher at Tromso
(69.7°N) compared with Oslo (60°N). An earlier study in North America (Duffie,
Beckman and Dekker, 1977) also concluded that solar savings for space heating
generally increase with latitude and altitude.
A review of all the above studies (MacGregor, 1987) came to the clear
conclusion that high latitudes offer more scope for solar space heating. This is

4
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

a fundamentally important finding because it completely contravenes the 1.5 Context of dynamic modelling and key
previous beliefs and opens up new possibilities for solar energy. Indeed, the results for direct gain model, 1984
initial study in 1981 provided the impetus to inaugurate the North Sun series of
1.5(1) Respective meteorological stations were Kew
conferences with their consistent theme of ‘solar energy at high latitudes’. The (London), Eskdalemuir (Scottish Borders) and Lerwick
findings are now generally accepted within the solar community, but the (Shetland Islands). The proposed dwelling models
common perception outside it is still that solar energy only works at low were part of a series organized by A5 Architects for
latitudes. Clearly, there is a major task of education to be done! Although it is the Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), then
conceded that the performance of solar water heating systems generally gets directed by Dr David Bartholomew, as part of its
poorer at higher latitudes, there is a countervailing northern compensation even programme of passive solar performance studies.
for this technology. Lower ambient water temperatures yield higher heating 1.5(2) Respective U-values (thermal transmittance
loads and so give solar energy more potential work to do. Similarly, for PV the coefficients) for walls and roof of 0.3W/m2K and
lower ambient temperatures at higher latitudes and altitudes allow modules to 0.15W/m2K were less than one third and exactly
work more efficiently. one quarter of the minimum statutory standards
Quite apart from the supply–demand play-off between solar intensity and (1981). U-values for the ground floor was allowed
geometry relative to the surfaces of buildings and the ambient temperature, to rise to 0.6W/m2K, as computer modelling had
there is also a tendency for the weather to become windier and wetter with shown that extra insulation was not particularly
rising latitude and altitude, especially in maritime locations. Again, this increases advantageous here.

the demand for heat. Consequently, anything that shields a building against 1.5(3) At an average internal temperature of 18°C,
these elements, such as a sunspace or glazed solar skin, will have a greater the passive solar advantage over the upgraded
energy conservation benefit at high latitudes. In addition, the amenity benefits reference model was twice as great in Kew as
of usable buffer spaces of this kind are likely to be greater in areas with much in Lerwick (3000kWh compared to 1500kWh).
wind and rain. Moreover, the residual annual space heating load for
this achieved temperature was substantially less at
Dynamic complexity – direct versus indirect passive solar models Kew than Lerwick – about 5000kWh compared with
12,500kWh, or 60 per cent less.
Having thrown a fairly challenging, if perfectly logical, broad-brush ‘north is
better’ hypothesis at the solar community, inevitably, when more specific
models are subjected to more rigorous dynamic thermal analysis, matters
become more complex. For example, a paper presented at the inaugural North
Sun 84 in Edinburgh (Bartholomew, 1985), three years after the congress in
Brighton, compared simulated results for two very different passive solar
houses, with reference houses in contrasting UK locations. These were London,
the Southern Uplands of Scotland and Shetland, all with detailed meteorological
records, including solar radiation. 1.5(1)

direct gain model – detached house

One solar house was categorized as ‘direct gain’ (solar transmission through
windows directly into rooms) with most rooms on a relatively long south façade
(Figure 1.1). This 150m2 detached model was designed by Stillman and
Eastwick-Field, Architects (Stephens, 1983). It included night shutters to main
windows on the south façade and both walls and roof were well insulated in the
context of the UK in the early 1980s. 1.5(2) Walls were more than three times
as efficient as most dwellings built at this time, and the roof four times as much.

5
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1.1 Plan of ‘direct gain’ passive solar house by

Stillman and Eastwick-Field

Indeed, a concern was that the standards of conserving heat were such that
potentially useful solar gain in the autumn and spring would be displaced. As
stated earlier, it is axiomatic that the more energy-efficient a building becomes,
the shorter will be its heating season.
This appears to indicate that passive solar performance, implying significant
investment in glass, is in competition with good standards of insulation, since
the latter is much more cheaply purchased. In reality, the value of energy
efficiency relative to passive solar measures is subtler. For example, the solar
contribution may primarily tackle the ventilating or convective component of
heating demand, while insulation is dealing mainly with heat lost by conduction.
Thus it is possible for them to complement each other rather than compete.
These are important issues, which will be elucidated in succeeding chapters.
The comparative modelling for this particular ‘direct gain’ dwelling, reported
at North Sun 84, showed that the southern English location was more effective
than the northern Scottish one, once the insulation levels in the reference model
were matched to the solar one. 1.5(3) However, much of this difference is
taken up with respective thermal losses through windows, two thirds greater in
the case of Lerwick.
Since the heating season for an energy-efficient house would still be
significantly longer in Shetland compared with the London area, one has to be
careful in assuming that respective solar contributions are decisive. Even if the
amount of useful solar gain in Lerwick is greater than that of Kew, climatic
factors such as the ambient temperature and wind strength, especially together

6
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

with rain, are influential. The southern location constitutes the softer option in
this regard. Although the former aspect, that of solar supply, is shown to favour
Lerwick over Kew by 1800kWh for a typical heating regime, and hence supports
the ‘north is better’ contention, the losses through the windows far outweigh
this apparent strength. It is the relativity of gain to loss that is critical. It is also
known that the final sizing of windows, as well as the specification of single
glazing to all four bedrooms, the study and the kitchen, were both influenced by
the initial thermal modelling in the southern climate (Stephens, 1983). Those
decisions certainly disadvantaged the two Scottish locations, one high in
altitude and the other in latitude.

indirect gain model – dense terrace

The second house was a modern solar interpretation of a 19th century English
‘back-to-back’ terraced house, accessed either from the east or west (Figure
1.2). Although it was single-aspect, it included a generous unheated atrium or
conservatory with the main windows facing south on to it. This then offered the
opportunity for ‘indirect’ solar gain, where the ‘greenhouse effect’ within the
atrium should have an indirect impact on the adjacent heated spaces. In the
words of its author, architect Malcolm Newton (Newton, 1983), this ‘has the
advantage that fresh air from the sunspace can be brought into the house
through the heating system and this ensures that a known quantity of fresh air
enters and a corresponding quantity of moisture laden air leaves.’ The important
aspect from an energy-saving viewpoint is that the air in the atrium averages a
significantly higher temperature than outside. It is as if the air bounding the
heated core had changed season – say, April when it is really January, and the
core wishes to provide the environment of July.
The heating system to which Malcolm Newton refers was a ‘4.5kW gas fired
central warm air unit with short ducts to all rooms.’ This addresses the small
space-heating load, a result of a combination of the solar buffer, the small
exposed perimeter afforded by the back-to-back terrace and, again, relatively
low U-values (ranging from 0.3–0.35W/m2K for roof, walls and floor). It also
addresses the difficulty of slow response heating systems displacing potentially
useful solar heat gains. The atrium itself tackles this problem by virtue of being
unheated. But there are still significant direct solar gains to all the heated rooms
to consider, even though solar radiation often has to pass through the atrium on
the way to the heated rooms.
Some of the earliest consciously designed passive solar houses failed to
adequately acknowledge the issue of the central heating usurping solar heat. A
famous example is Frank Lloyd Wright’s ‘solar hemicycle’ designed in 1943 for
Herbert Jacobs, and located in Middleton, Wisconsin. This is an area where
mean January temperatures are well below freezing point, but in the same
month the percentage of sunshine is a promising 44 per cent of the maximum

7
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1.2 3-dimensional ‘cutaway’ of ‘indirect gain’

solar house by Malcolm Newton

possible during daytime. The concave, south-facing glass façade hence admits
significant amounts of solar radiation, to be stored directly in the concrete floor
slab. However, the same floor slab accommodates large diameter hot water
coils, termed ‘gravity heating’ by Wright (1977). Jacobs (1978), in writing his
memoir, acknowledged that the thermostat regularly switched off shortly after
the sun began to shine on fine days in winter: ‘We had almost daily evidence of
winter solar heating. Usually by nine o’clock on a sunny morning, even in below-

8
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

zero weather, the heating system stopped, and did not resume again until late
afternoon.’ Regardless of the client’s glowing perception of performance, the
fact remains that the already consumed supply of energy to the furnace would
have its heat stored in the concrete slab for some considerable period after the
heating switched off. Thus some of the apparently useful solar gain would have
been displaced. On the other hand, we also have the ‘late afternoon’ assertion
of Jacobs in terms of the heating coming back on again. One might optimistically
assume that ‘late’ signified after sunset. It is then the sun’s heat that is displacing
fuel that would otherwise be required, and we might reasonably conclude that
this cancels out the morning deficit. However, looked at from the point of view
of maximizing solar gain, one would wish for the best of both worlds – minimizing
fossil fuel displacement of potentially useful solar heat after dawn and
maximizing solar thermal storage after sunset.
Jacob’s observations had actually been confirmed by measurement some
years earlier in relation to the 1941 Duncan house by architects Keck and Keck.
Of the two brothers it was George Fred Keck who continually explored new
boundaries in technical experimentation, with the first serious passive solar
prototype built in 1935. This was also the year that Libby-Owens-Ford Glass
Company introduced double-pane glazing. In October 1941, the year-long
monitoring of the Duncan house commenced under the direction of Professor
James C. Peebles of the Illinois Institute of Technology, funded by Libby-
Owens-Ford. Similar to the observations of Herbert Jacobs in Wright’s Solar
Hemicycle, Peebles noted that on a sunny day in January, the furnace shut off
from 8.30am until 8.30pm (Boyce, 1993). Indeed, since the temperature inside
the living space rose above 29°C, it was necessary to open windows. However,
the monitoring also acknowledged that part of the heat gained during that
period was ‘…due to the hot water in the dark brown concrete floor slab, which
continued to radiate heat even when the furnace was shut off.’
This particular aspect, among others such as the temptation to heat
conservatories in winter, will be explored in greater depth in subsequent
chapters. It is important that such issues are well aired, since it is quite dispiriting
for the solar community that they are still not always taken seriously by either
architects or occupants. It is right to challenge why this should be the case,
given the increasing emphasis on continuing professional development for the
architectural team, and when a well publicized proposal from the mid-1980s,
such as that by Malcolm Newton, appears to have such a logical foundation.
The heating system he recommended could respond rapidly to solar gain, thus
maximizing its potential, and the modest amount of glass enclosing the winter
garden relative to its volume would increase the amount of time it could be
comfortably occupied, even in cold cloudy weather.
One must not forget that such semi-outdoor spaces are the recipient of
heat lost from the host rooms, as well as from the sun. The consequence is that

9
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1.6 Theoretical performance data for back- in cold, overcast weather, or during the night, taking the supply of air for
to-back indirect gain model, 1984 ventilation from the conservatory into the house constitutes a basic form of
passive heat recovery. Another advantage of such unheated spaces, provided
1.6(1) The ‘solar’ advantage for the Newton design
relative to the reference model was an impressive they remain only heated for free by the sun or from donations from heated
6000kWh for the Shetlands compared to 4000kWh rooms, is that high thermal capacitance is advantageous. It does not compete
for the London location. with the fast response needed for auxiliary heating. Moreover, it is worth
emphasizing the character of this particular conservatory as a rain-free and
1.6(2) Heating demand was predicted to be
wind-sheltered garden, which is divided into three functional zones – entry,
approximately 1000kWh in Kew compared with
alfresco eating and multipurpose – as opposed to an extra room or rooms. This
2750kWh in Lerwick, a difference now reduced from
7500kWh in the direct gain model to only 1750kWh tends to encourage rational use relative to weather and possibly less rational
for the Newton design. serendipitous use, rather than treating it as an all-year-round space.
Theoretical predictions are able to simulate form and constructional
1.6(3) Heat predicted to be lost through windows in
specification accurately. They can also make reasonable assumptions with
Lerwick reduced from 10,480kWh for the first direct
regard to the regimes adopted by occupants for heating and ventilation, as well
gain design to 540kWh for the Newton design.
as use of lighting and appliances. However, it has to be accepted that the
introduction of unheated glazed spaces introduces a further set of possible
variables in this regard. These are explored in more depth in Chapter 4. At any
rate, the comparative northern Scotland versus southern England computer
modelling showed that in this instance ‘north was best’. Taking the same
average internal temperature as the ‘direct gain’ house, the apparent passive
solar advantage over the upgraded reference model was now reversed to 50 per
cent greater in Lerwick than Kew. 1.6(1) Furthermore, although the residual
annual space-heating load for this achieved temperature was still less at Kew
than Lerwick, the difference was now much more modest. 1.6(2) Expressed
per square metre of heated floor, the figures translate to 14kWh/m2 and 38kWh/
m2 for Kew and Lerwick respectively. The value of risking numerical overdose at
this early stage is that it establishes benchmarks for comparison with other case
studies, both real and theoretical, as the chapters proceed. Critical to this
improvement, in the case of Lerwick, is that the energy lost through windows
bounding the heated part of the house has been reduced by a factor of almost
20 for a typical heating regime. 1.6(3) Although Kew also benefits from a
significant reduction, it is not of quite such an impressive order – close to a
factor of 17.

sunspaces work due to diverse climatic influences

Given that rainfall in Lerwick during winter is high, and that corresponding
sunshine is low, the results are impressive, even puzzlingly so. Kew, of course,
fares somewhat better in these terms. The annual rainfall is approximately half
that of Lerwick, while the proportion of possible sunshine is considerably
greater during winter. 1.7(1) Therefore a question arises: how does Newton’s
house manage to attribute so much increased efficiency to the solar design
features? Bear in mind also that respective savings are related to reference

10
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

models insulated to the same relatively high standard as the Newton design and 1.7 Contrasting Lerwick and London (Kew):
it therefore follows that insulation does not seem to be in direct competition with some climatic detail
the passive solar features.
1.7(1) Lerwick’s rainfall from 1951–1980 averaged
To move closer to the explanation for the success of the Newton design in nearly 1.2m annually, over 80 per cent of which
both locations, but particularly in Lerwick, it is necessary to view climatic occurred from September to May. Average sunshine
differences in slightly more detail. 1.7(2) The differentials in favour of Kew in January is only 12 per cent and, from September
suggest that variables over and above solar radiation and temperature strongly to May, 21 per cent of what is theoretically possible
influence Lerwick’s larger saving relative to the reference house. Clearly the atrium in cloudless conditions (compared with 44 per
protects the inner façades between atrium and heated rooms from wind and rain. cent in the location of Frank Lloyd Wright’s ‘solar
1.7(3) Moreover, the climate severity index or CSI (Markus, 1984), which hemi-cycle’). London’s rainfall from 1951–1980
combines the effect of air temperature, solar radiation and wind, demonstrates an averaged 0.6m annually, 80 per cent occurring from
September to May, while its proportion of possible
even greater disparity. 1.7(4) But by sheltering much of the bounding surface of
sunshine in this period rises to 30 per cent. The
heated spaces with the atrium, especially the windows, and other external
relative differences in possible sunshine translate
surfaces by means of the back-to-back terraced form, this negative impact is
to Lerwick being disadvantaged relative to Kew by
greatly reduced. The heating season in Lerwick remains longer than that of Kew,
some 20 per cent, taking respective incident solar
and the residual demand for heat remains higher, but overall the specific design irradiation on a south-facing vertical surface.
attributes are able to work harder in terms of energy saving.
1.7(2) The main glazed surfaces in Newton’s design
Therefore, a tentative conclusion to be drawn for indirect gain solutions is
are to the south at a 45° tilt, and vertical surfaces
that the apparent solar contribution will rise with latitude, and that this is likely
facing east or west. There is a significant incident
to be partly due to other benefits afforded by the passive design features.
solar fall-off in the central winter period (November
However, the Newton back-to-back solution is so particular that such a
to March) from Kew to Lerwick of approximately
conclusion should be treated with some caution. 35 per cent for both orientations. Extending the
period from September to May, the outer margins of
further modelling confirms North–South trend in UK autumn and spring probably still being relevant for
More detailed modelling work carried out after North Sun 84 (Porteous, 1990, Lerwick, slightly reduces the deficit to 21 per cent
pp55–57, 80–93), and using a more conventional terraced house, also found for the tilted surface and 17 per cent for the vertical
that the indirect versus direct passive solar solutions favoured northerly surface. However, it makes no sense to compare the
latitudes. Viewed quantitatively, the useful ‘solar’ saving in heating, which was respective solar supplies over the same period. Each
should correspond to the period when the internal
attributable to the indirect system compared with the direct one, was
base temperature is higher than that outside.
significantly higher in central Scotland than southern England. But as in the two
theoretical case studies discussed above, which used more extreme models in 1.7(3) The driving rain index or DRI (Lacy, 1977) for
more contrasting geographical locations, that is not the complete picture. Lerwick is estimated to be nearly four times that in
A five-person living–dining room with generous direct gain double-glazing Kew. The index in Lerwick is 10.6m2/s, while that in
1.8(1) was compared with the same space completely buffered with a single- Kew is only 2.75m2/s.

glazed conservatory, its combined vertical and tilted area of glass being twice that 1.7(4) The climate severity index is 169 for Lerwick
of the direct gain double-glazing. Two UK locations, Glasgow and Kew, were as opposed to 100 for Kew – ie one would expect
modelled in March, each assuming a young family as occupants. This implied Lerwick to have a heating demand some 69 per cent
relatively intensive occupation of the living room over a daily cycle with a relatively greater than that of Kew.
high thermostat setting, so the simulation included a relatively large amount of
incidental or casual heat gain from occupants themselves, lighting and appliances.
Responsive convectors, similar to those specified by Malcolm Newton, were built
into the model for heating. Levels of insulation were also similar. 1.8(2)

11
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1.8 Sunspace modelling: Glasgow Glasgow has about two thirds of the annual rainfall of Lerwick, while there
compared to Kew in dimensional and climatic is also a somewhat greater amount of sunshine, and of course it is wetter and
detail less sunny than Kew. The difference in temperature from September to May
1.8(1) The area of the room was 21m2 and the between the two locations is more marked than the difference in solar availability.
double-glazing was some 44 per cent of this. 1.8(3) Also, the driving rain index now lies between that for Lerwick and that
for Kew. 1.8(4) This means that, given a particular energy-efficient design, the
1.8(2) U-values were calculated to be 0.27W/m2K for
heating season will shrink more for Kew than for Glasgow. If we then compare
walls and 0.37W/m2K for the floor.
the narrower time-frame of November to March, the difference in temperature
1.8(3) Glasgow has 15 per cent of sunshine actually drops marginally, but the difference in solar availability is more marked.
theoretically available in January compared with 1.8(5) Effectively, this means that the sheltering effect and the heat-recovery
Lerwick’s 12 per cent, and 24 per cent from
aspect of the buffer space will start to dominate its energy-saving ability in the
September to May, compared with Lerwick’s 21 per
relatively sunless parts of winter.
cent. This is still well below Kew’s respective 19 per
The computer modelling for the month of March confirmed that, although
cent for January and 30 per cent for September to
May, but when the amount of solar radiation falling
the indirect solution works significantly better than direct in the northerly
on a south-facing vertical surface is compared, location, the residual space-heating load still remains higher in Scotland than in
the difference between Glasgow and Kew is not so Kew for the same design with the same occupancy and heating schedule. The
marked. Indeed, average values from September following summarizes the main aspects of the output:
to May are only 6 per cent less in Glasgow than in
Direct gain system:
Kew. Glasgow’s mean ambient air temperature from
• residual space heating demand for Kew is less than half that of Glasgow;
September to May is 6.9°C, compared with Kew’s
8.5°C.
• Kew’s useful solar supply as percentage of demand is more than twice that
of Glasgow;
1.8(4) Glasgow’s DRI of 5.5m2/s is roughly twice the
• Kew’s absolute useful solar supply (kWh) is about 20 per cent more than
Kew value and half that for Lerwick.
that of Glasgow.
1.8(5) From November to March, the temperature Indirect gain system (30m3 sunspace, outer glass twice area of inner):
in Glasgow is 1.4K less than in London, while • residual space heating demand for Kew is less than half that of Glasgow;
Glasgow’s incident radiation on a south wall is 14 per • Kew’s useful solar supply as percentage of demand is more than twice that
cent less than in London: 181kWh/m2 compared to of Glasgow;
210kWh/m2 (Page and Lebens, 1986, pp162, 171,
• Kew’s absolute useful solar supply (kWh) is slightly less than that of
208, 217).
Glasgow;
• percentage saving compared to direct system lower in Glasgow than Kew
(31% compared to 35%);
• kWh saving compared to direct system higher in Glasgow than Kew.

Modelled over a complete heating season from September to May, the space-
heating load for Kew maintained its ‘less than half’ position relative to Glasgow.
Nevertheless, expressed per square metre of floor area of the living room,
Glasgow at 78kWh/m2 compares favourably with the direct gain model of
113kWh/m2. This is a saving of 31 per cent, exactly as for the March-only
simulation.
Having established certain comparative aspects of performance for an
economic, rectilinear terraced house type, and noting the more beneficial
latitudinal impact of Malcolm Newton’s rather complex solution, further modelling
was carried out on an L-shaped house form (Porteous, 1990, pp58, 80–89). This

12
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

embraced a square double-height atrium and was again capable of being built in
terraced or, alternatively, semi-detached form. In other words, it was slightly more
ambitious in terms of design, and probably cost, compared with a simple
rectangle, but still not as radical as Newton’s back-to-back proposal.
Taking the living room on its own, the residual September to May space-
heating load for this model in Glasgow reduced by some 23 per cent from
78kWh/m2 to 60kWh/m2. Taking the entire house over the same period, and
using the same volume of unheated solar space in each case, the relative saving
reduced to 14 per cent, but quantitatively it came down to a very respectable
24.5kWh/m2. One can compare this with the Newton value of 38kWh/m2 for a
different design in a much more severe climatic location. If one took a hard line, 1.3 First Scottish passive solar housing in
Stornoway by Western Isles Islands Council
it could be said that such comparisons are spurious. There are just too many
variables from location to location, project to project. However, the more
energy-efficient buildings become, the less influential are the variables. This
means that in monitored projects, as opposed to predictive models, human
factors tend to become much greater drivers of differences than climate or
detailed design.
Without real people, the differential in the above theoretical studies naturally
leads on to the question ‘which variable caused the saving?’ Any significant
alteration to the plan and section of a building is bound to affect the outcome in
a number of ways: by varying solar geometry, varying thermal mass, etc.
Nevertheless, the numerical indicators given above provide some idea of what
one might expect both quantitatively and proportionately at different locations.
Results from two different researchers, using different computer programmes,
appear to correlate logically and also provide some comfort for the context of
the passive solar period of the early 1980s to the early 1990s in the UK and its
neighbours. Unarguably, climatic buffer spaces were used extensively in
northern Europe and parts of North America during this period and beyond.
Interestingly, they remain to this day contentious in terms of their ability to save
energy. However, at least we know from the above that, albeit by diverse means,
they are theoretically capable of saving energy, even in relatively extreme
locations such as Shetland, where the climate appears to be rather hostile to
solar applications. Indeed, following hard on the heels of North Sun 84,
Scotland’s first new-build passive solar housing (Figure 1.3) was completed in
1985 by the Western Isles Islands Council in Stornoway. The main town of the
Outer Hebrides, it has a climate with marked similarities to that of Shetland,
perhaps especially that of driving rain.

Widening the solar agenda

Some of these live projects have included other solar components, such as air
collectors (see Chapters 2 and 6) and flat-plate water-heating collectors (see
Chapter 2), the latter not of course limited to the space-heating season. Others
have successfully linked passive solar buffer spaces to mechanical heat

13
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

 1.9 Germany, Denmark, Sweden and the recovery systems. In fact one such scheme, completed in 1987, was as far
Netherlands: solar activity north as 69.6 degrees latitude – a day-care centre in Alta, Norway. This particular
project was monitored by SINTEF, the Norwegian Solar Energy Research Centre
1.9(1) Germany’s Energy Research and Technology
Programme, launched in 1990, gave significantly more at the Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim. This was one case study
government funds to PV (50 million Deutschmarks out of 48 undertaken under the auspices of the International Energy Agency
for a 1990s monitoring programme) than any of the (IEA), Task XI: Passive and Hybrid Solar Commercial Buildings (Hildon and
other nine energy categories in the programme. This Seager, 1989).
was more than five times as much as for wind in the Out of twelve countries represented in this study, six were in northern
first three years, the latter also being about 18 per Europe and one in Canada. A large majority of these case studies were occupied
cent less than the budget for ‘rational user of energy between 1984 and 1987, and reported performance gave some encouragement
and solar energy in buildings’ (Lottner, 1992). With at that time to pursue such technology further. This was particularly so within
solar electricity in the limelight, 1997 – five years after
regions, such as Scandinavia, that might be considered as solar-challenged
the Earth Summit at Rio – marked a critical 100MWp
during winter. Apart from extensive use of glazed atria and arcades, it was
(megawatt peak) per annum on an exponential curve
Scandinavia that took a lead in large-scale arrays of flat-plate collectors
of increasing PV output (Luther, 2002). Active solar
combined with seasonal storage. In other words, they were addressing the
thermal systems also maintained a strong presence.
By 2001, Germany had circa 2,290,000m2 flat-plate long-term mismatch between supply of solar energy and the demand for heat.
collectors (Bosselaar, 2001). The cost of PV still inhibits Of course, these arrays were detached from the buildings they served, but that
uptake, but it is falling: 0.6¤/kWh in Northern Europe is one of the themes to be explored further in the next chapter. An attempt to
in 2000, and hoped to fall to 0.22¤/kWh by 2020 integrate a sufficient area of collector on to the roof of a small house to charge
(Luther, 2002). a seasonal thermal store, also integrated with the house, was made in the late
1980s in Holland. Such projects partly reflected the experimental spirit of some
1.9(2) Five aims of a new Danish Energy Plan were
outlined at a seminar in Scotland, February 1999: architects, engineers and physicists, and partly the willingness of governments
1) 20 per cent reduction CO2 from 1998 to 2005; to pump-prime renewable technology.
2) share of renewable sources 12–14 per cent total In this regard, there was and is by no means an even-handed approach
energy supply by 2005; across national boundaries. While there is a considerable amount of continuing
3) share of renewable sources 33 per cent total dissemination within the scientific solar community, getting the message across
energy supply by 2030; to a large cross section of architects and their clients is more problematic. Even
4) CO2 reduction of 50 per cent overall and 25 per more critically, while technical opportunities and obstacles tend to vary within
cent from transport by 2030; and quite a narrow spectrum (taking examples from the climatic zones as defined in
5) overall reduction of energy consumption by 2030.
the Preface), the political and economic ones have a large range.
The plan had six initiatives:
1) special effort with respect to building-integrated
institutional divergence – Northern Europe and Canada
systems;
2) better motivation for commercial and industrial The leading countries in Northern Europe are Germany, Denmark, Sweden and
buildings; the Netherlands. They all have, and have had for some time, ambitious
3) promotion of solar applications in rural areas programmes for both solar thermal and photovoltaic (PV) systems. Germany
(outside gas and district heated zones); now has a 100,000 programme for PV installations, starting from an initial 2000
4) promotion of large thermal plants – 8,000m2 plus in the early 1990s, and it is also the leading EU market for solar thermal
seasonal stores; applications. 1.9(1) Denmark is a strong player in solar thermal research and
5) fine-tune storage and control – day/night and the development and manufacture of large-scale solar thermal arrays. A 30 per
summer/winter; and cent government subsidy helped to secure this position as well as a generously
6) promotion of international dissemination – eg via
funded regional campaign to build up the market (Windeleff, 1994). Part of the
new IEA groups.
marketing strategy was a highly symbolic ‘villaVISION’, an evocative ‘dream

14
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

house of the future’ (Figure 1.4) (Danish Technological Institute, 1994). This is 1.9(3) A Swedish programme to demonstrate larger
located at the Danish Technological Institute and was realized through the systems began in the 1990s. The aim was to replace
sponsorship of several government agencies as well as trade unions and trade oil in heating plants at an annual rate of 7–32GWh
associations. It embodies both passive and active solar features, thermal and (gigawatts x hours), the maximum level of government
support being 50 per cent (Rantil, 1994). In 2002,
electrical, as well as taking on a holistic green agenda. By 1999, the Danish
it was reported that the costs for large systems had
Energy Directorate had an ambitious new energy plan, 1.9(2) an extension of
fallen below 250¤/m2 (Dalenback, 2002).
their ‘Solar Energy Plan of Action 1998–2000’ (Danish Technological Institute,
1998). Sweden has a similar system of subsidy, this time 25 per cent, and has 1.9(4) In the Netherlands, while recycling and
established a lead in the design of very large-scale solar thermal projects with generation of electricity by wind are now seen as
important, there is a commitment to grid-connected
inter-seasonal storage. 1.9(3) In the Netherlands, there is excellent cooperation
PV, with about 20MWp installed (compared with
between national and local government agencies, and also energy utilities, to
3MWp off grid in 2003). There is a 3.5¤/Wp (euros
install both electrical and thermal solar panels. 1.9(4) It is now recognized that
per watt peak) subsidy for private people and other
the critical mass for the market has been achieved in this small, densely
fiscal incentives for companies, the price per watt
populated country, which was also, until recently, home to the largest building- peak having fallen from ¤20 in 1990 to ¤5 in 2002.
integrated PV system in the world – a 2 megawatt (MW) roof over a large PV unit cost in 2003 on a net metering system
exhibition area near Schiphol Airport (now overtaken by a 40,000m2 roof over a was 0.08¤/kWh. The Dutch government’s energy
logistics building in Bürstadt, Germany). research centre, ECN, is currently investigating the
potential for combined PV thermal (PVT) collectors.
This reduces the thermal efficiency by 30–40 per
cent. Roughly 5000 normal flat-plate collectors
systems are sold annually. This is an 80 per cent
increase since the start of a Beldezon (Call the Sun)
campaign by the Ecostream marketing arm of the
international consultancy Ecofys, with a target of 1.2
million m2 by 2010. Typically, the collection area for
drain-back systems (see also Chapter 2) is 3m2, with
100 litres storage. There are time-limited subsidies
of up to 40 per cent and a standard cost in 2003 of
¤2200 (£1700), including installation (information
from a visit to ECN, August 2003, and from Giel
Linthorst of Ecofys in Glasgow, December 2002.)
Dutch subsidies have extended to more than specific
solar components – eg IEA solar apartments in
Amstelveen of mid-1990s, (Chapter 6) received 2.5
million guilders for research, 1 million for risk and
1 million for a land discount. This translates to over
£40,000 per unit (information given by developer,
April 1995).

1.4 villaVISION in Tasstrup, Denmark, by the

Danish Technological Institute

15
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1.10 Norway, Finland, UK, Scotland and Other Northern European countries such as Norway and Finland developed
Canada: solar activity niche markets for PV to power isolated weekend and holiday huts and cottages.
Active domestic solar thermal systems in Norway and Finland were a minority
1.10(1) The area of solar thermal collectors in
1992 in Norway was estimated to be less than interest when reported in 1992, the year of the Earth Summit at Rio de Janeiro.
7000m2 from about 1750 installations. At that time, The number of installations in the latter was, for example, significantly less than
two years after a government fund was started to in Scotland. There was more interest in agricultural solar drying applications in
establish a solar energy market in Norway, it was both Scandinavian countries, as well as a stronger interest in PV (Lund, 1992;
estimated that there were only some 500 active Porteous, 1992; Salvesen, 1992). 1.10(1) As indicated above, Norway has also
solar domestic installations in Finland, compared given quite a strong architectural lead through leading characters in SINTEF
with 70,000–100,000m2 of agricultural drying 1.10(2) and other individuals such as Harald Røstvik, who made a reputation
systems. Concurrently, Scotland had approximately both in terms of radical built projects 1.10(3) (Røstvik, 1990) and in terms of
2000 systems, which were mainly domestic. The
political perspective (Røstvik, 1992a, 1992b). In essence, Røstvik has been
UK market for active solar thermal systems has
attacking the unfair distribution of resources, the playing field powerfully tilted
remained sluggish. In 2001, it was estimated that
by the traditional energy oligarchies away from renewable technologies in
the total area of collectors was 141,000m2. This is
general and solar development in particular. His complaint was targeted
one sixteenth of the comparable market in Germany
(Bosselaar, 2001). nationally and globally. In Norway, he made the point that the combination of oil
wealth, gas wealth and hydro-wealth was starving solar research and was not
1.10(2) Professor Anne Grete Hestnes has been a
appeased in terms of hydro-electricity being a renewable source. 1.10(4)
leading light relative to SINTEF for many years. Two
Globally, it was the same kind of picture, with multinational companies
SINTEF projects are discussed in Chapter 6. She has
desperate to dominate the developing countries. The problem with solar energy
also been very involved in the regional and global
for such interests is that it lends itself to small, community-controlled structures.
solar community, becoming President first of ISES
Europe and then ISES worldwide. In any event, along with other prominent political environmentalists such as
Hermann Scheer (Scheer, 1994), Røstvik was heavily involved in getting solar
1.10(3) An example of Røstvik’s architectural work
energy on the agenda at Rio. Political and institutional barriers were among the
is the near-autonomous 1988 Parmann house
main themes to be addressed for both developed and developing countries.
constructed in Stavanger, in southwest Norway, for
Across the Atlantic in Canada, there is some commonality with countries
a Swedish couple. The climate here is relatively
mild, no month averaging below 0°C, but the area
such as Norway and Finland. Today, individual architects such as Peter Busby
still has a long heating season. The house utilizes champion fine architecture that is both solar and environmental in spirit – for
a combination of active and passive solar features, example the Institute of Technology in Merritt, British Columbia (Gregory, 2004).
as well as integrating a small wind turbine. Solar Others, such as Martin Liefhebber in Toronto, have promoted an aesthetically
thermal provided about 4700kWh annually, solar more confrontational and holistic formula, as in the community-led design for a
electrical about 800kWh and wind is estimated to ‘healthy house’ in 1999 (Liefhebber, undated). The active solar arrays of this
provide 700kWh. The balance of the thermal load condominium are visually dominant and raise issues to be tackled in more
is met by a 97 per cent efficient ‘kakkeloven’ tiled depth relative to other case studies in the next chapter. Back in 1992, at the time
log-stove, built from ‘olivienstone’, while the annual of the Earth Summit in Rio, Canada had a national research and development
electrical balance from the grid was estimated to be
programme, which included solar energy (Carpenter 1992). But this was funded
only about 900 kWh.
through the Canadian Centre for Mineral and Energy Technologies (CANMET).
1.10(4) An example of statistical information given by Such funds that CANMET disbursed generally went to ‘centres of expertise’
Røstvik is: ‘Every Norwegian is responsible for twice such as at the University of Waterloo and Queen’s University. In other words,
the world average of CO2 emissions.’ He also claims: their progress relied on small budgets and the impetus given by individual
‘Pollution for the drilling rigs in the North Sea equals
academics. This is very similar to the situation reported for Scotland at the same
the pollution from all the private cars in Norway.’ He
time (Porteous, 1992). However, like Scotland, Norway and Finland, the
adds that it is the car users who are left with a bad

16
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

commercial status of Canada was not strong. 1.10(5) It has to be accepted conscience, and that the surplus of hydro-electric
that the energy context of a huge and sparsely populated country like Canada power could be used to reduce emissions from the
is different from a small, mainly densely populated country like the UK. In North Sea.
Canada, the World Energy Atlas indicated that in 1985 the energy consumption 1.10(5) Within the whole of Canada in 1992, the
per capita was two thirds greater than that of Northern Europe (Scheer, 1994, annual installations of residential active solar systems
p14), while statistics from 1995 showed that three quarters of greenhouse gas was only around 200, plus about 500 pool preheat
emissions were attributable to transport, electricity generation, industry and systems. Similarly to Norway and Finland, there was
fossil fuel production (Sharpe, 1999). 1.10(6) another niche market – this time for large-scale,
This is very different from the global picture 1.11(1) (Smith, 1996; Vale and unglazed commercial solar air-heating systems (see
Chapter 6). These were commercialized as Solarwall
Vale, 1991) or that in the UK 1.11(2) (Bell, Lowe and Roberts, 1996), where
in conjunction with the aluminium company Alcan,
architecture is more in the frame. Although differing regional statistics are hard
amounting at that time to about 1200m2 annually
to compare directly, it is evident that both consumption of fossil fuels and
in Canada with limited exports. PV also had a minor
emissions from buildings, and particularly housing, will vary downwards with
presence: annual sales in the order of 650kWp,
the falling density of the population. On the other hand, in large countries, the approximately one hundredth of the German output
distended infrastructure for transport and industry will skew these values at the same time.
upwards. Such variations are bound to occur even if approximate parity of
1.10(6) 75 per cent of greenhouse emissions in
wealth exists for varying densities. But there are also large cultural differences
Canada in 1995 were given as follows: 26 per cent
in terms of vehicular size and fuel efficiency, not to mention from one oil
transportation by road, rail and air, 17 per cent
company to another (Macalister, 2004). 1.11(3) In terms of changing the status
electricity generation, 16 per cent industry and 16
quo, Peter Smith in the UK has many recommendations, for example extolling per cent fossil fuel production. The balance was
the virtues of geothermal energy compared with gas or oil, or indeed coal attributed to: 12 per cent non-energy, 8 per cent
(Smith, 2003). There is still an output of CO2, but it is a small fraction compared residential and 5 per cent commercial.
with fossil fuels. 1.11(4) It is also self-evident that the existing stock of
buildings must be made energy efficient, in parallel with the slow annual
replenishment of new-build, in order to make much of an impact on the
emissions of greenhouses gases… easier said than done.
When discussing active and passive solar expansion, it should be borne in
mind that electricity accounts for less than 20 per cent of the delivered energy
in most European countries. Also, as stated at the outset of this chapter, while
the demand for heat rises with increasing latitude, the opportunities for utilizing
solar energy passively can also rise, depending on the skill of the architect. Thus
any programme that sidelines the much bigger market for heat is deficient. In
the UK there is now a modest subsidy system for installing solar thermal
systems, mainly for domestic hot water, as well as PV systems. Unfortunately
there is no target for renewable sources to provide heat. The emphasis is
restricted to the generation of electricity, for which there are reasonably
ambitious targets dominated by wind. Broadly speaking, the countries that have
advanced solar programmes for heat and electricity have politically intervened
to make this possible. This tends to go hand in hand with the level of democracy,
embracing some form of proportional representation, which can allow specific
altruistic interests to flourish. One can take the potency of the Green Party in
Germany as an example, with added muscle provided by solar champions such

17
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1.11 Global to national statistics on fossil as Hermann Scheer. He is the social scientist and economist who became a
fuel consumption and CO2 emissions member of the German Bundestag in 1980. Even though his manifesto
explaining ‘the need for a total solar energy supply … and how to achieve it’
1.11(1) Brenda and Robert Vale give approximate
values of 50 per cent for global consumption of fossil may have had little chance of implementation, he showed that it is theoretically
fuel related to ‘the servicing of buildings’. They also possible (Scheer, 1994, pp75–104).
point out that, since CO2 constitutes roughly half of The other political condition, which favours progressive regulation as a
the total greenhouse gases, one quarter of the total means to allow solar markets to flourish, is that of relatively high progressive
is ‘under the control of the designers or inhabitants taxation. The low taxation, ‘let market forces rule’ culture of countries such as
of buildings’. Five years later, Peter Smith again the UK has inhibited progress over several decades. Other fiscal incentives, as
quotes the 50 per cent value for all carbon emissions opposed to barriers, are also required. Despite a strong, architect-led campaign
‘attributable to buildings in one form or another’, and against Value Added Tax (VAT) on building materials for refurbished properties,
adds a further probable 20 per cent to take account
this tax remains a major disincentive for brown-field regeneration. Susannah
of transport ‘directly generated by buildings’.
Hagan refers to ‘the ideological battle between environmentalism and
1.11(2) Bell, Lowe and Roberts quote an official consumerism’ (Hagan, 2001). Put another way, this could be seen as the
1992 Department of Trade and Industry figure of just opposition between regulation and deregulation, ironically both perceived as
less than 30 per cent of CO2 emissions from housing progressive by respective advocates. Hagan points out that perception is all.
in the UK. Pursuing this theme in the context of priming solar architecture in cool climates,
1.11(3) Macalister reports that the CO2 emissions the interventionist policies with regard to solar energy by the Danes and the
of the Texan oil firm, Exxon Mobil, are more than 60 Dutch are undoubtedly perceived positively as progressively innovative by at
per cent higher than those of British BP, when its least the politicians who introduced them. On the other hand, the politically
production is less than 16 per cent higher. Exxon opposed parties or party within the same government, as well as different
produced 4.4 million barrels in 2003 and BP 3.8 governments, which are more driven by consumerist neo-liberalism, would view
million. BP’s estimated annual output of greenhouse the same policies as regressive. Not only that; each side is likely to claim its
gases is 83.3 million tonnes compared with Exxon’s
position as ‘sustainable’, confirming that the term is politically ambiguous – one
figure of 135.6, which is more than twice Norway’s
may assume deliberately so since a key product of governing is law, and
output of CO2. A consultancy in Colorado believes
lawyers thrive on ambiguity. In terms of the potency of architecture within the
that Exxon’s output is far greater than 60 per cent
above this figure once power to run its petrol stations
‘sustainability’ debate, Hagan suggests that the influence of exemplars far
and tankers is taken into account. Its estimate is 379 exceeds their literal contribution.
million tonnes. However, exemplars must grapple with the hard economics of payback as
well as with the aesthetics that the architectural community find acceptably free
1.11(4) From a survey of 5000MW of installed
of constraint. Here the principles of added value and multi-functionality become
geothermal capacity, the average emission of CO2
relevant and merit discussion.
per kWh was found to be 65 grams. This is one
seventh of that for gas, one fourteenth of that for oil
and one sixteenth of that for coal.

18
NORTH SUN CONTEXT

REFERENCES

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Bartholomew, D. M. L. (1985) ‘Possibilities for passive solar house design in

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Bell, M. M., Lowe, R. and Roberts, P. (1996) ‘Energy, climate change and
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Aldershot, UK, p17.

Bosselaar, L. (2001) ‘Solar heating is a major source of renewable energy’, in

van der Leun, K. and van der Ree, B (eds), North Sun 2001: A Solar Odyssey,
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May), Ecofys, Leiden, the Netherlands.

Boyce, R. (1993) ‘Development of a Passive Solar House’, in Keck and Keck,

Princeton Architectural Press, New York, pp78–79.

Carpenter, A. M. (1992) ‘Canadian solar energy research and development

activities’, in Andresen and Hestnes (1992), pp31–33.

Dalenback, J.-O. (2002) ‘Solar thermal market in Europe – integration’, from

notes of verbal presentation at Eurosun 2002: The 4th ISES Europe Solar
Congress, 23–26 June, Bologna, Italy.

Danish Technological Institute (1994) villaVISION. World Pictures, Danish

Technological Institute, Taastrup, Denmark.

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The Solar Energy Committee, Renewable Energy Information Centre, Danish
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Duffie, J. A., Beckman, W. A. and Dekker, J. E. (1977) ‘Solar heating in North

America’, Mechanical Engineering, November, pp36–45.

Gregory, R. (2004) ‘Merritt distinction’, The Architectural Review, Oct. 2004,

vol CCXVI, no 1292, pp76–79.

Hagan, S. (2001) ‘Introduction’, in Taking Shape: A New Contract between

Architecture and Nature, Architectural Press, Oxford, UK, ppx–xix.

Hildon, A. and Seager, A. (1989) ‘Introduction’, in International Energy Agency

Task XI, Passive and Hybrid Solar Commercial Buildings, The New and
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Harwell, UK, ppx–xvii.

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Jacobs, H. with Jacobs K. (1978) ‘From cellar to solar’, in Building with Frank
Lloyd Wright: An Illustrated Memoir, Chronicle Books, San Francisco, p121.

Lacy, R. E. (1977) ‘The effects of climate on the design of buildings’, in Climate

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HMSO, London.

Lottner, V. (1992) ‘Solar Energy Programme of Germany’, in Andresen and

Hestnes (1992), pp24–25.

Lund, P. (1992) ‘Solar Energy Activities in Finland’, in Andresen and Hestnes

(1992), p23.

Luther, J. (2002) ‘Solar research and development – roads to a stronger

market’, from notes of verbal presentation at Eurosun 2002: The 4th ISES
Europe Solar Congress, 23–26 June, Bologna, Italy.

Macalister, T. (2004) ‘Exxon admits greenhouse gas increase’, The Guardian,

London, 7 October, p21.

MacGregor, A. W. K. (1981) ‘A comparison of the climatic suitability of various

locations in the European Community for solar space heating’, in World Solar
Forum, proceedings of conference, UK Section of the International Solar
Energy Society, Brighton, UK, August, pp1852–1857.

MacGregor, A. W. K. (1987) ‘Is north really best for solar heating of buildings?’
in Bloss, W. H. and Pfisterer, F. (eds) Advances in Solar Energy Technology,
proceedings of conference (Biennial Congress of the International Solar Energy
Society, Hamburg, Germany, 13–18 September), Pergamon Press, vol 4,
pp3395–3398.

MacGregor, A. W. K. and Balmbro, D. (1984) ‘Where are the best places in

Scotland for solar space heating?’ in MacGregor, K. (ed), North Sun 84, Solar
Energy at High Latitudes, proceedings of conference (4–6 September),
Scottish Solar Energy Group, Edinburgh, UK, p76.

MacGregor, A. W. K. and Porteous, C. (eds) (1994) North Sun 94, Solar Energy
at High Latitudes, 6th Biennial International Conference, proceedings of
conference (7–9 September, Glasgow, Scotland), James & James (Science
Publishers) Ltd., London, UK.

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NORTH SUN CONTEXT

Markus, T. A. (1984) ‘Development of a Cold Climate Severity Index’, Energy

and Buildings, no 4, August, pp277–283.

Newton, M. (1983) ‘Design study for 3B4P public sector house with attached
sunspace’ in Design Methods for Passive Solar Buildings, proceedings of
conference (7 October), UK-ISES, pp6:48–6:58.

Olseth, J. A. and Skartveit, A. (1986) ‘The solar radiation climate of Norway’,

Solar Energy, vol 37, pp423–428.

Oppenheim, D. (1981) ‘Climate’, in Small Solar Buildings in Cold Northern

Climates, Architectural Press, London, pp6–7.

Page, J. and Lebens R. (1986) Climate in the United Kingdom: A Handbook of

Solar Radiation, Temperature and Other Data for Thirteen Principal Cities and
Towns (for the Energy Technology Support Unit, Harwell), HMSO, London,
pp162, 171, 208, 217.

Porteous, C. D. A. (1990) ‘Performance Characteristics of Solar Buffer Zones

for Scottish Housing’, PhD thesis, Department of Architecture and Building
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Porteous, C. D. A. (1992) ‘Scottish Solar Position 1992’, in Andresen and

Hestnes (1992), pp26–28.

Rantil, M. (1994) ‘Solar energy activities in Sweden’, in MacGregor and

Porteous (1994), pp447–452.

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Sun at Work in Europe, vol 3, no 5, pp14–15.

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Røstvik, H. N. (1992b) ‘Solar Energy on the International agenda at the Rio

Earth Summit?’, Sun at Work in Europe, vol 7, no 2, pp18–19.

Salvesen, F. (1992) ‘Norwegian Solar Energy Program’, in Andresen and

Hestnes (1992), pp15–18.

Scheer, H. (1994) A Solar Manifesto: The Need for a Total Solar Energy Supply…
and How to Achieve It, James & James (Science Publishers) Ltd., London.

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Smith, P. F. (1996) Options for a Flexible Planet: The Evidence, the Policies
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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Smith, P. F. (2003) ‘Geothermal Energy’, in Sustainability at the Cutting Edge:

Emerging Technologies for Low Energy Buildings, Architectural Press, Oxford,
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Stephens, M. (1983) ‘Passive solar house design study for an “upmarket” private
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Quartet Books, London, pp520–522.

22
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

Chapter 2 Multiple and Added Solar Value

This chapter deals with alternative approaches to maximizing opportunities for 2.1 Passive solar gain: basic definition and
stimulating solar architecture. Windows intrinsically imply multiple and added critical angle for sunbeam
solar value, but they can simultaneously present problems. They provide daylight,
2.1(1) The term passive signifies a system where the
which can and should displace electrical lighting. However, realizing this benefit is constructional design and form of the building itself,
not nearly as easy as it sounds. They can provide the means to capture useful as opposed to its servicing, is mainly responsible for
solar heat, although orientation is naturally significant and they can lose more the capture, storage and distribution of solar energy,
heat than they gain. They can also provide the means to limit solar overheating normally with the aim of displacing other fuels for
and glare. This aspect may be dealt with passively 2.1(1) by the tilt and space heating.
orientation of the glass relative to solar geometry, bearing in mind that transmission
2.1(2) The angle of incidence is the angle between
of solar radiation falls off rapidly once the angle of incidence 2.1(2) exceeds fifty a line normal to the surface of the glass and the
degrees. It can also be tackled by the physics of the glass itself, or by a discrete direction of the beam of sunlight.
screening or shading device – blinds, awnings, louvres etc. Glazing technology to
tackle these conflicting characteristics became increasingly sophisticated during
the 20th century, and the quest to improve on current technology and to bring it
further into the marketplace continues apace.
It is perhaps interesting to remember that there was a patent application in
1891 by a physician, William van der Heyden, for a thermo-chromatic glazing
sandwich. In the context of trying to secure healthier and more comfortable
Japanese dwellings, van der Heyden proposed that a chemical solution be
encapsulated between two layers of glass. The solution remained transparent in
cool weather, thus allowing transmission of useful solar heat and light, but it
became translucent in hot weather, hence avoiding overheating, while still
allowing adequate transmission of daylight. More than a hundred years later,
advanced glazing technology is still very much concerned with producing
products that will improve energy efficiency and environmental comfort, but
their share of the market remains disappointing. It is a commercial reality that
the running costs for energy are a relatively small percentage of overheads in all
non-domestic buildings and the capital cost of energy-efficient glazing has
always been an issue, especially for the housing market.
Also, one has to bear in mind that other benefits of windows are not
dependent on energy-efficiency. A single glazed window offers the same
advantage of viewing the outside world, psychologically connecting and

23
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

reducing isolation in a living or working situation. Indeed, increasing

transparency, a health hallmark of the modern movement in the early part of the
20th century, has had a significant resurgence in the last decade or so. This may
be partly attributable to technical advances, such as those flagged above, and
also to frameless and structural fenestration. But it is above all rooted in
aesthetics, whether or not further justified as denoting or promoting well-being,
political openness and so forth.
Similarly, the opportunity for free natural ventilation is not dependent on
2.1a Rooftop of the Joan Miro gallery in Barcelona glazing cost or sophistication, although single glazing is likely to introduce
condensation, as well as discomfort from downdraughts and radiation loss to
the cold surface in winter. Natural ventilation reinforces sensory contact with the
environment, but in certain situations this may be problematic. For example,
noise from traffic may cause undue disturbance within a building, and opening
windows in windy conditions may be impracticable unless the capability of fine-
tuning control is built into the design. Passive solutions to such dilemmas
include an outer layer of fixed glass, constituting a shield against ambient noise
and wind, in conjunction with an inner thermal layer with opening capability. The
gap between the two layers, whether continuous or interrupted at each floor
2.1b Rooftop sculpture court of gallery in Århus level, also requires the means for controlling the passage of air in and out, and
may well include a layer for adjustably controlling solar heat and light. However,
there are potential pitfalls to such systems, including loss of daylight, and a
recent Scottish case study, where the basic principles have not been observed,
is included in Chapter 6. A theoretical study for a double façade with a multiple
environmental agenda will also be introduced later in this chapter.
Another take on windows is that, although we are used to their diverse
attributes, including that of dissolving barriers between the inside and outside
of buildings, we are also used to a specific emphasis for specific building types.
We do not necessarily expect a view out from an art gallery. However, in such
cases, although the main emphasis may be on maximizing the opportunities for
daylight, with ‘windows’ not even visible from within the gallery, there may still
be dual or triple purposefulness. For example, the diffuse glazing elements of
the Joan Miro gallery in Barcelona by architect Josep Lluis Sert form part of the
enclosing landscape of the rooftop sculpture terrace (Figure 2.1a). Similarly, the
various glazing lanterns of the 2003 underground extension to the modern art
gallery (Kuntsbygning) in Århus by architect Mads Møller contribute essentially
to the sculpture court above it. This, in turn, is an outdoor visual complement to
Møller’s addition of one decade earlier (Figure 2.1b). Not only that; opening
lights on the glazed projections provide natural ventilation to the new basement.
Another notable art museum where contact with the external landscape occurs
periodically as one circulates inside, perhaps, surprisingly, along with delightful
splashes of sunlight, is again Danish, that in Ålborg by Elissa and Alvar Aalto
with Jean Jacques Baruël, (Figure 2.1c).

24
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

The passive effectiveness of the two Danish galleries, together with

curatorial influences, will be discussed more fully in Chapter 5 together with
other galleries and building types where there is an interplay between daylight,
sunlight and ventilation. It suffices to say at this stage that windows can provide
multiple values to which solar energy contributes. However, we still have to
resolve certain conflicts of environmental interest. These are likely to be different
for every building’s function and every facet of its external surface, as well as
different for each specific climatic and morphological context from dense urban
situations to open rural ones. What will not change, however, is the axiom that
all windows, including those associated with glazed spaces which buffer the
main heated or cooled accommodation, are of necessity building-integrated,
while for other solar components this is not necessarily the case.
Although the integrative scenario has accumulated currency across the solar
sector in the last two decades, most recently relative to the push for building
integrated photovoltaic arrays (BIPV), there is still a case to be made for isolating
solar components from the building or buildings they serve. This does not
necessarily mean total visual and architectural isolation, but rather liberation from
full tectonic integration, for example as a roof covering. The merits and handicaps
of these two approaches are best discussed through built case studies.
2.1c Nordjyllands Kuntsmuseum in Ålborg
The case for integration
Following from the introductory setting out of ground rules, it is apparent that
such a case may be broken down into systems or components for which it is not
possible to dissociate from the immediate building design, and others where a
choice exists. One might imagine that the former category is not worth
discussing. Such an argument might even assert that form will follow function.
In other words, if passive solar gain to displace winter heating is the primary
aim, then solar geometry will dictate the area, tilt and orientation of glazing in
order to maximize collection. However, the potential variables in engaging
building geometry with solar geometry to produce viable solar buildings are
subtly manifest, as will be seen below. In any case, the extent to which this is
formally expressed inevitably becomes an issue for the architect. In some
buildings the capture and storage of solar energy is deliberately given aesthetic
prominence, while in others it is equally consciously suppressed.

flat-plate solar thermal collectors

A common solar component, where a frequently tricky visual choice exists with
regard to integration, is the active 2.2(1) flat-plate collector. As the workhorse
of active solar technology, its basic characteristics are worth summarizing in
order to preface a case study that uses it.
It normally consists of a high conductivity metal plate, finished with a highly
absorptive black surface, which is exposed to solar radiation, enclosed in a box

25
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

2.2 Flat-plate collectors: specification or casing with a transparent front and an insulating back. The plate has water
options passages built into it through which a heat transfer fluid, either water or a
water–antifreeze mixture 2.2(2), is circulated by means of a pump or by natural
2.2(1) The term active signifies a system that is
largely reliant on mechanical help and/or plumbing or thermo-syphonic action. 2.2(3) The collector is normally mounted in a fixed
other servicing systems in order to store and deliver position on a roof surface or on the ground. Tracking collectors (ie moving to
captured solar energy to displace other fuels for stay at right angles to the sunbeam over a daily cycle) have been used, but the
space or water heating. extra complexity and cost is usually not considered worthwhile. The surface of
the absorber plate can be either selective or non-selective, the former providing
2.2(2) In cold climates most flat-plate collectors
optimum performance. 2.2(4) The transparent front to the collector can be
use a water–antifreeze mix for heat transfer to avoid
freezing damage. This means that a heat exchanger made of either glass or plastic. 2.2(5) An important feature of all flat-plate
(with consequent performance penalties) must be collectors is that they are most efficient at low operating temperatures. This is
used to transfer heat to the fresh water tank. Other because their loss of heat becomes less as the temperature of the absorber
methods of freeze protection include ‘drain-back’ plate falls. Thus a collector is more effective relative to a system with a low
or ‘drain-down’, where the water in the collector temperature demand, such as a swimming pool, than one with a high demand,
drains away when the pump stops (popular in the such as an industrial process.
Netherlands), and auxiliary heating, where heat is To give an idea of the performance of flat-plate collectors, most collection
injected when freezing is likely (wasteful in climates efficiencies are in the range 40–60 per cent. Thus in the UK, with annual incident
where freezing is common). An ingenious UK
solar irradiation of about 1000kWh/m2, the delivered heat over a year should be
invention uses a solar collector that is inherently
approximately 400–600kWh/m2. It may be noted that such values are presently
‘freeze-tolerant’ (not damaged by freezing) so that
some three times better than for PV cells. It follows that solar heating is more
fresh water can be heated directly in the collector,
cost-effective than solar electricity.
and is allowed to freeze. (see www.solartwin.com)
Many flat-plate collectors are retrofitted on top of an existing roof surface,
2.2(3) The rate of pumping the heat transfer fluid with fixings through slates or tiles to the structure below, and sealed with
through a collector has traditionally been quite
silicone. For new-build the opportunity exists to fully integrate the collectors
high, giving a temperature lift of 5–10K for each
with the roof. This can be done using commercial collectors. Alternatively it is
pass, and having multiple passes. However, recent
relatively easy, and much cheaper, to build the collectors on site. Sweden and
research (Furbo and Knudsen, 2000) has shown a
performance advantage in having much lower flow
Denmark in particular have pioneered techniques for building very large-scale
rates (‘microflow’) and aiming to achieve temperature collectors on rooftops or on the ground. Clearly the latter locus tends to lie in the
stratification in the storage tank. A central heating category of isolation as opposed to integration, while the former implies a visual
50W centrifugal type of pump is usual, its operation challenge for architects.
controlled by a ‘differential temperature’ thermostat,
which switches it on only when the absorber is active experiment – matching supply to demand
hotter than the heat storage tank. An interesting One example of explicit and integrated flat-plate solar advertisement is the
alternative method is to use a small PV cell to directly small house of 100m2 designed by architect Bart Jan van den Brink and built in
drive a small direct current (DC) pump (Grassie and
1988 as one of seventeen experimental (and intended to be temporary)
MacGregor, 1999). This has advantages in that no
dwellings. This was organized as the first phase of the ‘Fantasy’ competition on
mains power is used or needed and the pump has a
the outskirts of Almere, one of the new polder towns in the Netherlands within
variable speed, depending on solar irradiance. With
careful matching of components, it is possible to get a
easy commuting distance of Amsterdam. The van den Brink dwelling is
near constant delivery temperature to the storage tank. conceived boldly, stretching the technology of building-integrated active solar
collection. In particular it attempts to tackle the seasonal mismatch between
2.2(4) A non-selective black surface absorbs
supply and demand – the greatest amount of solar irradiation naturally occurring
shortwave solar radiation well, but it also radiates
in summer. The concept is therefore to provide a suitable area of flat-plate
long wave or infrared heat outwards. A selective

26
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

collector to charge an adequate seasonal store of water to meet most of the surface absorbs a much higher proportion of solar
thermal load – both space-heating and hot water – of a single small home from radiation, but emits and absorbs in long wave poorly,
autumn through to spring. In his scenario, it is accepted that the topping up of further enhancing the performance. A selective
solar heat in autumn, winter and spring, albeit the lowest amount of top-up surface should yield 10–15 per cent more than a
non-selective one.
coinciding with the highest demand, remains essential to the overall viability.
The 70m2 collector is tilted at 45° to form the waterproof and insulated 2.2(5) Plastics used include polycarbonate, acrylic
cover of a combined wall-roof on the south facing edge (Figure 2.2a). The cost and polyester. In the last case, if twin skinned (as
of what would otherwise have been required for this part of the external in a collector made in the Highlands of Scotland by
envelope thus offsets the cost of the collector and its associated plumbing. In AES Ltd.) the outer skin may be a material called
Tedlar and the inner one Teflon. Tedlar is more robust
order to achieve an orientation directly to the south, the axis of the house lies
and ultra-violet resistant than Teflon. Justification
diagonally across the rectilinear plot. The tilt is actually close to the optimum for
for more than one glazing sheet depends partly on
maximum average annual daily incident irradiation from the sun. While a lower
the temperature required – more so for domestic
pitch of say 30° would have increased the summer contribution by around 6 per
hot water than an under-floor space heating system.
cent, there were practical spatial constraints. The chosen pitch of 45° allows The primary purpose of the transparent cover is
useable internal space quite close up to the junction between floor and the to trap shortwave solar radiation. All transparent
sloping surface. The thermal store is a vertical cylinder with a 40,000 litre materials are relatively transparent to incoming
capacity, and this is located provocatively half inside and half outside the north- shortwave radiation, and opaque to outgoing long
facing façade (Figure 2.2b). It is provocative in part because it is a highly visible wave emissions. Thin membranes such as Tedlar
servicing element of the kind where the norm is to conceal, whether above or and Teflon have better shortwave transmission
below ground. It is also exposed to ambient weather for about two thirds of its characteristics than thicker plastics, such as
bounding surface and is therefore very reliant on its ‘jacket’ of insulation in polycarbonate, or glass.

terms of conserving its heat over long periods.

The Fantasy competition viewed all the dwellings as temporary, having
minimal impact on the site in terms of excavations for foundations and
restoration after demolition. This presented a particular challenge for a solar
house where a significant mass was an essential part of the strategy. Here the
problem of the blunt point load of the thermal store located at the northern
extremity of the plan was solved by means of a concrete raft, which projects
beyond the south, east and west edges as a water filled tray. This not only
functions as a counterweight to the thermal store, but also provides a reflective
surface to increase solar capture by the flat-plate collector. The slab also
increases thermal storage for any direct solar gain through east and west
fenestration, while the active or mechanical delivery of the heat stored in the
cylinder to the occupied spaces is by air.
The remainder of the north, east and west façades are fully glazed. This in
turn raises the issue of heat balance, particularly for the north-facing sections, but
the problem has been countered by the use of external folding shutters. These are
6.8m high and well insulated. Even so, structural rigidity is needed, and it is
perhaps surprising that the users seemed to be able to manhandle them without
too much difficulty. They could be drawn across the northeast and northwest
corners during very cold spells or at night, leaving the triangular east and west
facing glazed sections to rely solely on the specification of the triple-glazed units. 2.2a ‘Fantasy’ solar house in Almere: active flat-
plate collector doubles as a south-facing roof

27
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Although, with all shutters closed, the balance of glazing is more than adequate
for daylight at 36 per cent of the total ground and first floor area, the solar collector
does block out the opportunity for views to the south as well as direct solar gain
to the interior. In this particular case the south side also happens to be the most
private side. The access road lies to the northwest while there are other dwellings
quite close to the southwest and northeast. The same sacrifice of aspect for
opaque south-facing surface would occur for other indirect passive solar methods
such as thermal mass storage walls or solar air collectors.
In terms of performance, the architect subjected the design to thermal
modelling prior to construction. True to form, the predictions proved to be over-
optimistic and more will be said about performance and control issues in
2.2b ‘Fantasy’ solar house in Almere: seasonal
thermal store makes a statement on the succeeding chapters. It is enough to say at this stage that the store lost heat too
public side of the house rapidly and was not ideally matched to the collector. Significantly more auxiliary
heat than envisaged was required during winter, and the active system was
modified some ten years after it was first built. Nevertheless, it remains a valuable
pioneer. The thermal store could have been provided below the floor. This might
have involved a deeper raft and hidden one half of the iconic solar imagery, but it
would have been a significantly more thermally efficient solution, with much of the
thermal loss contributing usefully to the interior in winter and spring. Even though
it might be argued that it would also increase unwanted incidental gain to the
interior on a warm day in summer, overheating could have been readily avoided
by opening windows in all but the most exceptional weather. Then, the loss of
heat through the high north wall could have been addressed by eliminating the
glazing altogether, rather than by movable insulation.

passive exploitation of triangular section

Moving from a single experimental house to experimental housing, and still with
the triangle as a dominant sectional device, it is interesting to compare the solar
tactics of AARPLAN’s terrace in Zollikofen, a suburb to the northeast of Berne
in Switzerland. In this case a glazed south-facing façade is tilted at 60° from the
horizontal and forms the outer cover of a three-storey high, unheated sunspace,
which buffers all the heated accommodation. To ventilate the heated rooms it is
therefore necessary to open both inner and outer glazing, the latter operated
electrically. The fenestration is capped by a linear array of PV panels at a
somewhat shallower tilt. This complements the faceted, overlapping effect of
the upper opening hoppers, especially when open, as well as concealing the
depth of the roof (Figure 2.3a). Although structurally slim, there is some 20cm of
turf over 25cm of insulation. The rectangular hollow steel sections, which
support the outer glazing, also constitute essential ties to a steel catenary roof
structure, with vertical columns in compression just behind the inner glazed
screen. Moreover, the geometry of the section provides most space within the
sunspace at the lowest level where it is needed (for example, for relaxation,

28
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

drying clothes and growing food). Therefore, in this case, the overt solar
geometry is completely in tune with structural and other functional requirements
and the passive solar system does not inherently clash with views out and
connection with gardens.
The sunspace additionally serves as the entrance porch or storm lobby to
each house, so that in winter the sliding outer door can be closed before the
inner door to the heated interior is opened. Energy-efficiency in winter is
therefore addressed on at least five fronts: direct solar gain through both outer
and inner windows; indirect gain by means of a preheated supply of air from the
sunspace; the solar-enhanced thermal resistance of the sunspace; the sheltering
effect of the buffer space from wind and rain, (particularly since it doubles as the
entrance and dries clothes passively); and its structural and amenity value. The
scheme very much conforms to the title of this chapter.
There is also an ingenious method to avoid overheating in summer. Air is
supplied via an underground cellar, forming a cool buffer on the north side of the
accommodation and leaving via the high level glazed hoppers on the south side.
The outer glazing is also shaded by means of internal blinds. However, on
visiting this building during a hot and sunny afternoon in May, the visual effect
of so many blinds being down gave a closed appearance to the façade (Figure
2.3b). Therefore, although on the face of it there is no prohibition of prospect as
by the active collector in the case of the Dutch Fantasy house, one of the means
to avoid overheating does form a visual barrier. From the outside, the appearance
is predominantly opaque. Depending on viewpoint, lighting conditions and
precise specification of blind, they may be less so from inside. Overall, however,
transparency is undoubtedly interrupted during the very times when many
people would most want to dissipate the inside–outside distinction, and so may
be regarded as a negative consequence of the solar section.
A point about the evident solar character of this small suburban scheme is
that an enquiry at the local library, which consisted only of a ‘hand language’
version of the cross section, elicited an immediate response with full directions.
Also, although the project stood out visually as being very different from its more
traditional neighbours, the lay opinion of the librarian and one occupant who
happened to be at the desk seemed very positive.

formal issues and shed vernacular

In terms of its architectural form, the housing at Zollikofen represents a special
condition of a prototypical cross section. Essentially, it is a mono-pitch rising to
the south to maximize free solar gain and falling to the north to minimize 2.3 Solar terrace in Zollikofen, Berne:
a PV array visually echoes opening windows at
expensive thermal loss. In this case, the low curve and turf covering of the roof
top of façade
allows it to merge with natural ground level on the north side. This does slightly b blanked by blinds in warm weather
soften the impact of the east and west ends, but formally a question remains.
Could the bookends have not been stronger visual variants of the standard
single-aspect intermediate houses, receiving some additional benefit from east-

29
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

and west-facing windows respectively? Also, although the concave green

surface of the roof eliminates overshadowing to other dwellings located to the
north, as well as enhancing their privacy, it creates an awkward dilemma in
terms of the suburban landscape. The grass is not public space and
consequently is rather clumsily fenced off. It is also home not only to a series of
projecting roof-lights, which might be considered to carry some visual authority,
but also to ventilating terminals, which are awkwardly intrusive.
Reduced to a single dwelling on a flat site, and with a flat mono-pitch, the
AARPLAN version of the prototype is reminiscent of the 1980s house designed
for John Cash and his family at Garriston, about 20 miles north of Dublin in
Ireland (Figure 2.4). Interestingly, a non-architect member of the Scottish Solar
Energy Group who visited the Cash house in 1988 was fulsome in his praise:
‘The two-storey high, single-room deep, massively constructed house with its
towering cliff of south-facing glazing offers eloquent testimony to the belief that
uncompromizing passive solar design are wholly compatible – providing that
like John and his collaborators, such as architect Duncan Stewart, you have
faith in your idea and a sound grasp of the principles and of the technology
involved.’ (Talbot, 1988). The interesting question is whether many architects
would endorse such uncompromising passive solar design. A related question
is whether the multi-functionality of designs such as that at Zollikofen, including
the structural justification for the basic geometry, helps to dilute the radicalism
of the passive solar design, and consequently to make it more acceptable.

2.4 Passive solar house at Garriston, near Dublin

30
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

The simple mono-pitched form is also used by Canadian architect Brian

MacKay-Lyons in several of his houses in Nova Scotia. For example, the gently
sloping roof of the 1999 Howard house in West Pennant, close to Halifax, takes
the main living space up to a lofty 8.4m at its southern end (Figure 2.5). The
lower two thirds of this is glazed, and the fenestration wraps round east and
west facades by over 2m, providing a net total of about 40m2 of solar aperture,
which directly serves a floor area of 30m2. Muted yet explicit multi-functionality
relates here to the views towards the bay, as well as the architectural concept of
a slim wall at right angles to contours and coastline, which deliberately divides
the external maritime realm into three picturesque zones. The basic shape also
provides a low surface to volume ratio, which is appropriate to the climate in
Nova Scotia. Even in June the maximum ambient temperature can drop into
single figures, making this a valuable strategy for energy-efficiency. Where the
prismatic form is modified, there is also a complementary multifarious logic. The
concrete projection on the west façade that accommodates stairs and a
double-sided spine of bookshelves, the latter in turn absorbing the hearth, is
subtly straightforward in terms of its variable functionality. The reinforced
structural U-shape on plan constitutes an essential buttress to the prevailing
winds, which effortlessly absorbed the force of a major equinoctial hurricane in
2.5 Passive solar house at West Pennant, near
the autumn of 2003. But it also economically houses the vertical circulation and Halifax, Nova Scotia
leaves the narrow 3.6m width of the floor uninterrupted.
MacKay-Lyons draws analogies for this type of project to the vernacular
sheds of the province (MacKay-Lyons, 1995). In this regard he acknowledges its
multinational heritage, the early name of Acadia given by the 17th and 18th
century French settlers (expelled by New England planters in 1755), and he talks
of the vernacular as a ‘process or cultural view’. His expansion of this assertion is
imbued with his poetic and strongly rooted clarity, as well as underlying passion:

Also contributing to the pragmatic and spartan aesthetic of Nova Scotia sheds
is a strong cultural ethic.
This is a deeply democratic ethic which elevates simplicity to a moral idea
where modesty is considered a virtue,
while ostentation or the display of wealth are discouraged.
This is not hard to understand given the tragic, peasant background
of the Scots, Irish, Germans and Acadians that settled here.

Another shed, which plays a degree of ascetism against sophistication, is

that of the gymnasium for the Odenwaldeschule at Oberhambach in Germany
by architect Peter Hübner (Figures 2.6a–c). Located among the Odenwald hills,
roughly halfway between Stuttgart and Frankfurt, the site slopes down a full two
storeys across the width of the building to the west, with a sunspace taking
advantage of the height along this edge. Its triangular section, similar to that at
Zollikofen, accommodates both entrance and fitness equipment lobby. The tilt
of its glazing, at about 68°, is even steeper than at Zollikofen and the cross-

31
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

2.6 Gymnasium at Oberhambach, by Peter

Hübner
a schematics for different weather and
seasons displayed next to plant room
b ventilating slot looking west to triangular
sunspace
c flat-plate solar thermal collectors on south-
east façade

32
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

section suits its utilitarian purpose as well as forming an integral part of the
structure, this time as a buttress to resist the outward thrust of the low barrel-
vaulted roof. Another difference is that the roof beams cantilever downward well
beyond the sloping glass surface of the sunspace, with tilted louvres set
between them providing significant shading during the summer. In turn,
deciduous planting inside the sunspace augments cooling.
The net result is that the space is adequately self-shading in summer, and
so does not suffer from the defensiveness of Zollikofen with its blinds down.
This is important, since the space functions as a welcoming threshold to the
gymnasium. Moreover, unlike Zollikofen, with its concave roof, the convex
surface of the roof vault is visually dominant relative to the sunspace, and the
structural raison d’être of the buttressing seems more obvious than the
tensioning function of the equivalent structural member at Zollikofen. The
downward slope of the ground also adds to the anticipation of the steeply
upward tilted surface of glass. It is a transparent counterpoint to the ground,
clothing the supporting structure for the gentle vault which in turn is launched
from a low base forming the upper eastern edge to the building.
Still dealing with the passive syntax of Hübner’s building, there is a second
glazed component slicing across the curve of the roof. This also has more than
one function. Firstly, it is the means of exhausting stale air at a level higher than
the highest part of the roof, thus assisting natural thermal buoyancy. Secondly, it
houses a dividing screen, a giant folding blind which, when lowered, allows two
different sports activities to take place simultaneously. Whether up or down, this
screening device also performs the function of a solar absorber, so acting as an
accelerator for the passive exhaust system and making the feature triply
functional. Perhaps more importantly, it is another formal architectural statement,
which cleverly punctuates the flow from east to west across the site. The only
contentious aspect of this device is the decision to only open up the narrow ends
rather than having a continuous strip of opening windows at the highest level
along its flanks. The risk is that the relatively small area of opening windows, as
built, will not provide an adequate rate of exhaust for warm vitiated air.
Then this building has a third solar element: a series of flat-plate solar
collectors for preheating hot water, which step down the southern gable. These
are explicitly solar with no secondary function. The generous overhang of the
roof provides shading of the south facing glazing from steep summer sunlight.
The solar collectors are therefore only incidentally integrated, the lower part of
the south gable being a convenient place to mount them. Having said that, they
do contribute positively to the whole ensemble. The array enlivens the gable,
referring to the slope of the ground rather than slavishly following it.

33
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

multiple active–passive solar roofs

Returning to the domestic scale, traditional pitched roofs inevitably present
themselves as targets for highly visible arrays of solar collectors. The Van den
Brink house configured the roof as a wall and, by doing so, broke with traditional
norms. An experimental pair of dwellings where a shallower and extensive
mono-pitched roof is raised one floor above the ground, but encloses a further
two floors along the north edge, is the Energiebalanswoning or ‘energy balance
house’ in Amersfoort, the Netherlands. Designed by Architectenbureau Van
2.7 Multiple solar roof of Energiebalanswoning Straalen, Zeist & BOOM of Delft, it is one of the main living experiments in the
by Van Straalen, Zeist & BOOM Waterkwartier Nieuwland solar suburb, forming the northern extremity of a
rapidly expanding Amersfoort at the time of a visit in 2003. The relatively low
mono-pitch of about 21.5° accommodates a mix of translucent and opaque PV
panels, generating electricity, flat-plate collectors preheating hot water, and
transparent windows, allowing direct solar gain and natural ventilation
(‘translucent’ here referring to a glazing sandwich containing PV cells, spaced
out to leave a proportion of the roof completely transparent). Sections of the
roof landscape are also treated as voids. Each dwelling has a small patio
recessed below roof level on the first floor, while fixed louvres on the plane of the
roof protect the south-facing windows to ground and first floors.
In this case, the rational solar-collecting language appears direct and
authoritative, all the more so because all collectors are fully integrated as a
principal part of the waterproof skin of the building (Figure 2.7). However, there
is a functional flaw. Not only is the pitch rather low for effective self-cleansing,
dirt accumulates behind the raised horizontal framing separating PV panels
and this will have a negative effect on performance. Indeed, if any of the cells
in a particular PV ‘string’ or circuit are obscured, the entire string can be
knocked out.
The other aspect to PV as waterproof skin is that, similarly to any sheet
material with a high resistance to water vapour, a ventilated air space is required
below it in order to limit risk of interstitial condensation. The more the air moves,
the closer its temperature and vapour pressure will come to the ambient
conditions and hence the less the chance of condensation occurring within the
cavity. In the case of PV, this has an added advantage. The flow of air will help
to remove heat from the underside of the cells, thus helping to keep the
efficiency of their generation of electricity as high as possible. This raises the
possibility of using the air below the cells as a preheated supply in winter,
bearing in mind that this technique would also recycle heat already lost by
conduction from the interior. However, in this case, the decision was made not
to do this.
Not too far to the south, in the small EVA Lanxmeer eco-village located next
to the railway station of Culemborg, there is another attempt to integrate PV, flat-
plate collectors and roof windows (Figure 2.8a). The roof pitch is steeper in this

34
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

2.8 EVA Lanxmeer eco-village at Culemborg

a integrated solar roof of terrace on the north
side of access road
b private side of solar terrace to the south of
access road – solar array not visible

case, but the thrust of integration seems very similar to that of Energiebalanswoning.
However, the detail of a strip of profiled pantiles above the party walls, together
with similarly profiled ridge tiles, somehow grates relative to the solar arrays.
Either the latter’s smooth surfaces seem to intrude on textured traditionalism, or
vice versa. This may seem like aesthetic nit-picking, especially since the dwellings
are designed by carefully selected architects – in this case Peter van der Cammen
of Orta Nova, Amersfoort. But most architects are like that. They are hyper-critical
of the work of their own peer group, and if we are to significantly increase the
uptake of solar technology, architects must be reassured that they can remain
fully in charge of every detail.
It is evident from these two examples that such aesthetic nuances are
prepared to forego optimum performance based on orientation and tilt. The
terrace in Culemborg shown here contains the same active solar ingredients as
that of the Energiebalanswoning in Amersfoort, but the respective pitches are
very different. Diagonally across from the Orta Nova terrace in EVA Lanxmeer
there is another terrace by Joachim Eble, well known for his ecologically-
sensitive oeuvre. In this case, the cross section rises up somewhat east of north
to the road to gain a third floor. An active solar array is located along that highest
edge with what appears to be an appropriate tilt and facing slightly west of
south. This means that it cannot be seen from the street or from close in to the
dwelling on the private side (Figure 2.8b).

35
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

solar retrofit – collection isolated from storage

Sometimes, especially with retrofit projects, the architect has very little choice.
For example, staying in the Netherlands, a listed swimming pool in Gouda,
which was the Dutch ‘solar city’ in 1995, had its original roof glazing replaced
with solar air collectors (Figure 2.9). These faced east and west, with a medium
pitch, somewhere between the Amersfoort and Culemborg examples. One array
preheated the pool itself, while the other did the same for the air handling
system. In terms of having a function other than collecting solar energy, rather
2.9 Detail of roof of swimming pool in Gouda – unusually in this case, their very presence was used to facilitate the absence of
solar collector replacing former glazing any significant aesthetic alteration to the building. The solar collectors are
effective – the new array provides over 400kWh/m2 annually, totalling
approximately 40,000kWh to heat the pool itself and 30,000kWh to heat the air
around it – but do not appear very different from the former skylights, while the
original pantiles are still the appropriately dominant texture. Moreover, even
though the original overhead skylights had gone, windows in each gable were
still able to provide adequate amounts of daylight.
Another project with a roof-integrated solar air collector is the 1986 retrofit
of a 1950s housing block in Göteborg in Sweden by architects Christer and
Kirsten Nordström. Here the complete south-facing roof surface has been
replaced with an air collector, which then delivers the heat to externally insulated
walls via a serpentine system of cavities. These are achieved by spacing out a
new brick skin, lined internally with 80mm mineral wool from the original ‘no-
fines’ (a form of concrete with no fine aggregate and consequently with air
voids) solid concrete wall. Thus both roof and wall have a new solar function.
That in the wall is invisible and, because the collector covers the entire roof and
the interval of glazing supports from ridge to eaves sets up a rhythm not
dissimilar to a Scandinavian copper or zinc roof, the system barely declares
itself as solar. Indeed, the new greenhouse at ground level, installed more as a
social engineering exercise than to improve energy efficiency, gives a stronger
solar signal (Figure 2.10a). However, vertical solar air collectors, also by the
Nordströms, on new-build housing in another suburban district of Göteborg are
more contentious (Figure 2.10b). They occupy a large proportion of the main
façade, facing on to the street, and although this may work well in terms of
privacy they do appear to compete with normal windows. The two projects also
raise a functional question as to whether a low south-facing pitch of around 30°
is better or worse for space-heating than a vertical wall. The answer is quite
complex. It is dependent partly on the local climate and partly on the general
level of energy efficiency. The latter aspect, mainly driven by quantity of
insulation, dictates the months when heating is required and so defines the
solar geometry for these months.

36
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

2.10 Two projects in Göteborg

a solar retrofit of 1950s housing block – roof
collector does not compete with windows
b new-build solar housing – wall collector
competes with windows for share of façade

scope for geometric diversity

Staying with the issue of orientation and tilt of solar collectors, the situation is
naturally different when the emphasis is on domestic hot water or electricity.
The steeply pitched example in Culemborg is not ideal for the two domestic hot
water (DHW) collectors located above the two roof windows. In order to
maximize solar preheat over a year, it makes sense to prioritize collection in
summer. If the collector had been targeting space heating, then a steeper pitch
would be appropriate. Also for PV, it makes sense to collect as much as possible
during summer, especially when the system is grid-connected. A general rule in
Northern Europe is for a pitch of some 20° below that of the latitude angle
(Thomas and Fordham, 2001). On this basis, the lower pitch of the two
experimental dwellings in Amersfoort can again be expected to outperform the
Orta Nova terrace at Culemborg.
Having made this point, the annual differences for a south-facing roof are
relatively minor. 2.3(1) However, as the orientation moves away from south, the
use of steeper tilts becomes progressively more critical for annual performance,
as shown in Table 2.1 below.

Table 2.1 Mean Annual Incident Solar Irradiation Predicted for Glasgow (kWh/m2)
30° 45° 60° 90° tilt
South 987 975 919 701
SE/SW 944 923 863 664
E/W 836 786 720 548

Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, p171

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

2.3 Solar geometry – supplementary notes Table 2.2 indicates that a similar pattern emerges if the collecting season
(refer also to Tables 2.1–2.6) disregards October to February. It should be noted that the omission of these
five months has a greater impact the closer to south the orientation is, as shown
2.3(1) Incident solar radiation on a 60° pitch in
Glasgow is 7 per cent less than on a 30° pitch over below in Table 2.3; and also, once the orientation has drifted by as much as 90°,
a complete year. Then a 30° pitch, facing due east or the effect of tilt is less important. These data also confirm that the relatively low
west, compared with one facing due south, collects pitch of around 30° is quite favourable for active systems.
about 15 per cent less, with a further 14 per cent
loss if the east–west pitch increases to 60°. Table 2.2 Mean Incident Solar Irradiation Predicted for Glasgow from March–September
2.3(2) A 30-year mean at Glasgow Airport (Plant,
(kWh/m2)
1967) gives 3.44°C for November compared 30° 45° 60° 90° tilt
with 3.78°C for April; while the same means for
South 821 794 732 529
Edinburgh Airport (Plant, 1968) are even closer at
2.94°C and 3.06°C respectively.
SE/SW 795 765 704 524
E/W 724 678 618 467
2.3(3) At Glasgow’s latitude of 56°N, the mid-April
maximum solar altitude (at solar noon) is 44°, while Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, p171
in mid-November it is just less than 15°. The length
of the day also increases by 50 per cent from eight
hours in mid-November to twelve hours in mid-April. Table 2.3 Percentage Reduction in Mean Incident Solar Irradiation for Glasgow:
Annual (Table 2.1) compared to March–September (Table 2.2)
2.3(4) Table 2.4 shows that there is a 4 per cent
increase in incident solar irradiation from a 30° to
30° 45° 60° 90° tilt
a 45° south-facing tilt, dropping slightly to 3 per South 16.8 18.6 20.3 24.5
cent as the pitch increases to 60°. When we move SE/SW 15.8 17.1 18.4 21.1
from 30° to a vertical south-facing surface, there is
E/W 13.4 13.7 14.2 14.8
now more a significant fall in availability of 13.5 per
cent. For surfaces facing due east or west, vertical Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, p171
surfaces now receive 30 per cent less than for 30°,
which is best for this orientation, but 27 per cent less
Returning to the low-pitched roof versus vertical wall for solar space heating in
than for the due south 45° equivalent.
Göteborg, we have a latitude and climate that is quite similar to that of Glasgow.
2.3(5) It is estimated that the range of transmitted When the emphasis shifts to heating in winter, say from November to April, the
solar heat gain would be approximately 100kWh/m2 expectation arising from a seasonal perception of sunlight is for steeper pitches
at east- and west-facing extremities, 150kWh/m2 to become much more relevant. Hence one might anticipate that the collector
for southeast- and southwest-facing, and up to
on the wall is best, since it would be at a more favourable angle in relation to a
175kWh/m2 on the south-facing centre line.
sunbeam than a low-pitched roof. However, the picture is not as clear-cut as
one might imagine. A November–April heating season provides rough symmetry
in terms of external air temperature for most ‘cool climate’ locations. 2.3(2) On
the other hand there is a large amount of asymmetry when it comes to solar
geometry. 2.3(3)
Thus, although in Glasgow there is a slight increase in incident solar irradiation
from low to medium south-facing tilts, when we move up to the vertical south-
facing surface, there is a significant fall in availability. Then, as we move away
from south to southeast or southwest, the vertical surface becomes nearly one
fifth less than a low pitch, while a medium pitch remains optimal, even though it is
less than for due south. Finally, addressing surfaces facing due east or west,

38
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

vertical surfaces now receive substantially less than for a low pitch, which is best
for this orientation. 2.3(4) Table 2.4 summarizes this situation.

Table 2.4 Mean Incident Solar Irradiation Predicted for Glasgow from November–April
(kWh/m2)
30° 45° 60° 90° tilt
South 304 317 313 263
SE/SW 283 288 279 230
E/W 231 221 205 160

Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, p171

Such vital statistics are difficult to assimilate at a glance, but they do start to
make sense of some of the varying geometries described for the buildings
above. For example, the combination of direct gain through low-pitched roof-
lights and vertical windows in the Energiebalanswoning appears quite logical.
So also does the 60° tilt at Zollikofen and a relatively similar steep tilt for direct
gain in the Orta Nova example at Culemborg.
There is one further note of caution, however. In cloudless conditions, when
the angle between a sunbeam and a line normal to a glazed surface (the angle
of incidence) exceeds 50°, there is a rapid decrease in transmitted solar heat.
This would certainly apply to the 21.5° roof windows of the Energiebalanswoning
throughout the day in November, and for parts of the day in other months.
Having said that, much of the radiation during winter in temperate or ‘cool
winter’ climates is diffuse or directionless. Overall, solar irradiation, which has
been predicted to be transmitted through south facing double-glazing in
Glasgow (Page and Lebens, 1986), keeps the same ranking for the various tilts
as for incident irradiation, with vertical windows again receiving about 13.5 per
cent less than that transmitted through roof windows with a 30° tilt (Table 2.5).
On the other hand, as one moves away from due south orientation, the loss of
transmitted irradiation due to high angles of incidence has a greater impact. The
percentage reduction, comparing incident energy and that transmitted, is at or
just below one third for the due south orientation, increasing a little for southeast
and southwest, but quite significantly for due east and west (Table 2.6).

Table 2.5 Mean Solar Irradiation Predicted to be Transmitted Through Double-glazing for
Glasgow from November–April (kWh/m2)
30° 45° 60° 90° tilt
South 202 214 213 175
SE/SW 185 191 186 150
E/W 146 141 132 100

Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, p171

39
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Table 2.6 Percentage Reduction in Mean Solar Irradiation for Glasgow:

Incident Compared to Through Double-glazing
30° 45° 60° 90° tilt
South 33.6 32.5 31.9 33.5 %
SE/SW 34.6 33.7 33.3 34.8
E/W 36.8 36.2 35.6 37.5
Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, p171

This information simply reflects the asymmetrical solar geometry relative to the
demand for heat. In particular, the solar angles in March and April make a more
favourable impact on tilted surfaces as the orientation veers away from due
south. This does not mean to say that architects should avoid vertical east- and
west-facing windows. It suggests rather that, where opportunities occur, tilted
glazing should also have a passive solar role in winter, even at relatively low
angles. Alternatively, if tilted glazing is not an option, then east or west vertical
glazed area could increase by 75 per cent to bring it up to the same level as
2.11 Southern façade of Scottish dementia unit vertical south glazing, or roughly double to compete with optimum south-facing
tilts. Such increases would require to be complemented by an appropriately
high specification for the glazing and its frame in order to minimize conducted
thermal loss. The aim must be to achieve a net gain over the heating season.
The strategy of the case studies used so far in this section has tended to be
driven by the north–south cross section. But it is evident that the plan and
east–west sections can also play a crucial part in terms of multiple and added
solar value.
Mention was made earlier of the ‘solar hemi-cycle’ by Frank Lloyd Wright.
This presented a concave surface to the main daytime rooms and a convex
surface to the sleeping accommodation. The same planning device is employed
in a dementia unit located near Larbert in central Scotland by Foster and
Partners. There is more length for bedrooms on the outer edge relative to
inward-facing sitting rooms (Figure 2.11). The curve also counteracts the
negative aspect of an economic linear plan with accommodation on either side
of a central corridor – that of long narrow vistas, with a perspective of receding
doors. In terms of free energy, it means that the transmitted solar heat to the
day-rooms, as well as through clerestory glazing to the main internal circulatory
street, from November to April will vary by about 75 per cent. 2.3(5) The
concave shape also provides a sense of enclosure to a garden court. Indeed, it
will have a beneficial effect on the microclimate of the court, including enhanced
radiant comfort due to solar capture, as well as shelter from the wind. On the
outer northerly edge to the bedrooms, solar gain is not so much the issue.
Rather, the geometry allows some sunlight to enter bedrooms, particularly
during spring and summer, and this may well help to enliven the rooms, and
possibly the emotional responses for some of the residents.

40
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

Another building with a strongly evocative form is the ‘solar house’ in 2.4 Transparent insulation
Freiburg by architects Hölken & Berghoff in association with the Fraunhofer
Like any other form of insulation, TI relies on trapping
Institut fur Solare Energiesysteme (ISE), Figure 2.12. The plan is symmetrical pockets of air, which are small enough to inhibit
with a convex curved façade, partly energy-efficient windows for direct gain transfer of heat by convection. This results in a low
and partly thermal storage walls augmented by transparent insulation (TI). rate of thermal conductivity, while at the same time the
2.4 The primary curved spaces are attached to a service spine along the transmittance of light and radiant heat is quite high.
north edge, punctuated by a small semi-circular porch. The plan of the spine Therefore, solar heat can be absorbed by surfaces
and porch is then extruded on section as a south-facing mono-pitch, which is on the inside of the TI, where most of it can be stored
covered in active solar arrays. Thus when the building is viewed from the and usefully delivered to the space after a certain
south, the radial curve of the north-facing porch is axially expressed as the time lag, while relatively little is conducted back out
in overcast and nocturnal periods. Types of TI vary
zenith of the active collection, reflecting the larger radial thrust of the main
in terms of precise geometrical structure (eg foams
accommodation. However, although solar collection is manifestly expressed,
and capillaries) and material (eg aerogel, acrylic or
a secondary function is limited to simply being part of the external skin. There
polycarbonate). Further technical information on
are no fringe benefits such as the curving corridor or the outdoor courtyard of
products such as foamed acrylic and the highly porous
the Scottish dementia unit. On the other hand – and this limitation applies aerogel is given in the third part of Chapter 5. One of
equally to some of the examples above explored primarily through their cross the more common plastics used is polycarbonate, with
section – the act of collection for both active devices will result in heating of a capillary structure at right angles to the plane of the
the fabric behind the collector. This will increase the effectiveness of the surface where it is applied. It may be bonded on to a
insulating ability of the surfaces (ie lower U-values) during cold and sunny single sheet of glass, used as its weatherproof cover
weather. In the case of the passive TI, heating up a storage wall is its rationale, and secured in front of a storage wall, as at Freiburg,
aiming at negative effective U-values in sunny weather (ie gain to the interior) or held in place in a freestanding manner between
and close to zero on average. outer glazing and storage wall (as in the student
residences in Scotland, cited in Chapters 4 and 5).
During a visit in 1999, Dr Klaus Heideler of ISE likened the house to the
Alternatively it may be bonded between two sheets of
principle of a thermos flask. It has to be admitted that this is not a new idea in
glass or plastic and used as an alternative to normal
architecture. The Italian ‘thermos’ casa of 1933 by architect Luigi Figini comes
fenestration.
to mind. 2.5(1) However, while Figini’s house may well have been very energy-
efficient for its time, the solar house in Freiburg is very close to claiming a ‘zero
energy’ label. 2.5(2) Detailed aspects of this impressive performance will be 2.5 Thermos principle applied to dwellings
discussed in a later chapter. At this stage it is sufficient to say that the strongly in the 1930s and 1990s
integrated solar aesthetic is an issue. Axial symmetry is definitely part of this, 2.5(1) Figini’s ‘thermos’ casa was exhibited in the
with its historical association with power – the politically authoritarian sort. It is Lighthouse, Glasgow, in 2003 as the UK premiere of
not that symmetry has disappeared altogether from normal domestic ‘One Hundred Houses for One Hundred Architects of
architecture – the work of Mario Botta is a case in point. But, in conjunction with the XX Century’.
the patently engineered technology, where symmetry is also a common idiom, 2.5(2) Dr Heideler presented the following figures for
the building emanates a message. It combatively declares itself as an annual energy loads in kWh/m2 for heating and hot
‘experiment’. This is what it is, rather than a ‘home’. Nevertheless it is a water in German dwellings: 160 as average; 50 for
domestic concept that ISE is trying to promote, together with the solar low energy standards; 20 for a low energy, passive
technology. This poses a question as to the viability of a ‘solar house’ (as solar exemplar; and 2.7 for the Freiburg solar house.
conceived and named by ISE) which is also so overtly a ‘solar experiment’ (and One must assume that the values of 2.7kWh/m2 and
20kWh/m2 exclude the space heating contribution
one that could only be replicated in detached form).
made by ventilation heat recovery.

41
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

aesthetic ambiguity and nuance of solar collection – arcades and atria

Taking other stances – those of visual diffidence, neutrality or subtlety in terms of
solar collection – a number of diverse approaches are feasible. For example,
glazed streets or arcades have a history of association with urban grain which,
although acknowledged in terms of protection from wind and rain, are not
necessarily perceived in terms of solar gain. Similarly, early atria, say in Parisian
department stores, were not so much about daylight, often heavily muted through
stained glass, as about legibility for the shopper – scents below, clothes in the
middle and furnishings on top, all at a glance. Therefore, it can be argued that the
solar purpose of a considerable number of such modern spaces, both in the UK
and within continental Europe, may be at least partly neutralized by precedent.
This is important for at least some architects who fear that too much direct
expression of solar collection risks shallow, formulaic cliché. On the other hand,
some applications of ostensibly passive solar devices, such as atria in
commercial developments, have become almost ubiquitous in marketing terms.
One can imagine an advertising hoarding: ‘10,000 m2 fully air-conditioned luxury
office space on eight floors, with full-height atrium’. Of course in terms of
energy-efficiency, atria should go hand in hand with natural or ‘mixed mode’
ventilation. They are capable of saving energy and improving the organic quality
2.12 Solar house in Freiburg
a detail of façade
of air, as well as boosting the whole psychological and metaphysical experience
b plan of the working day. But the reality for many atria is a poor reflection of the
c section marketing hype. They can be dull and austere spaces, where the potential
environmental assets are completely unexploited.
Past reactions are interesting here, quoting from the report of a UK-ISES
tour as the postscript of its September 1987 Atria Conference:

The afternoon started with an unrelentingly grey atrium in a typical new

‘dealer floor’ building (Merrill Lynch) and gave the impression that there
would be little joy for employees, let alone the general public, when all was

42
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

complete. The next stop, Triton Court, was cheerier and open to the public,
but I am none the wiser with respect to its energy saving role, if indeed that
has any relevance for the developer. The next (3 Finsbury Avenue) was not
open to the public, and its energy saving function appeared to be venting
unwanted gains generated by the over-glazed, double-skin main façade.
The same ‘stable door’ logic applies to another detail of the moment, much
in evidence on the new generation of atria buildings – maintenance
platforms at each floor level as passive solar shading devices. First over-
glaze the envelope, and then shade it. To add insult to injury, the detail is
applied equally to all orientations. So we have a design gimmick to replace
the travelling cradle, but we do not have an energy-conscious façade.
Similarly atria, merely by virtue of their presence, do not even necessarily
constitute energy or visual assets. They are simply products of market
forces, and I will not be surprised when they begin to be filled in by – yes –
more dealer floors! (Porteous, 1988)

Nevertheless, having provided a further platform for such critique, the fact that
atria continue to carry commercial clout means that solar designers have a
suitable environmental Trojan horse, which does not in itself carry overt green
symbolism. The same applies to buildings with a social or cultural function. Atria 2.13 Wasa City shopping market in atrium at
have a credibility for both lay users and architects over and above that ultimately Gävle

concerned with global warming.

Two Swedish examples illustrate retrofit potential for atria. Wasa City, at
latitude 60.7°N in Gävle to the north of Stockholm, was one of the International
Energy Agency (IEA) Task XI Solar Heating and Cooling projects. It is very much in
the genre of glazed markets, but is in this case a market held within a courtyard
bounded by housing constructed in 1964. Commerce flourishes at ground level
(Figure 2.13), while there is a residential promenade overlooking the marketplace
at first floor level. In 1987 architect Thurfjell introduced a simple propped 30°
dual-pitch roof structure, which is terminated at the southern end with a ‘shark’s
fin’ tower, the south slope at 45°, where air is exhausted by natural thermo-
circulation. There are detailed aspects of the performance that will be discussed
in a later chapter. The important point to make at this stage is that the ambience
is pleasant, with planting playing a significant role. Commercially, of course, the
courtyard is now able to generate significant income. As a local shopping
experience, it seems a much better option for areas with severe winters than the
internalized ‘pedway’ (pedestrian walkway) systems to be found in cities such as
Edmonton in Canada. Overall, it is a humane intervention, rooted in historical
precedent and, visually, it is uncontroversial.
In Söderhamn, not far to the north of Gävle, there is another slightly earlier
retrofit, which follows a similar rational and functional logic. In 1983, architect
Jack Hanson opportunistically linked a three-storey, flat-roofed terrace of 1960s
housing to a two-storey one by means of a gently sloping mono-pitch roof

43
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

(Figure 2.14). The aim here was to provide some services within the new
enclosed space for occupants with special needs. Effectively the roof encloses
a village street with cafeteria, library and other communal facilities. Fortuitously,
the higher block lay to the north so that the roof tilted to the south, but only by
some 9˚. Thus solar gain in winter will inevitably be modest, with the emphasis
more on buffering and recovering heat from the microclimatic space.
Interestingly, in terms of daylight, apart from a continuous strip of fenestration
along the north junction with the original terrace, opaque and transparent bays
alternate. This is where the low pitch assists. By pointing at the brightest part of
the sky, the relatively low proportion of glass, some 60 per cent of the available
roofscape, provides plenty of natural light. Hanson’s pragmatic intervention at
Söderhamn also introduces a sort of Russian doll concept of buildings within
buildings. Here the communal elements of a new village street have their own
skin, again part solid and part glazed. Thus the climate steps from true outdoor
to semi-outdoor to fully indoor conditions.
An English project, which adopts much the same strategy, is the John
Darling Mall at Eastleigh in Hampshire. The County Architect’s Department here,
under the leadership of Colin Stansfield Smith, rightly gained a considerable
2.14 New atrium between old terraces at reputation for solar and bioclimatic projects in the 1980s. The John Darling Mall
Söderhamn – note second layer of glazing to is one of Hampshire’s projects designed by the late David White together with
servicing accommodation at ground level Malcolm Gates as structural engineer. White laid out two irregular terraces of
flats, bedsits and communal rooms for disabled residents running roughly
north–south, so that flats had both east- and west-facing windows (bedsits
faced mainly east and shared lounges to the west, Figure 2.15a). Over these two
terraces Gates designed a lightly structured, umbrella covered with clear
polyvinyl chloride (PVC) (Figure 2.15b). This had a lively section from east to
west, with opening smoke vents at the highest point above the central avenue,
widening at intervals to form sociable patios. The umbrella is open along all its
edges. Thus the effect on microclimate is significant, but not the same as for an
enclosed atrium. Formally, the dwellings are suppressed, simply rectilinear
pedestals, with load-bearing party walls supporting the imaginatively engineered
space-frame. Also the integral relationship between roof and dwellings is
relatively loose. The roof must cover the units of accommodation, but the latter
are free to meander relative to the discipline of the extruded structure above.
Moreover, had the residents been able-bodied, it would have been logical to
occupy the roofs as further landscaped semi-outdoor spaces.
An architectural practice that has long been interested in the separation of
a roof from the accommodation below it is that of Jourda and Perraudin. A
1990s commission of theirs, in association with the German practice of Hegger,
Hegger and Schleiff, is the Akademie Mont-Cenis in Herne-Sodingen, Germany.
The umbrella to individual buildings in this instance has developed sides.
However, both roof and walls are liberally permeable, allowing the microclimate

44
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

2.15 John Darling Mall at Eastleigh in Hampshire

a plan
b view of south end

45
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

of the interstitial space between buildings and their outer cover to adjust in
harmony with the weather. In terms of solar visibility, this building definitely
takes a soft line. For a start, the orientation of the glazed enclosure is such that
vertical surfaces face roughly northeast, southeast, southwest and northwest.
This means that all will be penetrated by sunlight at some time, but although the
best for solar collection are unarguably the southerly ones, the southeast façade
is apparently perversely shaded by a large roof projection. Only two elevations
are used actively for PV solar collection, the one facing southwest and the roof.
The latter has a shallow saw-tooth profile with the long surfaces tilted slightly up
to the southeast. Their PV cells are incorporated within the glass at different
densities, reportedly in order to convey cloud-like effects (Kugel, 1999). In other
words an artificial construct alludes to nature. Whether such a strategy has
been successful is a matter of subjectivity. But what is interesting is that
although at the time of building this was the biggest example of building
integrated BIPV, it was done relatively effortlessly without maximizing or
optimizing use of potential collecting planes.
Another characteristic of this building, which at first sight seems to
contradict the concept, is that the support structure for the outer transparent
and translucent skin has not been delicately minimized as at the John Darling
2.16 Inside Akademie Mont-Cenis during
construction in the summer of 1999 Mall. It is robust in the extreme and, from certain angles inside, the skin is barely
visible through it. The impression is rather of being in a forest glade, with tall
pine trunks capped by a thick canopy of branches. Indeed, the columns are
literally trunks – large pines transported from the Black Forest, their lower
branches shaved off, and provided with appropriate structural fixings at top and
bottom to emphasize their new role. Their primary branches are standard
rugged trusses, using rectangular timber sections, and supporting primary and
secondary purlins or crossbeams. Then, as one looks closer at the canopy,
slender diagonal steel tie-rods become apparent, as do actuators to open the
roof windows (Figure 2.16). Continuing the sylvan imagery, this might be new
growth and twigs. Finally there are the PV cells. These are perhaps more like
leaves than clouds, with their shadows on the branches in sunny conditions
adding to this effect.
An adjusted or manicured ‘dendriform’ hierarchy is complete (dendriform being
the term Frank Lloyd Wright used for his columns in the Johnson Administration
Wax Building, although whether they were tree-like is open to interpretation). From
the outside, of course, the order of the hierarchy is reversed. One is only vaguely
aware of the timber forest within the taut glass skin. Here again it is the wider
picture, the container as a whole, that dominates, rather than the detail. Even quite
close-up, the manner in which opening windows pop out from the façade attracts
more attention than the presence of PV cells. Indeed, although the PV is an essential
part of the energy strategy for this complex, its presence is virtually incidental to the
concept of contained buildings. The outer cover, as climatic filter, may just be
regarded as a convenient support system for the cells.

46
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

Therefore, in terms of the multi-functionality of the solar collecting device,

there are two points to make. Firstly, whether they are metaphoric clouds or
leaves, the role of the PV cells in providing partial shade is vigorously assisted by
the timber structure. Secondly, the passive presence of the glazed box constitutes
a powerful moderator of microclimate within it, and that includes reduction of
daylight to the individual buildings. This might in turn lead to increased use of
electricity for lighting, which represents something of a paradox, since the
purpose of the second skin is to both generate renewable energy and displace
fossil fuel. In any event, the box is an inescapable statement, which passively
edits or interprets climate for the users of the building, as well as generating
electricity. One might optimistically assume a net benefit in energy efficiency. But
equally, there should be awareness that the materiality and geometry of the
enclosure relative to the buildings within it simply defines a formal agenda, which
provides no guarantee of this. Indeed, without its flexible permeability, the
buildings inside might well require full air conditioning.

solar retrofit as a means of rebranding

A theoretical postgraduate student project for the solar refurbishment of a large
1950s–1960s building, belonging to the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow,
has tackled similar issues (Kondratenko, 2003). This proposal also used BIPV as
one component of a multi-faceted environmental project. Quite apart from
testing the technology, the student wished to create a new image. This was
effectively to rebrand the building, in today’s marketing jargon. In broad terms,
the expression of the solar nature of the retrofit was not seen as problematic.
Glazed atria and double skin façades were openly expressed. On the other
hand, many urban buildings are now being reborn in a more transparent mode,
but without becoming solar buildings. In other words, they are not solar in the
sense of the sun saving energy. As stated already, features such as atria do not
in themselves guarantee energy savings, or any other form of environmental
consciousness on the part of the architect.
The aesthetic dilemma here is that the student was concerned with image
as well as solar functionality. Without any sacrifice to a new, 21st century look,
she wanted the new second skin to make some reference to the original
chequerboard elevation of windows and solid panels (Figure 2.17). Fortuitously,
this coincided with the best place to position the PV cells. This was not opposite
the windows, where they might have reduced daylight too much, but opposite
the alternating solid panels. She also wished to visually enrich the vertical glass
wall to a new entry atrium. PV shading lamellas, set out from the glazing, were
intended to be both functional and enlivening.
In terms of its multiple and added solar value, both the double skin system
and the atria were required primarily to enable natural ventilation without
disturbance from traffic. The PV was not an afterthought; it was integral to the 2.17 Images from the proposed BIPV retrofit
idea. Metaphorically, it was a passenger on a free transport system. One does project for Strathclyde University

47
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

not need to delve into life-cycle costing to see that this is a major advantage for
an intrinsically expensive system. It is the very essence of integration. Indeed, it
is such an advantage that it might be argued that the alternative case for
isolation is untenable. Moreover, the formation of the new atria, economically
obtained since most of the walls already existed, provided extra usable, and
very desirable, break-out space. In turn, this adds capital value, which may
more than offset the initial building cost. Nonetheless, there are issues around
the predicted hybrid electrical, thermal and daylight impact of the PV skin, to be
discussed later, that cast doubt on their specific efficacy in the total package.
Another unrealized retrofit proposal in Scotland was given the acronym
STinG, denoting Solar Towers in Glasgow, (Sharpe, Porteous and MacGregor,
1998). This was an idea promoted by Glasgow City Council in the late 1990s.
Having already recognized the need to refurbish a large number of identical
eight-storey towers, including new roofs and cladding to walls, it seemed logical
to try to go one step further and use them as beacons for practical solar
technology. It was hoped that the solar addition to costs would be relatively
modest. Effectively, this meant that every available surface had to play a part.
All windows to living rooms and bedrooms faced east or west, with the
opportunity to glaze over existing recessed balconies and provide window-
integrated solar air collectors. Even the north-facing, largely windowless façade
was to be the recipient of a solar donation from the southern counterpart. This,
innovatively, was to have had a seven-storey high transpired or breathing air
collector, part opaque, part glazed and with a small array of PVs to power
fans.
However, the issue of aesthetics was not simple. For a start, there is now a
history of roughly two decades of badly designed recladding of tower blocks,
much of it in arbitrarily patterned, panelled rain-screens. This leads to a tin can
expectation, to which a solar overclad solution would not ideally wish to
conform. Also, if the roof was to be an effective collector, it naturally had to tilt
to the south. Thus, by following function together with the dictates of an existing
building, much of the visual impact in terms of integration was preordained.
Finally, there is the discrediting of the very idea of tower blocks for social
housing. While some notable housing towers in the UK, mainly in London, have
acquired desirable status, this has not happened so far in Scotland to an
identifiable extent. Therefore, although the image of 21st century renewal, with
renewable solar technology as a principal enabler, seems very attractive, it is by
no means easy to achieve (Figure 2.18).

The case for isolation

Having inclusively shown that the case for integration can be made in terms of
economical, organizational and environmental advantage, and apparently without
undue aesthetic prescription, can a counter-case be made for isolation?
Perhaps paradoxically, an argument for isolation can again be made from

48
MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

2.18 The solar cladding features of the STinG

project in Glasgow

the point of view of both architectural design and economics. Costs for large-
scale solar thermal arrays drop dramatically. By locating them remotely from
buildings, the arrays can maximize solar collection and enable seasonal storage
for groups of buildings, while architects are totally unconstrained in terms of
form and materiality. Such schemes can go hand in hand with renewable district
heating or combined heat and power (CHP) systems, and there may be even
more added economic value by selling to the grid.

multilateral advantage
One such thermal project is that of Ottrupgård Fjernewarme, a Danish rural co-
housing project near Skörping in Northern Jutland at 56.8°N.

The solar technology was reasonably remote from the dwellings, just beyond
a vegetable garden. There seemed to be an appropriateness about locating
the solar collectors and the seasonal clay-lined store just beyond the
cabbages and carrots. (Porteous, 1996)

In this case the area of collectors is 562.5m2, while the volume of the store is

49
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

1528m3. The first thing to note is that the ratio of collector area to volume is very
much reduced compared with the single-house system in Almere. One may
assume that this partly reflects the economy of scale of the store and its location
below ground. It is certainly now much larger relative to the collection area. But
it is also not attempting to produce all of the energy required.

It met up to 50 per cent of the community’s space heating load, the balance
supplied by a wood-pellet fuelled boiler sited in converted farm buildings.
These also housed communal dining room, kitchen, laundry, drying rooms
and so forth, leaving the twenty houses to cope with much less in the way of
processes which demand a high rate of air change. (Porteous, 1996)

Thus, in this case, the isolation of the solar collection and storage goes hand in
hand with grouping particular wet functions remotely from dwellings. The
dwellings themselves, as part of their overall co-housing strategy, were freed
from the tectonic, aesthetic and performance constraints of solar housing
schemes such as those at Culemborg in Holland, as discussed above. That of
course did not prevent them from exploiting passive solar design in a fairly
routine manner – window size and orientation, sun-porches, etc. In addition, the
isolationist technical aspects encouraged social cohesion, conceivably
including activities such as communally cleaning collectors in the course of
harvesting vegetables. So, although it might be considered ironic, the isolated
mono-functionality of the active solar system should be viewed as part of an
integrated multilateral approach to environmental sustainability.
It was stated earlier that there could be middle ground in terms of isolation.
In certain sunny countries, such as Greece, we have become used to the sight
of flat-plate collectors as one component of a set of rooftop paraphernalia such
as television aerials and reinforcement rods for potential vertical extensions.
They simply constitute plumbing clutter, which often inhibits other useful
functions, for flat roofs at least. The case can be made that such systems are
not building-integrated. However, the advantage of such lack of integration is
that collectors may be optimally positioned relative to shading obstructions, as
well as optimally tilted and oriented. Thus there is a functional argument for
what most people would agree is an eyesore.
That being the case, it follows that all solar collectors, which are located on
buildings, but otherwise make no positive architectural contribution, should be
categorized as isolated systems. Such a definition would then include many
projects that have hitherto been classed as building-integrated. It would include,
for instance, the terraced housing in Niewland, Amersfoort, by Dutch architects
Galis Architectenbureau BNA and Van Straalen. Here six rows of narrow, 4-cell
high PV arrays are sited on flat roofs in such a way as not to be visible to passers
by (Figure 2.19a). Essentially, the architects wanted the renewable electricity but
did not want any visual intrusion or expression. Also, in a more densely
populated urban situation compared with that of the quiet rural setting of the

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MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

Danish Ottrupgård co-housing, the hidden rooftop location provides security.

For any minority of people in higher buildings, who can look down on such
roofs, the orderly PV arrays at least break up the monotony of typical flat
membrane roofs, even when covered in stone pebbles as in this case.
Still removed from the skin of the building, but clearly visible and with a
tentative function, the solar thermal and PV arrays of Thomas Spiegelhalter’s
flats in Freiburg might be said to veer more towards being integrated than
isolated (Figure 2.19b). They do shade the south-facing windows of the top
storey, but are only one component of a compound filigree of balconies, louvres

2.19a Terraced housing in Niewland, Amersfoort –

PV arrays on flat roofs are not visible

2.19b Flats in Freiburg – solar thermal and PV

arrays crown the free aesthetics

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

and planting trellises which adorn an otherwise unremarkable apartment block,

terminating the east end of a considerably less extrovert terrace. This is now a
well recognized dialectical game, where the permanent structural and insulating
core lies within much more ephemeral environmental clothing, specifically
addressing solar heat gain, air quality, biodiversity and opportunities for
extending living out of doors.
The case studies discussed in this chapter appear to have presented a
stronger case for integration than for isolation. It might be argued that there is
an inevitability that integration is likely to be the technique that will most
challenge and intrigue architects. But the more important conclusion to draw is
that the scope for architectural diversity is considerable. With respect to passive
and active solar collection for space heating, Tables 2.4 to 2.6 provide useful
guidance, while Tables 2.1 to 2.3 provide useful indicators for annual collection
for hot water and electricity. What stands out above all from this data is that
seasonal storage can provide the opportunity for a three times greater solar
contribution to space heating. If this were to prevail, it could well tip the balance
in favour of isolated active systems in tandem with integrated passive ones, as
used at the Ottrupgård Fjernewarme project in Denmark.
Naturally solar availability will vary with geographical location, but, relatively,
the principle of seasonal storage enabling a three times greater exploitation of
solar energy will hold good. If one compares annual and winter incident solar
radiation for Lerwick (in Shetland) and London, two reference locations
discussed in the first chapter, the ratios of respective values do not vary
significantly. Indeed, Tables 2.7 to 2.10 show that the annual to winter ratios
remain virtually identical in London to those for Glasgow, while they increase
somewhat in Lerwick. Thus, although London would gain more in absolute
terms from an annual system with seasonal storage, once again the northern
island location would be relatively better off.

Table 2.7 Mean Annual Incident Solar Irradiation Predicted for Lerwick (kWh/m2)

30° 45° 60° 90° tilt

South 893 883 835 642
SE/SW 856 838 788 611
E/W 759 721 664 513
Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, p173

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MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

Table 2.8 Mean Incident Solar Irradiation Predicted for Lerwick from November–April
(kWh/m2)
30° 45° 60° 90° tilt
South 255 266 263 223
SE/SW 237 242 236 196
E/W 194 187 175 138
Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, pp173

Table 2.9 Mean Annual Incident Solar Irradiation Predicted for London (kWh/m2)

30° 45° 60° 90° tilt

South 1067 1053 990 745
SE/SW 1018 992 925 704
E/W 897 840 765 577
Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, pp162

Table 2.10 Mean Incident Solar Irradiation Predicted for London from November–April
(kWh/m2)
30° 45° 60° 90° tilt
South 331 343 338 281
SE/SW 307 310 300 244
E/W 251 238 220 170
Source: Page and Lebens, 1986, pp162

Without labouring the ‘north is best’ angle, but rather making the case for
seasonal storage in cool, cloudy regions, it may be noted that Skörping is at
virtually the same latitude as Falkenborg in Sweden. Here there is over 5000m2 of
flat-plate collection serving a huge water-filled subterranean cavern, in turn linked
to a local district heating system. These are not the only Scandinavian examples
of such systems. Their presence makes a strong case for similar installations in
other areas with relatively overcast winters. The populous Central Lowlands of
Scotland, for example, share the same latitudinal zone as Skörping and
Falkenborg. Not only will the solar geometry be the same, but also, since all are
subject to maritime influence, one can expect their other climatic characteristics
to be fairly similar.
Having acknowledged that a strategy of isolation can paradoxically have a
positive impact on lifestyle, while integration may have both positive and
negative effects depending on the skill of architects, it is a suitable stage to
move more into the realm of the user.

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REFERENCES

Furbo, S. and Knudsen, S. (2000) ‘Small domestic hot water systems based on
smart solar tanks’, in proceedings of conference (Eurosun 2000,19–22 June),
ISES Europe, Copenhagen.

Grassie, T. and MacGregor, K. (1999) ‘Optimizing flow control in a novel solar

domestic water heating system’, in proceedings of conference (North Sun 99,
11–14 August), Canadian Solar Energy Society, Edmonton, Canada.

Kondratenko, I. (2003) ‘Double Skin Façade with BIPV Case Study Building’,
Chapter 4 of ‘Urban retrofit building integrated photovoltaics (BIPV) in
Scotland, with particular reference to double skin façades’, PhD thesis,
Mackintosh School of Architecture, Glasgow School of Art, University of
Glasgow, pp103–121.

Kugel, C. (1999) ‘Green Academy’, The Architectural Review, Oct. 1999, vol
CCVI, no 1232, pp51–55.

MacKay-Lyons, B. (1995) ‘Seven stories from a village architect’, Design

Quarterly no 165, Summer, p12.

Page, J. and Lebens R. (1986) ‘Hourly incident solar radiation averaged over
all weather conditions’, in Climate in the United Kingdom: A Handbook of
Solar Radiation, Temperature and Other Data for Thirteen Principal Cities and
Towns (for the Energy Technology Support Unit, Harwell), HMSO, London.

Plant, J. A. (1967) Climatological Memorandum No. 60: The Climate of

Glasgow, Climatological Services (Met. 0.3), July (revised September 1973),
Table 2a.

Plant, J. A. (1968) Climatological Memorandum No. 54A: The Climate of

Edinburgh, Climatological Services (Met. 0.3), November (revised September
1973), Table 2, p39.

Porteous, C. (1988) ‘UK-ISES Atria Conference, September 1987’, Scottish

Solar Energy Group Newsletter, no 1, June, Mackintosh School of
Architecture, Glasgow, p8.

Porteous, C. (1996) ‘Roam with a view’, Scottish Solar Energy Group

Newsletter, no 17, December, Mackintosh School of Architecture, Glasgow, p6.

Sharpe, T. R., Porteous, C. D. A. and MacGregor, A. W. K. (1998) ‘Integrated

solar thermal upgrading of multi-storey housing blocks in Glasgow’, in
Maldonado E. and Yannas S. (eds), PLEA 98 Environmentally Friendly Cities
(proceedings of conference, Lisbon, Portugal, June), James & James (Science
Publishers) Ltd., London, pp287–290.

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MULTIPLE AND ADDED SOLAR VALUE

Talbot, R. (1988) ‘SSEG four day visit to Ireland: April 1988’, Scottish Solar
Energy Group Newsletter, no 1, June, Mackintosh School of Architecture,
Glasgow, p5.

Thomas, R. and Fordham, M. (2001) ‘What are photovoltaics?’, in

Photovoltaics and Architecture, Spon Press, London, p11.

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56
ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

Chapter 3 Environmental Comfort and Well-being

The two principal sections of this chapter deal primarily with physiology, while
each also acknowledges psychological influences, which are not always
adequately valued. It is self-evident that any discussion of environmental
comfort and well-being within buildings is bound to bring into play a certain
complexity with both subjective and objective facets. Despite many attempts at
quantification, with tools and guidelines of widely varying sophistication, people
inevitably adopt individualistic attitudes and responses to their surroundings.
One person’s comfort can be another’s discomfort in identical spaces even
though the level of clothing and activity is the same.
Outside, we are very accustomed to the weather assailing our senses. Most
of us can recognize the sumptuously sensuous smells of rainfall interacting with
pavements and vegetation, and rain certainly touches us. Tasting it might
depend on whether we walk with our mouths open into the wind or, less directly,
if we drink from a mountain stream or live in an autonomous house. If we
concentrate, we can listen to the impacts of sunshine on nature and buildings,
and taste the consequence of sun on our bodies as our own saltiness. We also
say that we feel cold or warm, but does that feeling indicate that our sense of
touch is involved? In reality, the five traditional senses, as one well-known
architect in a less celebrated book, Survival Through Design (Neutra, 1954,
pp199–201), points out quite forcefully, constitute a misleading simplification.
He tells us that we have ‘surface senses’ ranked numerically for pain, pressure
and heat. In addition to three to four million pain receptors, we have some
500,000 ‘pressure points’, which will record masses as low as 0.0004g, and
150,000 ‘warm points’, again minute points or receptors on the skin, which are
sensitive to ‘contact-cold’, or ‘contact-heat’. Put another way, this is awareness
of temperature by conduction and convection. Then we have ‘teleceptives’, the
most obvious of which are the eyes, the ears and the nose, but also include
‘receptors for radiant heat and cold’. The surface receptors and teleceptives are
two of a group of four, the other two being ‘proprioceptives’ and ‘interoceptives’.
The former group ‘record for us the movements and positions of our body’,
while the latter record ‘impulses from various visceral organs within the body.’

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Thus we can see that experiencing our immediate environment is rather

subtle. Over and above the variability of physical interactions, we are used to
emotional responses – perhaps negative in wind and rain, usually positive in the
sun, provided there is adequate shade or a cooling breeze. But whether we are
up or down in the way we feel when outdoors, there tends to be a greater level
of acceptance or tolerance compared with indoors. Once we are inside
buildings, different mindsets are adopted, especially when we become
sedentary with a lower metabolic output – say down by a third from 300W while
walking to 100W while sitting. Then the movement of air around us may become
an irritating draught, when previously it was refreshing. We are also likely to be
more sensitive to being in radiant contact with the sun when behind glass than
we are outside. We might also feel neutral, in which case the very lack of
awareness may lead to dissatisfaction by default – boredom and lethargy. Then
there are the issues of habit and acclimatization, both of these related in turn to
individual organic differences such as weight, blood pressure and circulation.
Researchers and environmental engineers have long been concerned with
tying down thermal comfort within quite tight parametric ranges according to
clothing, activity level and so forth. The same applies to aural and lighting
comfort. On the other hand, there is now an increasingly prevalent counterview
that suggests a loosening up. For example, audiences may forgive bad
acoustics in deference to the atmospheric character of a converted market,
ferry or any other building with a high heritage rating. The psycho-social aura
prevails over the specific quality of sound. It is also increasingly recognized that
people generally welcome the opportunity to take more personal control of their
immediate indoor environment. Depending on what they are doing, they are
likely to be quite content with a lower than recommended level of luminance or
more than recommended contrast between brightness and shade. Indeed,
shadows are now being recognized as having positive environmental worth, as
opposed to the dominant commercial insistence on high, uniform luminance.
Workers may well also appreciate individual adjustment of ventilation,
especially when it is natural, provided the capability for fine tuning has been
provided. We have long been able to address quite large swings in temperature
by adding and removing clothing, although the modern shirt-sleeve culture is
now an issue. Attitudes to background noise are very variable, but there is
undoubtedly a point where traffic noise heard through open windows can make
a working meeting untenable. However, there are again relatively simple
architectural solutions to this problem. Modern workplaces also often include
‘breakout’ spaces so that staff may choose from a range of visual, aural,
olfactory and thermal environments during the day.
The critical factor in buildings where we tend to spend long periods of time,
usually at work or at home, is the scope for enjoying one’s immediate
microclimate, taking into account the emotional impacts of the physiological

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

ambience. Somehow we have been programmed to expect psycho-sensory

surges in particular types of buildings, which we visit for short periods such as
cathedrals or art galleries, but not in others, such as offices or factories, where
we tend to spend long periods of time. Individuality inside the home can have
some expression, but basic issues such as access to sunlight are usually
constrained by the architect rather than imposed standards. Just as importantly,
the adjacent territory outside the home, where it is reasonable to expect a
stimulating environment, too frequently lacks fundamental attributes such as
privacy, shelter from wind and exposure to sunshine.

Microclimatic opportunities
As indicated above, Richard Neutra’s half-century old book Survival Through
Design provides significant insights into interactive sensory responses relative
to environmental comfort and well-being. He discusses at some length our
scope to change or improve our circumstances in this regard, using both the
terms ‘kinesthesis’ (movement of body parts) and ‘somesthesis’ (inner
perception of body position) (Neutra, 1954, p160). Clearly both relate to the
‘proprioceptives’ already mentioned. Moving into the psychological, and
probably ‘interoceptive’, relevance of ‘somesthesis’, we can see a connection
with what Neutra calls ‘stereognostic cross-filing’ (Neutra, 1954, pp153–155)
and his description of the ‘Mystery House on Confusion Hill’. This could be said
to presage the experience of late 20th century buildings by renowned architects
such as Zaha Hadid and others: ‘The floor, walls, ceiling, although tilted, keep
their usual relationship, so that the eyes are deceived and report the situation as
normal. But the other up and down senses differ in their report and are brought
disturbingly out of joint with the eye. Gravity, always taken for granted, becomes
a surprising phenomenon of almost painful intensity and of a direction which
makes it over into something we believe we have never experienced before.’
Then, when discussing ‘defense reflex’ (Neutra, 1954, pp219–220, 247) in
conditions without distorted geometry, Neutra asserts ‘we welcome a solid or
opaque enclosure, especially a sheltering feature behind us.’ It seems likely that
our DNA programmes us not to risk getting attacked from behind. On the other
hand he states that while generally we also like to ‘maintain clear visibility’ in
front, a view through a wide unobstructed window might induce anxiety. Forty
years later another commentator (Etlin, 1994) discusses this same issue in
terms of the ‘prospect-refuge’ theory of Appleton and relates it to ‘the dialectic
of small and large… the paired experiences of concentration and expansion’.
One might ask what has all this to do with solar buildings and microclimatic
opportunities? The first point is that these concepts are important relative to a
holistic interpretation of the impacts made on us by our natural, quasi-natural
and artificial surroundings. More specifically, we can also see that our
‘somesthesis’ relative to opaque and transparent enclosure could relate directly

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to solar access and the ability of bounding materials to absorb, store and emit
energy. Probably, at this stage, it is most useful to describe and discuss direct
experience of microclimatic opportunities through case studies.

ancient precedent to modern urban paradigm

Gravinnehof – roughly, Dutch for Earl’s Court – is a recent passive solar housing
project at 52.4°N in Haarlem, the Netherlands, for residents who are aged over
55 and with limited income. On the occasion of two visits, guided by the
secretary of the Residents’ Committee and respectively in May and August, the
weather was sunny and warm. He was pleased to give access to his own home,
one of 26, and all communal spaces, including a small laundry, a bicycle store,
a hobby room and an attractive glass-roofed lounge and kitchen. This last
space faces east into the wedge-shaped courtyard towards the narrow double-
height entrance below a two-storey ‘gatehouse’ (Figure 3.1a). It is a relaxing
social space, a counterpoint to the transitory nature of threshold. Courts, similar
to the open Roman atria, are what hofs or hofjes (‘little hofs’) are all about. It is
what the word means, and it is an old traditional form of Dutch housing,
designed to offer the residents security and sanctuary together with sociability.
The occupants of Gravinnehof, completed in 2001, are immensely pleased to be
3.1a Looking east in Gravinnehof (mid afternoon
in the first hof to be built in the Netherlands for a considerable time.
in August) – glass roof of communal lounge
in foreground and glass and timber screen to It is not only an excellent example of urban regeneration, which is generally
access promenades to left sensitive to the needs of occupants, it has also managed to maximize particular
opportunities for a beneficial microclimate on its constrained site. In passive
solar terms, it is the stepped-back, south-facing section, devised by architect
Dolf Floors, which is of most interest. This linear arrangement on plan, which is
aligned so that the main façade faces just west of due south, accommodates
most of the flats, while there are special flats at east and west ends of the
complex, both rising a further floor. This means that the flats are accessed either
directly from the court at ground level, or by generously wide decks or galleries
at first and second floor level (Figure 3.1b). Their width is much the same as the
floor-to-floor height and they are separated from the court by a glass and timber
screen. This tilts outwards by 6° and allows some capture of solar radiation and
significant wind shelter. In other words, the screen impinges on both the radiant
teleceptives as well as the warm points of the surface senses, with residents
able to freely interact through movement and position (the kinesthesis and
somesthesis of proprioceptives in Neutra’s terminology). Horizontal timber
louvres are about 20cm deep, and are spaced out to provide about 40–50 per
cent shading on the first floor concrete deck during afternoons in summer (as in
the case of the visits in May and August), and complete shading on the walls of
the first floor apartments. The first two louvres are set about 90cm apart, with
the next five gaps up to the roof reduced by one third. In terms of wind shelter,
the first two spaces between the louvres are glazed, and then there are alternate
air gaps, three in all. The wind is therefore broken, but the experience of moving

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

3.1b Cross section through access promenades,

detailing glass and timber screen

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

along or pausing on the decks still feels like being outside. Indeed, they are
outdoor spaces in terms of such mundane, but important, matters as smoke
dispersal and fire escape.
In winter, the screen will allow more sunlight to fall on to the façade of the
flats as well as the floor. Nearly two-thirds of the screen will trap solar radiation
due to the greenhouse effect. The stained timber panels below and between
windows to the dwellings will constitute lightweight absorbers, providing a rapid
response to solar gain. This means that the surface factor is close to unity (1.0),
so that unshaded parts of the wall initially absorb a substantial proportion of
incoming sunshine before rapidly re-emitting it in a cooler long-wave form. One
would expect the impact on comfort to occur in less than half an hour. Similarly,
the proportion of solar radiation that is reflected from windows will have an
immediate effect, in contrast to the solid floor, with its lower surface factor (say
0.6), and significantly slower response to solar gain. It would probably take
more than two hours for long-wave re-emission to occur after absorption. Thus,
sitting with one’s back to the timber and glass screen in winter sunshine could
provide relatively immediate radiant comfort from the front and behind,
depending on time of day, while the floor provides longer term thermal stability,
as well as some additional reflected long-wave radiation. From the point of view
3.1c Upper deck with diagonal roof-lights looking
west of the residents, it is a social space in the immediate vicinity of their homes that
can be comfortably enjoyed for much of the year, although still dependant to
some extent on the weather.
The roof over the double-height deck space has relatively narrow strips of
roof-lights running diagonally across the space, aligned roughly northeast to
southwest (Figure 3.1c). Spaces between the roof-lights are approximately the
same width. In other words, glazing is about half of the area of roof above the
promenades. Its design dictates summer shading on to the threshold and
façade of the second floor dwellings, and what is especially significant is that a
vertical fin of the same depth as the roof subdivides each strip of glass. At least
two thirds of both the upper floor deck and façade were shaded at the time of
each visit. It should be noted that these occurred during the hottest time of day,
circa three o’clock, and taking into account the shade and air movement, both
lower and upper decks seemed very comfortable. However, during the worst of
the August 2003 heat wave only days before the second visit, the decks had
apparently got up to 41°C in spite of the shading. This does raise the issue as
to whether the diagonal alignment should not have been rotated by 90° in order
to completely exclude direct solar gain on a sunny afternoon in summer, whilst
admitting it during the cooler mornings. That would have satisfied strict thermal
logic. It would also not have compromised the wonderfully dynamic impact of
sunlight and shade over time. On the other hand, ambient temperatures in the
mid-30s Celsius are hardly a common phenomenon in Haarlem.

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

In winter, there will be little direct solar gain through these roof-lights.
Nevertheless, they will still admit a generous amount of daylight from the
brightest sector of the sky, as well as help to trap long-wave radiation in the
same way as the tilted screen. Apparently it was often all right to sit out in cold
weather when it was not too windy. The west end of the decks had originally
been unglazed and had allowed driving rain from this direction to form puddles
on the deck. Now, at the behest of the residents, this defect has been remedied
with an adjustable louvred glass screen. Interestingly, in terms of the screening
to the decks, this is the only element where the residents can operate movable
controls, other than moving chairs in or out of patches of sunshine, or not
choosing to sit in the space in the first place.
The court itself offers some more movable shading choice in the form of
traditional garden parasols. However, intrinsically, it is the fixed passive features
that drive its microclimate. The geometry of the site itself is quite limiting. The
eastern boundary is only about half the width of the western one, and once the
three-storey stepped flats are accommodated, the court is narrowed to some
5m at the open part of the east end, and narrows even further below the entry
block. A storey-height wall provides privacy along its southern boundary to a
lane and, in turn, the buildings along its southern side form an upper visual
backdrop to the Gravinnehof. It will also, of course, provide significant shading
to the court in winter, as will the four-storey high east and west end-pieces to
the development. It is really only the northwest part of the court that will enjoy
some morning sunlight in the depths of winter. However, by March and April,
solar penetration will be quite good. Remembering that the Dutch spring is
predominantly pretty cold, any direct solar gain to the court at this time will be
very welcome for residents. Even though the weather on the occasion of the first
visit at the beginning of the second week in May had been hot and sunny, only
three days previously it had been sunny, but bitingly raw. Under such
circumstances, the same combination of lightweight timber panelling and heavy
paving should ensure a satisfyingly complementary microclimate. When it does
get hot, then the linear pool, on an east–west axis and parallel to the south
boundary wall, provides some valuable passive evaporative cooling and extra
thermal mass. Bear in mind that the capacity of water to store heat is
approximately five times greater than dense concrete per unit mass, and two
and a half times greater per unit volume. Thus not only will the passive thermal
character of the court change dramatically according to season and weather,
there is also a great deal of opportunity to appreciate it from different thermal
vantage points, as well as to exploit simple modifiers such as the parasols.
Finally, it is worth mentioning the environmental subtleties of the short
transition from communal outdoor hofje into the inner communal sanctuary of
the lounge and kitchen. Although now fully indoors, this space remains in visual
contact with the court as well as the upper galleries and, importantly, very much

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to the sky, since this internal space has a glass roof. On the other hand, the
geometry and location of the roof within the complex means that it will not
receive direct solar radiation during afternoons, when ambient temperatures
normally peak. During sunny mornings in summer one would expect that
opening windows would avoid overheating.
In summary, the architect has achieved a consistently successful passive
solar strategy, tied in with favourable stages of external, semi-external and
internal microclimate, on a tight site within the medieval grain of Haarlem.
Moreover, from the wider viewpoint of sustainability, it is a project where the
stakeholding dimension is very high. This characteristic of ownership, as
opposed to alienation, is of course multi-faceted. It concerns practical
convenience, feeling safe and so on. But it is in turn partly due to both secluded
and social microclimatic opportunities on the doorstep, which the architect
manifested as an inclusive part of the process of the design. Because of this
inclusiveness, the residents feel free to adapt and enhance… to inhabit and
personalize specific territory.

architect as occupant – rural exposure

Although set in a very different context, upland rural as opposed to low-country
urban, a similar project in many ways is the home of Professor Brian Edwards,
architect, planner, critic, author and academic. Here again one is aware of layers
of microclimate from a fully outdoor terrace, with some sheltering and shading
features, to a recessed solar buffer space, still very much outdoor in character,
and thence to an internal double-height stair hall, which accesses all other
individual rooms. Given its elevated and open position of some 300 metres
altitude near Kirknewton in the Pentland foothills southwest of Edinburgh in
Scotland, and also its relatively high latitude of circa 56°N, this microclimatic
hierarchy is intrinsic to the upgrading and habitability of the dwelling.
Originally designed by Edinburgh’s New Town architect James Gillespie
Graham as a coaching inn in 1822, and then becoming a schoolhouse, it was
acquired in a somewhat ruinous state back in the owner’s student days. The
south leg of the original T-plan was most dilapidated, and so the decision was
taken to demolish it, leaving only the lower portion of the outer wall to define a
projecting stone-paved terrace. The gap left by the T-leg in the centre of the
south façade was initially a paved part of this, embedded within the main body
of the house, and with a small lean-to back-porch constructed in the internal
eastern corner. Some years later, it was decided to glaze over the entire void in
line with the roof and outer south walls, leaving the porch as a small thermal lock
within a larger one, and having the added function of nurturing vulnerable plants
and shrubs in frosty weather. Although the building was listed, this tactic of
respecting the profile of the existing roof and walls with the new glazed insert
was deemed acceptable by the planning authority.

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This stage, complete by the time of a visit early in October 1987, also
included glazing the remainder of the recessed south façade at ground level into
the stairwell of the entrance hall (Figure 3.2). The first floor section of wall above
this screen is clad in Scottish Ballachulish slates, and pierced by two windows,
one of these lighting the upper part of the stairwell and landing, the other a first
floor bedroom. The two sidewalls are rendered – ‘wet dash harling’ is the
Scottish terminology – and the floor remains paved in rough stone flags. The
roof glazing is the simplest of single, fixed, overlapping sheets of toughened
glass, spanning sturdy rough-sawn rafters, while the outer glazed wall is
marginally more sophisticated, with one off-centre hinged glass door and an
opening light located directly above it. Both structure and choice of glass
respects the loading from wind and snow. Relative to the external glazing, which
both gains and loses heat, the area of surfaces that may either donate heat from
the house, or transmit heat to it, are about 10 per cent greater, while the ‘heat
sink’ of the paving is about 50 per cent less. Aside from the sheltered and solar-
enhanced amenity provided within this spacious new enclosed patio, there is
reportedly also a discernibly beneficial thermal impact on the rooms within the
house itself, compared with the former situation.
In terms of microclimate, there are several significant points to make. The
terrace is partly defined, sheltered and shaded by the remnant of the original wall
and two clusters of deciduous trees. The larger of these, with fairly dense and
generous spans of leaf cover, is located somewhat to the southwest. It is both in
a good location to break the prevailing winds and to provide valuable shading to
the sunspace in hot anticyclonic weather. What at first seems surprising is the
limited amount of opening windows to the glazed skin, but the entire assemblage
is intrinsically air-leaky, and the topographical position is exposed.
During the visit in 1987, the weather was typically autumnal. Sitting out on the
terrace would have been chilly and draughty. However, behind the glazed screen
it was a different matter, and the beauty of it was that it still felt more like outside
than inside. The rough paving, slate and roughcast walls and stacks of cut logs,
all helped this outdoor feel, while a painting on one of the side-walls provided
some ambiguity. Indeed, condensation on the single glazing, and the occasional
drip falling on to the paving or occupants added to an outdoor ambience.
Passing into the hallway through a glass door connecting directly to the foot
of the stairs, the atmosphere changes. Thermally, there is still plenty of
capacitance and although there are still some sections of wall in exposed
masonry, the more dominant finishes are now polished quarry tiles and smooth
plastered walls. In other words, they are the kind of finishes that tend to be
associated with internal spaces. Also, although the hallway is spacious and airy,
the level of daylight is more distinctly graded. In the stairwell itself it is sufficient
to display some 20 pictures under conditions of natural lighting, but daylight is 3.2 The Edwards sunspace from a first floor
much more muted further back into the centre of the plan. In terms of thermal window, with the owner and visitors

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

comfort, it is a zone of transience, which puts it on a somewhat similar footing

to the sunspace. The latter is used both for passing through to the garden and
for relaxation, while psychologically it represents captured or modified outdoor
territory – a true winter garden. The hallway is definitely an indoor space, but
one in which movement to and fro is the norm. Thus both are liable to be
relatively robust in terms of the range of thermal parameters that will satisfy.
Importantly also, there appears to be no temptation to heat the sunspace. Its
status as semi-outdoor territory, to be used fortuitously according to weather
and occasion, seems to preclude this temptation in exactly the same way as the
terrace beyond.
The other interesting aspect in terms of movement between hallway and
sunspace is that of air circulation. In sunny conditions, warm air entering from the
sunspace into the stairwell at high level is likely to become cooler in the internal
space, descending back to ground floor, where it might re-enter the sunspace
and continue a natural convective loop. During cold and overcast winter weather,
this thermo-circulation might reverse. Warm internal air could enter the sunspace
from the upper stairwell window, cool against the glass and fall to the floor.
However, since both this and the window to the bedroom are centrally pivoted, it
is more likely that there could be simultaneous ingress and egress of air. In
particular, in the case of the larger window to the upper floor bedroom, one would
always expect a two-way exchange of air, especially when the door to the room
is closed. The presence of the buffer space as a source of fresh air, with its
temperature well above that outside, would also mean that liberal nocturnal
ventilation to the bedroom will not constitute energy profligacy. Then, looking at
another possibility, if both connecting windows are closed in cold weather, the
movement of air in the sunspace should tend to be upwards from the warmer
surfaces at the rear and sides, and downwards towards the front.
Regardless of whether such scenarios would or would not be perceived as
thermally beneficial in terms of comfort, convective transfer of air driven by
differentials in temperature within and between respective inner and outer
spaces will inevitably be a microclimatic characteristic. Furthermore, given the
recessed geometry of the sunspace, the self-shading during sunny weather will
provide further contrasts of surface temperature, which will in turn help to drive
varying convective patterns. Since such spaces are very close to the natural
world, it is likely that attitude towards all the environmental nuances will be more
in tune with the outdoors. Sitting in the Edwards’s conservatory could be more
akin to resting on a hillside than facing a keyboard and monitor in an office.
Awareness of convective movement of air and radiant warmth may be
heightened in an optimistically receptive way – perhaps analogous to floating in
the sea on a sunny day.
It is also of historical note that the presence of the slate-clad wall, as well as
the slated roof over the lean-to porch, gave rise to a considerable amount of

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

subsequent research work at Napier University in Edinburgh. ‘Solar slates’ have

since become a commonly used technique to introduce preheated fresh air into
buildings. Cladding of this sort functions as the absorber of an unglazed,
‘transpired’ or breathing, low-temperature solar air collector (see Chapter 6).
However, even without exploiting this potential, such a surface still has a
relatively rapid impact on the radiant microclimate within the space, much in the
same way as the timber panelling at Gravinnehof.

extroversion and ability of occupants to interact

One of the main points to be derived from these two examples is that
opportunities for satisfying microclimatic experiences, linked in turn to strategies
for energy efficiency, need not rely on sophisticated controls. Other than
opening windows, the adaptability of the environmental experience depended
firstly on the static architectural decisions and secondly on dynamic decisions
of occupants, both interacting with the variabilities and vagaries of daily and
seasonal climatic cycles. In terms of the architectural input, one can say that
given a suitable analytical computer model, all this can be accurately predicted.
This is so, but relatively basic empirical and intuitive architectural knowledge
should not be underestimated.
Both case studies were designed on this basis. In one case the interactivity
of the users was also reasonably foreseeable, since the architect was also the
client. In the other, the architect seems to have developed a post-occupancy
relationship with the users, which has them ‘onside’, and the users also clearly
do have scope for making the most of their microclimate. A concept of wide to
narrow environmental zoning is posited not only as valuable relative to these
case studies but also as a general principle, recognizing that people are more
forgiving of temperature, air movement, glare and so on when outside, and still
quite forgiving when on the move inside. Corresponding to this, there is the
aspect of extroversion relative to captured or modified outdoor space compared
with relative introversion in the fully indoor condition, especially when working
or socializing. In other words the theory of ‘prospect and refuge’ has relevance
to microclimatic opportunity through the kinesthesis and somesthesis as
explained by Neutra.
Brian MacKay-Lyons uses the term ‘prospect and refuge’ when describing
the walled garden or patio that separates a guest wing from the main part of the
2004 ‘Hill House’ roughly 100km southwest of Halifax in Nova Scotia at 44.2°N.
This latitude is the same as 65km south of Bordeaux in France, but one has to
appreciate that the climate is more like that near Helsinki in Finland. The cold
Labrador Current and the cold mass of continental land to the north constitute
strong influences. On the other hand, to the south lies the much warmer Gulf
Stream, and winds can also approach Nova Scotia from the direction of Florida.
This means that within two days in early summer, the maximum ambient

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

3.3 ‘Hill House’, South Coast Nova Scotia (late

afternoon in June), looking south towards
garage and guest wing before courtyard has
been landscaped

temperature can swing by some 20 degrees from single figures to the high
twenties Celsius. By offsetting the two components of accommodation,
MacKay-Lyons has not significantly compromised the patio as a wind-sheltered
refuge, but there are also oblique views outward (Figure 3.3). In terms of sensory
impact, the proposed use as a herb garden will also mingle scents with those of
the sea and shore, as the hilltop is on a peninsula with the Atlantic Ocean on
three sides.
In several of his other projects, such outdoor rooms are further protected
with transparent roofs, while large sliding screens provide the opportunity for
variable climatic shielding. The entrance court of the Messenger II house on
another vantage point just to the west is an example of this (Figure 3.4), as is the
Howard house, already mentioned in the second chapter. Both of these also
have open timber decks, while his Kutcher house at Herring Cove, at 44.5°N
and much closer to Halifax, exploits a natural rock shelf as an outdoor terrace
along the south edge of the main living space (Figure 3.5a). The light surface of
the granite, long since swept by retreating glaciers, will have its own impact on
the microclimate. Not only will it help to reflect solar heat into the house, it will
hang on longer to warmth collected during a sunny day, whilst remaining
relatively cooler earlier on compared with a wooden deck.
It is interesting to compare these projects with examples in the vicinity of
Vancouver from another notable Canadian practice, that of Helliwell + Smith:
Blue Sky Architecture. Roughly five degrees of latitude to the north, the climate
close to sea level is much more temperate. Winds tend to be from the southwest
during winter and are often from the northwest during summer, whilst the North
3.4 Entrance court of ‘Messenger II’ in Kingsburg Pacific Drift has a similar influence to that of the Gulf Stream on the maritime
– misty June morning looking south areas of northern Europe. This means that cities such as Vancouver have much

68
ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

3.5a The glaciated rock shelf as a terrace for the

Kutcher house at Herring Cove near Halifax –
looking east at midday in June

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

more rain in winter and less sunshine than Halifax. For example, in December
and January Nova Scotia’s capital receives respectively 33 per cent and 34 per
cent of possible sunshine, compared to 13 per cent and 16 per cent in
Vancouver. On the other hand there is rough parity from April to September.
There are of course comparable differences to be found within the areas of
Europe being considered here.
What can be said is that the south-facing terrace of rock of the Kutcher
house seems just as appropriate in terms of its microclimate as that of the west-
facing one (stone paving set over rock) of the Greenwood or ‘Fishbones’ house
by Helliwell + Smith (Figure 3.5b). This is sited on a narrow and steeply sloping
strip of land between road and sea at the northwest tip of Galiano Island, almost
exactly on the 49th parallel. The spatial ambience of the minimally manicured
natural terrace is enhanced by the curve given to the glazed west façade of the
house. It may well be that the more temperate climate of Galiano, not to mention
its lower rainfall compared with Vancouver and somewhat longer summer days
compared with Herring Cove, will provide more frequent opportunities to
comfortably occupy the terrace. But natural variations in respective climates will
result in very similar experiences during an annual cycle.
The common factor is that, given adequate privacy and shelter, most
people like to frequent and enjoy outdoor spaces associated with their homes.
Given the movement of the sun over a day, it is also likely that more than one
space may be required to satisfy this need. The Kutcher house has an east-
facing deck and a lower west-facing patio as well as the rock shelf along the
longer south façade. Another project by Helliwell + Smith, the Murphy house on
Gambier Island, slightly further north at 49.5°N and closer to Vancouver’s
bounding mountains, has a recessed and covered outdoor room (Figure 3.6).

3.5b The paved terrace of the Greenwood or

‘Fishbones’ house on Galiano Island –
looking southeast, late afternoon in May

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

This space has a granite fireplace as well as a barbecue, thus enabling multi-
seasonal, nocturnal and diurnal use. It also separates the owner’s sleeping
accommodation from the main living space, and a sliding glass panel on the
south edge of a glazed linking passage further accentuates the indoor–outdoor
synergy. When this is completely opened, disappearing inside a wall in the
bedroom wing, the whole of the outdoor room operates as the day–night or
public–private mediator. Also, since the fixed glass screen forms its northern
boundary, its southern edge is free to extend outwards beyond the line of the
southern façade. In terms of solar access, the house has been deliberately set
back and almost completely hidden from the sea behind a screen of pine trees.
Although more low-angle sunlight will reach this space in winter, the trees
provide substantial shading by early summer. In doing so they lend the particular
qualities of a forest glade, heavily scented with resinous pine and still close
enough to salt water for that to exert its influence. Hummingbirds are a bonus.
In any case, if relaxing in full sunlight is desired, the site also offers sufficient
scope for an unshaded deck on the point of rock that projects to the south of
the house, not to mention other natural sunlit promontories.
One could go on ad infinitum with examples of outdoor rooms, which make
valuable microclimatic contributions to life-style. This section has only
discussed two specific case studies in depth and given a brief contextual sense
of a few others. In doing so, it has fleshed out aspects of comfort and well-being
that were also implicit in the second chapter relative to the serial added solar
value of a wide range of other semi-outdoor spaces. Some of these were quite
radical and large in scale, such as the glazed box of Akademie Mont-Cenis at
Herne in Germany. However, domestic projects on a much smaller scale are
useful in getting a focus on specific contentious issues. It has also been
mentioned in passing that the relatively liberal ventilation of a bedroom, which
is likely to promote health and well-being, does not necessarily clash with
energy efficiency. Nevertheless, such an attitude signals a potential conflict,
which deserves further attention.

Quality versus quantity tensions

Many would argue that generous ventilation in winter, even when associated
with a solar buffer space, does run counter to serious attempts to conserve
energy. Therefore, it is necessary to dig further into the potential clash between
energy efficiency and health or well-being with regard to the adequacy of fresh
air introduced into buildings. From the viewpoint of energy conservers,
ventilation constitutes a demand for heat over a significant proportion of the
3.6 The outdoor room of the Murphy house on
year in cool climates, and so should be carefully regulated to provide enough, Gambier Island – looking inwards to north
but not more than enough. The latter will not only increase consumption of fuel and outwards to south, late afternoon in May
in the depths of winter, but it may also extend the length of the heating season
in autumn and spring. On the other hand, users are likely to view ventilation as
a valuable resource in all seasons, unless of course it presents itself as a

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

nuisance in the form of draught. There is also much research to support the
hypothesis that lack of control is a major stressor relative to ‘sick building
syndrome’ (Tong and Wilson, 1990). This is particularly evident relative to
ventilation, with evidence of a negative perception of lack of control in air-
conditioned buildings compared with those with natural or mixed-mode
systems (Wilson and Hedge, 1987). Air remains a crucial environmental issue
and, irrespective of the system provided, it would appear that users are
generally able to compromise energy efficiency.
Sometimes they may do this inadvertently, and sometimes in a deliberate
quest for health or well-being. Conversely, if constrained by ‘fuel poverty’ or a
phobia of draughts, they may degrade their environment in terms of stuffiness
or humidity. This then is a matter of qualitative aspirations, usually those of
users, pitted against mainly quantitative, conservationist goals of designers. In
the relatively rare circumstance when the designer is also the user, disciplined
commitment may resolve the potential conflict. However, in most cases the
designer’s hope is to provide workable systems, which will be reasonably robust
relative to anticipated usage. Returning to Gravinnehof, the flats are fitted with
whole-house heat recovery systems. The aim here is two-fold: firstly, to provide
an efficiently controlled supply and exhaust to and from all spaces; and,
secondly, to save energy, as well as the cost to the consumer for it.
The first motive is a powerful one, in that it should also ensure health and
well-being. The controlled extract and supply will tend to lower relative humidity
and, consequently, populations of dust mites as well as the risk of fungal
growth. Both mites and mould are thought to be triggers for respiratory ailments
such as asthma (Howieson et al, 2003). In addition, it would theoretically provide
an adequate level of freshness of air, thus reducing the temptation to open
windows so frequently during cold weather. It may be noted in passing that
mechanically assisted ventilation of dwellings is routine in many parts of
continental Europe and Canada. It was present in the eastern and western
coastal examples brought up in the previous section. Warm water coils
embedded in floors provide a relatively steady supply of heat, which may then
be rapidly fine-tuned by means of the small air-handling system, accommodated
within the timber superstructure.
However, the latter aim is actually quite difficult to achieve, either in terms
of the consumption of primary energy or the economy of attempting this. The
norm is that fans are powered by inefficiently generated electricity. On the other
hand, heating, certainly in the Netherlands, is supplied much more efficiently by
gas from the North Sea. The gas is also normally significantly cheaper than
electricity, although tariffs vary according to location.
Accepting that the first aim of a heat recovery system is worthwhile and that
any saving of energy may be problematic, the device should at least be as
economic as possible. This is where the user may further compromise matters. To
work properly, an air-to-air heat recovery unit should be correctly balanced. The

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

mechanically introduced air, together with any slight natural air leakage, should 3.1 Monitored housing in Glasgow: notes
match the rate of extraction. Alternative systems, which supply preheated air from on terms and data
attics, below roof tiles or from solar air collectors, are normally intended to slightly
3.1(1) SAP is accepted as a means of energy rating
pressurize the dwelling, with air escaping through carefully designed routes. In in the UK building regulations. If the flow of free
either case, it means that the envelope of the dwelling must be as airtight as is gains in Watts is divided by the specific heat loss
reasonably feasible. If external doors or windows are left open, the systems will or heat loss coefficient in W/K, the resultant value
not work as intended. Ventilation will tend to be dominated by wind and will in K or °C may be subtracted from the internal
therefore be largely uncontrolled. If it is uncontrolled at a time when the heating temperature to give the internal base temperature. It
system is still switched on, and especially if thermostats are set high, the net is the difference between the base temperature and
result will be greater energy use, with a heat recovery or preheat system an that outside that drives the heating demand. (See
irrelevance. Whether or not this is a problem at Gravinnehof is not known, but the also Chapter 1).

potential exists wherever there are opening windows and doors. All dwellings 3.1(2) Temperatures in living rooms averaged
have entry doors, but only some, such as the Edwards house in Scotland, have 19.5°C over 100 days in the winter, and daily gas
double-doors with thermal locks – porches of one kind or another. At Gravinnehof consumption in kWh/m2 (space and water heating
the flats have a single entrance door into a hallway, but at least the doors are plus cooking) varied from 0.4 in two dwellings up to
protected from direct blasts of wind. 0.7 in the third. Since the floor area is 72.7m2, the
third household is consuming 50kWh daily, while
ventilating – evidence from recent Scottish housing the other two are just below 30kWh. These might be
viewed as rather high values, given the low fabric
The asymmetry between temperature and solar geometry has already been
losses (theoretical U-values of 0.15W/m2K for roofs
highlighted. Cold and sunny weather in spring may well tempt users to open
and floors, and less than 0.2 for walls). However, the
windows whilst thermostats are still in operation. In a recent survey of four
first two correspond reasonably well to predictions.
houses from early May to early June this was found to be so (Kondratenko, If the heating season were restricted to the period
Porteous and Sharpe, 2004). These were located in Castlemilk, an estate to the from October to April, the total demand for gas would
south of Glasgow. During this period, the ratio of free solar and incidental gains be approximately 75kWh/m2. Bearing in mind that
to the heat loss was much lower than would have been the case had the rates the energy for heating water and cooking accounts
of ventilation been as predicted by the Standard Assessment Procedure (SAP) for roughly half of the total annual load, the balance
3.1(1). The culprit for this rise was the high rate of air change. Together with for space heating in these six months may be of the
high settings for the heating this significantly raised the threshold for heating order of 56kWh/m2.
demand. The relatively exposed site of Castlemilk, some 150m above sea level, In at least one house, heat recovery seems to have
is a further contributory factor together with lack of adequate thermal completely lost the battle against the user-induced
capacitance. If a building has a high level of thermal storage, and a regular regime of ventilation. Using available data, there was
an attempt to match theory to practice. Temperatures
regime of heating so that it is kept warm, it will be much less sensitive to
were adjusted to conform to measurements. U-values
intermittent opening of windows and doors than one that is lightweight. Since
were raised to allow for possible shortcomings in
there is now a tendency in many countries, including Scotland, to favour light
workmanship or over-optimistic theory. Water heating
timber construction, the issue of controlling ventilation is all the more crucial. was increased to allow for young children, and
Overall, it is quite a serious finding, because these are new houses designed to ventilation rates were doubled. The last was again
high theoretical efficiencies. partly justified to take account of the habits of young
The specification for this particular project did not include heat recovery children, such as running in and out of doors without
and, ironically, the nocturnal rates of ventilation in bedrooms were borderline in closing them. These modifications gave a very close
terms of high humidity. The question to be posed is whether heat recovery match to measured consumption, providing some
systems would have inhibited daytime window opening and provided more indication of sensitivity to variables. Ventilation is
appropriate levels of ventilation overnight. The monitoring of another project in undoubtedly potent, particularly in the absence of
Priesthill, Glasgow, where energy efficiency combined with health and well- significant thermal storage.

73
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

being was the goal, suggests that this is doubtful (Sharpe and Porteous, 2001).
The hilltop site is similarly exposed and there is a lack of front and back entrance
lobbies. There are also other apparent symptoms of air leakiness, low thermal
mass and a mixed approach to thermal comfort and ventilation. Only three
dwellings were monitored, but one of these consumed more than 80 per cent
more than the other two. 3.1(2) Moreover, given the experience of the survey
at Castlemilk, an assumption of heating not drifting into other months is
probably unduly optimistic. Since the temperature in the dwelling with the
highest consumption was not the highest of the three monitored, it is clear that
ventilation is the critical variable. The heat recovery units may have helped in
some measure to improve air distribution. Mean relative humidity levels were 31
per cent and never exceeded 50 per cent, but this information also reflects the
relatively high temperatures achieved.

mass as a mediator for open windows

A notable project which consciously specified a very large amount of thermal
capacitance in conjunction with passive solar gain, heat recovery and thermal
locks, is that constructed in the tiny hamlet of Hockerton in Nottinghamshire,
UK. Hockerton is close to the small minster town of Southwell, host to the
second autonomous house designed by Robert and Brenda Vale for themselves
in the 1990s (Vale and Vale, 2000). The Vales were also the architects of the
Hockerton Housing Project, and it very much embodies their zero-energy, CO2-
neutral, autonomous and holistic approach. First and foremost the plan, section
and constructional strategy are all extremely simple. Moreover, the systems for
heating and ventilation are very much embedded in these aspects of the design.
This is true synergetic integration.
There are five dwellings in a simple linear terrace (Figure 3.7). The entire 6m
deep section of living space, with approximately 18m wide frontage for each
dwelling, planned in six structural bays, is earth sheltered. The mono-pitch over
the rooms slopes up to the south to capture as much solar light and heat as
possible, while the insulated roof is covered in a generous layer of turf and the
similarly insulated rear wall retains an artificial bank of earth. In front of this, five
bays in each dwelling have a south-sloping glazed lean-to, enclosing an unheated
glazed conservatory, which is over 3m deep. The sixth bay functions as a storm
porch, and has a slated roof. All bays have roof windows, roughly 1.2m square,
and located at the highest point of the mono-pitch. The vertical wall of the
conservatory is glazed down close to the floor and there are two opening lights
corresponding to the roof windows on three of the bays and double French
windows on the remaining two. There is therefore the traditional ability to naturally
ventilate the conservatory, in the same way as any greenhouse, with fresh air
supplied through the lower windows and leaving via the roof windows.
The walls between the inner and outer parts of each house alternate
between approximately 1.2m wide solid insulated sections, and 1.8m wide by

74
ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

3.7 The south façade of one of the Hockerton

houses – late morning in April before PV
array added on top of the wall between
sunspaces and heated rooms

some 3m high glazed sections with fanlights above doors. Thus again there is
the capability for natural exchange of air between the heated interior rooms and
the conservatory, but none of the rooms have any direct glazed contact with the
outside. Accordingly, the size and south-facing orientation of the protected
inner windows compensates. They are about 60 per cent of the façade area and
30 per cent of the area of the inner floor. 3.2(1) With regard to the topic in hand,
comfort and well-being, there is an interesting dichotomy. Most people would
probably instinctively perceive the conservatory as the most attractive space
due to its greater spatiality, light, openness and proximity to the outdoor realm.
Despite the relatively generous area of south-facing windows, the inner rooms
seem cave-like in comparison to the conservatory. On the other hand, the inner
rooms provide an unusual degree of stability with respect to the main parameters
of comfort, while the conservatory will be subject to much greater fluctuations
and asymmetry. It can be argued that the two environments in tandem offer the
best of both worlds. The steady predictability of the inner sanctum is
complemented by the lively vagaries of the outer space, much more directly
tuned in to the environment and weather outside.
As indicated, the protected thermal capacitance is crucial to the lack of
climatic editing within the buffered accommodation. The opaque parts of the
house, the roof, rear wall and floor, have 30cm of ‘Dritherm’ insulation. This is
halved to 15cm in the dividing sections of wall and the low base course to the
conservatory. The insulation encapsulates a large quantity of dense concrete.
3.2(2) All internal block-work is finished in cement-lime plaster. Finally, floors
are clay quarry tiles on a concrete slab. In terms of potential replication of the

75
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

3.2 Specification at Hockerton basic strategy on a larger scale, the large amount of plastered masonry and
poured concrete raises issues of speed, particularly competing with dry timber
3.2(1) The specification for the inner windows is
argon-filled, triple-glazed, Swedish timber frames, construction. Is there a case to be made, for example, for mixed heavy and light
with a U-value of 1.4 W/m2K; while outer glazing prefabricated construction?
to the conservatory is standard double-glazed The large mass of ‘wet’ construction at Hockerton also involved a
‘Pilkington-k’, with a U-value about 1.0 W/m2K considerable period of drying out, and it was noted that there had been an
higher. Taken separately, each specification should interim period when condensation had been troublesome. However, this was
gain more energy than is lost over the duration of before the ventilation system had been installed. Fresh air is delivered to all
the heating period. Taken together, the balance of inner rooms except the kitchen and bathroom. It is supplied at low velocity
thermal gain and loss to and from the inner spaces though a 15cm diameter fireclay pipe via an air-to-air heat exchanger, which is
should be very favourable.
located over the lowered ceiling above the storm porch. Air is then extracted to
3.2(2) Excluding the 30cm insulation, the rear the heat exchanger from the kitchen, utility area and bathroom. The use of
retaining wall is 45cm thick overall, two skins of fireclay ducts seemed not only notionally earthier or greener than either plastic
concrete block having been used as permanent or metal ducting, but also to have the physical advantage of being able to
shuttering to 25cm of concrete fill. The roof consists absorb and desorb moisture from supply and extract.
of inverted pre-cast concrete T-beams at about However, during a visit to the house on a lightly overcast morning in late
75cm centres, with 10cm concrete blocks as infill.
April, it soon began to feel stuffy in the living room. A party of eight people was
Load-bearing block cross walls are 20cm thick, while
clearly too much for the rate of supply from the heat exchanger. Given that there
there is 10cm block and brick respectively on inner
was no direct sunshine at that time, and that it was distinctly chilly outside, the
and outer surfaces of the dividing wall.
rapid contrast came as something of a shock to our sensory receptors.
3.2(3) To put some figures on ventilation, if the Apparently the temperature within the internal rooms normally drops to no lower
average velocity through the ducts was about 4m/s, than 18°C in winter and rises to no higher than 22°C in summer. However, this
the system could replenish the air in all the inner
is not the main determinant of air quality. Too much CO2 exhaled along with all
spaces 0.9 times every hour (0.9 ac/h). Provided
the bad gaseous company it keeps, not to mention rather still air, will result in
there was reasonable mixing of air between spaces
stuffiness. 3.2(3)
and assuming the members of the family move
from one space to the other in a normal manner
Environmental science usually backs up experienced perception. In any
over the daily cycle, the quality of the air would be case, the visiting group welcomed a move from the living room into the
satisfactory. However, even with most of the doors conservatory. This internal climatic shift might well have corresponded to any
ajar, it can be confirmed by calculation that eight equivalent situation, where the intensity of occupation significantly exceeds the
people would overstress any one space. norm. Since part of Hockerton’s income comes from paying visitors, display
material was much in evidence. It covered at least a quarter of the vertical
windows, thus interfering to some extent with the incoming solar radiation.
Nevertheless, the space seemed very comfortably warm, but also noticeably
fresher than the previous internal pausing space. Even though all windows
remained closed, the extra volume of air, and probably also the gentle radiant
loss to the cloudy sky, was beneficial to its microclimate.
This experience raises the issue of how else to cope with social gatherings,
when the demand for fresh air inside will tend to outstrip the ducted supply. For
example, a group of people may wish to remain in the living or dining area,
rather than occupy the conservatory, depending on weather, time of year and
time of day. However, under such circumstances, the air supply may be readily
supplemented naturally, firstly by opening up to the conservatory, and secondly,

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if this still does not satisfy, by opening the windows of the conservatory directly
to the outside. The mechanically extracted air from the service areas at the
north side of the plan will also encourage some cross-ventilation in this single-
aspect situation. Given the amount of thermal storage, it may reasonably be
inferred that intermittent natural flushing with fresh air should not significantly
compromise either energy efficiency or thermal comfort. The storage effect
should also be able to accommodate normal rural family life during winter, when
children in particular may not tend to respect the draught lobby procedure of
closing inner and outer doors.
However, a potential concern is that in the event of the conservatory being
used to refresh an overcrowded interior during a summer heat wave, its supply
might be too warm. Dwellings in hot climates normally attempt to exclude
ambient air during daytime for this reason. In connection with such a scenario,
it is worth noting that the conservatory is already the ambient source for a heat
pump, which sits alongside the heat exchanger and addresses the demand for
domestic hot water. Since the pump extracts thermal energy from the air in the
conservatory, this will help it to avoid overheating. Thus the conservatory should
enhance the fine tuning of the mechanical ventilation to internal rooms. The
cooling effect of the heat pump should assist its capability to supply quite short
bursts of reasonably cool fresh air, even in relatively adverse warm conditions.
At the end of the day, it is probably the attitudes of the occupants that will
resolve potential conflict between the quality of air and the underlying manifesto
of ‘seal tight, ventilate right’. If interpreted in an over-disciplined way, quality
may indeed suffer. On the other hand, if interpreted too casually, with respect to
natural ventilation overlaid on to the mechanical system, the intended efficiency
could suffer at the expense of perceived quality. The post-occupancy inclusion
of log burning stoves within the conservatories implies not only valuing the
psycho-social potential of these spaces, but also the users trusting themselves
not to light them too frequently. Normally, in the UK at least, heating such
spaces in winter is considered to compromise their energy-saving role. At
Hockerton, the stoves, acknowledged as an afterthought, were apparently for
specific seasonal social gatherings such as at Halloween, and definitely not to
be used for heating on a regular basis.
Over and above the issue of opening windows, their size relative to their
particular context is important in terms of how occupants feel. The same issue
of quantity versus quality or energy efficiency versus well-being is relevant. The
area of the inner windows at Hockerton has already been mentioned. Given the
6m depth of the adjacent dining kitchen and living areas, it can be convincingly
argued that the size was essential for daylight. The windows to dwellings at
Gravinnehof were also generous, typically around 75 per cent of their host
façade, but then some of these were shielded by the timber and glass screen,
or located at low level in a fairly confined courtyard. A quantity surveyor might

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well have argued for smaller windows in the interests of life-cycle costs,
including those of energy. But a convincing rebuttal would be that the quality of
life of the occupants would have suffered in terms of prospect and daylight. In
the Edwards house, the conservatory and the glazed screen between it and the
hallway compensated for the modestly sized Georgian windows of the original
house. Moreover, the very cheap specification for the outer glazed skin also
complemented the architect’s intentions with regard to its quasi-outdoor
character. This includes the stimulating experiential contrast between primitive
and sophisticated shelter, the former quality taken to a greater extreme here
than at Hockerton. Such a sensually justified strategy could well offer an
economically viable route to uptake of glazed buffer spaces in publicly funded
social housing.
However, the reality is that conservatories on rented housing schemes are
relatively rare. Also the direct glazing of rooms tends toward dimensional
meanness and does not relate strongly enough to orientation. For example, the
windows of the new-build homes in Castlemilk, Glasgow, which were discussed
above, defer more closely to the minimum statutory requirement. The net glazed
area for bedrooms are about 10 per cent of floor area, living rooms, 13–15 per
cent and kitchens, 25 per cent. In Scotland, the minimum was lowered from one
tenth of the floor area to one fifteenth back in 1986. By the time such small, if
compliant, windows are cluttered with curtains, blinds or both, rooms can be
very gloomy. Although the standards adopted for the Glasgow houses are
comfortably above this miserly limit, only their kitchens come close to
Hockerton’s 30 per cent, and unfortunately most of the kitchens face north. At
Hockerton all windows face south and are approximately four and a half times
the area of the legal nadir. Although it has been elicited that Hockerton’s lack of
direct contact with the outside and its single-aspect plan justifies such a
differential, that is only part of the story. Minimum standards tend to reflect
simple economics, which in turn lead to a lack of altruism towards reasonable
lifestyle aspirations of occupants. Energy-efficient windows are likely to remain
much more expensive than the same area of energy-efficient wall. But narrow,
short-term attitudes to building costs, which may or may not result in energy
efficiency, should be countered with the wider long-term costs of poor health,
well-being and comfort. We must take more notice of ‘physiological psychology’.
This is a concept that Richard Neutra asserts (Neutra, 1954, p315) dates back
to Wilhelm Max Wundt (1832–1920), a German physiologist and psychologist,
who employed introspective methods and ‘studied sensation, perception of
space and time, and reaction times.’ (Upshall, 1990).

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ENVIRONMENTAL COMFORT AND WELL-BEING

REFERENCES

Etlin, R. A. (1994) ‘The Architectural System’, in Frank Lloyd Wright and Le

Corbusier: The Romantic Legacy, Manchester University Press, Manchester
and New York, pp33, 73.

Howieson, S. G., Lawson, A., McSharry, C., Morris, G., McKenzie, E. and
Jackson, J. (2003) ‘Domestic ventilation rates, indoor humidity and dust mite
allergens: Are our homes causing the asthma pandemic?’, Building Services
Engineering Research & Technology, vol 24, no 3, pp137–147.

Kondratenko, I., Porteous, C. D. A. and Sharpe, T. R. (2004) ‘Why are new

‘Direct Gain’ dwellings underperforming in Scotland?’, in Eurosun 2004
Sonnenforum, proceedings of conference (20–26 June, Freiburg, Germany)
PSE GmbH, vol 2, pp370–375.

Neutra, R. (1954) Survival Through Design, Oxford University Press, New York.

Sharpe, T. and Porteous, C. (2001) ‘New energy efficient public housing in

Glasgow – the Priesthill Project’, in van der Leun, K. and van der Ree, B. (eds),
North Sun 2001: A Solar Odyssey, Technology Meets Market in the Solar Age,
proceedings of conference (6–8 May), Ecofys, Leiden, the Netherlands.

Tong, D. and Wilson, S. (1990) ‘Building Related Sickness’, in Curwell, S.,

March C. and Venables R. (eds) Buildings and Health: The Rosehaugh Guide
to the Design, Construction, Use and Management of Buildings, RIBA
Publications, London, pp261–275.

Upshall, M. (ed) (1990) The Hutchinson Encyclopedia, 9th edition, Random

Century Ltd., London, p1221.

Vale, B. and Vale, R. (2000) The New Autonomous House: Design and
Planning for Sustainability, Thames & Hudson Ltd., London.

Wilson, S. and Hedge, A. (1987) The Office Environment Survey: A Study of

Building Sickness, Building Use Studies Ltd., London.

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80
ADAPTIVE CONTROL

Chapter 4 Adaptive Control

Having engaged with microclimatic opportunities and key environmental

conflicts with regard to the comfort and well-being of occupants, this chapter
looks further into the interface between the intended and actual control of the
indoor environment. The participatory role of the user/client gains further
emphasis, but of course with the means and adaptability of control still
constrained or enabled by what the designers have provided. What has to be
recognized at the outset is that expectations of performance are rarely met, and
the main reason for this is that designers are not realistically predicting or
addressing the actions of lay users. Also, although most if not all their
interference can in theory be designed out by smart technology, even in this
circumstance professional experts are quite capable of setting the main
parameters of electronic control inappropriately. However, the agenda here
continues to be on projects where there is significant scope for intervention by
the individuals who live in buildings or use them, rather than institutional or
corporate owners or managers.
For some time now, the concept of ‘adaptive opportunities’ has been
postulated relative to environmental comfort (Baker and Standeven, 1995).
Essentially, the hypothesis is that variable, but non-random, actions by users
will naturally tend to generate more leeway with comfort than was previously
held to be the case. This is the ‘loosening up’ to which the introduction to the
previous chapter referred. Such opportunities often relate to the position and
movement of a person in a particular space relative to purpose (functional,
cultural, etc.). The opportunities may be consciously taken or, equally, they may
be instinctive.
Adaptive opportunities may be enacted in any built environment, whether
controlled, as Dean Hawkes puts it, in ‘exclusive’ or ‘selective’ mode (Hawkes,
1988). He defines the key characteristics of the former as having predominantly
artificial systems with automatic control whereas the latter has a mix of natural
and artificial systems and a combination of automatic and manual controls. The
selective mode also deliberately engages with the ambient environment more
positively than the exclusive mode, the aim being both to exploit free solar
energy and to provide a more sympathetic environment for users. It can then be

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argued that selective mode provides greater scope for adaptive opportunity
than its exclusive counterpart. The term ‘adaptive control’ used here is slightly
different, and clearly falls within the realm of the selective mode as defined by
Hawkes. It again implies an opportunity, but one which is made available by
means of a system or mechanism, for an occupant to modify his or her
immediate environment. It implies adjustable controls that are in place because
the designers of the building have made them so. Also there is an expectation,
or at least a hope, that they will be used logically. Whether or not energy-
efficient performance is compromised becomes the prime issue, but the desire
for well-being and thermal comfort naturally remains the prime motivation.
Having broadly defined ‘adaptive control’ to include actions which may
interfere with other forms of control, set aside for the following two chapters,
three main linked areas will now be explored in depth. Each has specific
relevance to solar performance. The first concerns ownership of the means to
adapt, while the second applies this to a specific technique, that of domestic
sunspaces, and the third considers various socio-demographic influences.

Owning the means of proaction

Controls cannot exist without ownership and the ability to activate them. The
prefix ‘pro’ used with ‘action’ may be taken as either for, as opposed to against,
or as before. For accentuates the positive characteristics of an activity. In any
building, the occupants who are in a position to do something to alter their
environment are advantageously endowed by the designers. Before implies
thinking in advance of taking action. For example, before going to bed on a
windy night in winter, one might well weigh up whether the trickle ventilation
might provide an adequate supply of fresh air for comfortable sleeping, or
whether the window might be left slightly ajar. It is a matter of being able to
make decisions about fine-tuning the environment with the benefit of some
advance knowledge. The decision would also be very dependent on previous
decisions by the designer of the building that may or may not have been subject
to input from the occupant or owner. In particular the specification of the
window, and the choice and manner of opening can vary widely. Traditional
vertical sliding sash and case windows permit great flexibility. A mix of small
hoppers and larger casements permit some flexibility. But single opening lights,
say of the ’tilt and turn’ variety, are much more limiting in terms of adjustability.
There are also other considerations that may inhibit occupants from being
proactive. People may feel insecure in urban ground floor locations or, if a room
is small, the placement of furniture may restrict access to windows.
Dictionary definitions of the word ‘proactive’ (Allen, 1993), which use the
sense of pro as before, also imbue a sense of the positive: ‘tending actively to
instigate changes in anticipation of future developments, as opposed to merely
reacting to events as they occur; ready to take the initiative, acting without

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being prompted by others’. Such attributes are generally viewed enthusiastically,

but when it comes to buildings, there is a risk attached to the proactive
behaviour of occupants. Unpredictable or apparently irrational control by them
is likely to affect energy efficiency adversely. On the other hand, as has already
been mentioned, a building that inhibits a proactive approach may well stress
them to a point of affecting their health and well-being adversely. Again, such
tensions are best explored by means of case studies.

participatory bilateralism
The proactive ownership of a youth club in Möglingen, on the northern outskirts
of Stuttgart in Germany involves an interesting paradox. The architect, Peter
Hübner, was anxious from the outset to treat the young users as participatory
stakeholders. Asked what kind of building they wanted, a flying saucer or UFO
emerged strongly on their wish-list. Hübner responded to this in a very literal
way (Figure 4.1). In fact the name of the centre became ‘JUFO’ an acronym for
JUgend FOrum. He then had the idea of a tilted, rotating roof, effectively the
base of the inverted saucer, in order to admit or exclude sunlight according to 4.1 General view of the JUgend FOrum

season and time of day (Figure 4.2). This could be classified as an electronically
adjustable, direct solar gain technique.

4.2 Schematics for the rotating roof

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

In order to keep it as light as possible, but without sacrificing energy

efficiency, the convex lens-shaped opaque component comprised: ‘a rigid
sandwich formed of two paper-thin (0.23mm) sheets of stainless steel inflated
and filled with polystyrene granules.’ (Blundell Jones, 1996). The shiny surface
had the added advantage of being able to reflect about 95 per cent of solar
radiation in both long and short wavelength. This again limits solar overheating
in hot weather and conserves in cold weather, the thermal emissivity or
emittance of the surface to a clear night sky in winter being only of the order of
5 per cent. This specification is naturally outside the principle of users enjoying
‘adaptive control’. Also, the mechanism to make movement possible, a cogged
base-ring enabling a very low gearing ratio, is automated.
Nevertheless, one may conclude that the concept of a UFO, which still had
the capability of moving a major part of its structure while landed, would be very
appealing to the young clientèle. After all, it arose from their idea. It moved at least
a couple of times during a relatively short visit on a summer evening, and the
clicking movement was certainly intriguing to the visitor. Moreover, the users were
left with one simple manual control that involved the rotating section of roof. This
was a pole to open two sections of window, some 2m high by 0.9m wide, in the
high-level clerestory circle of fenestration above the movable base-ring.
In reality this had unfortunately proved unworkable, awkward or inconvenient.
Whatever the reason, the windows remained closed at the time of the visit. This
was problematic because stratified warm air was then unable to escape. Despite
the roof rotating to reduce direct solar gain and French doors to the outside being
wide open, the interior was uncomfortably warm. The perceived paradox is that
although the automated device worked, the primitive one, which was within the
control of the users, did not. This seems to run contrary to normal expectation
that if smart mechanisms fail, we can always rely on the basic manual ones to
work. It is a view based on the reliability of simple technology. In this case,
however, the geared rotational mechanism is as simple as the pole-operated one
for opening the windows, and both have a relatively long history. It is only the
electronic programmer for moving the ring that is sophisticated. It also raises the
question that if automation was good enough for the main movement of the roof,
why was it not deemed appropriate for the windows, a much more routine task?
An answer might be that it would then tend to more completely exclude the users,
the logic being that if they can open and shut low-level windows, they should also
be permitted to control high-level ones.
In any event, the sense of ownership among the vibrant members of this
club seemed to be undiminished, and the problems of overheating did not
appear to concern them unduly. Also, it is important to note that the outer skin
is only the outer half of this building’s participatory and passive solar identity. As
stated in the first chapter, the term ‘direct gain’ applies to solar systems where
irradiation passes through glazing directly into a space. The inner bounding
materials, particularly floors and walls, then determine the capability for storing

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heat. In the case of JUgend FOrum, an alternative concept put forward at the
initial brainstorming session between architect and users was ‘city of mud’. This
idea was also adopted in a rather literal manner for all the interior spaces within
the shell of the ‘saucer’ (Figure 4.3). Anyone who has seen any of the famous
BBC Dr Who series on television may note an inverted ‘Tardis’ connection. The
Tardis transmogrified from the small, rather battered old 20th century British
police box on the outside into a spacious futuristic interior. The JUgend FOrum
reverses this order. The individual spaces defined by the thick earthy materiality
inside do support the illusion of ‘mud city’ within a UFO. Thus ownership
through the realization of the two original wishful ideas of the young clients is
achieved with due panache.
Of course spatially there is no magic. The interior fits within its given shell.
The hobbit-like carving of the internal volume does provide a large amount of
thermal storage mass, its logic to stabilize indoor temperature over the daily
cycle, just as at Hockerton. However, most importantly relative to proactive
ownership, it allowed the original users to participate in the most direct manner
by self-building. Whilst the thermal capacitance is outside the scope of day-to-day
‘adaptive control’ by users, the high-tech/low-tech, transformer characteristic
is inherently attractive to the young. Moreover, it is paradoxically the robustly
low-tech component of the ensemble, which can be most readily altered. It
provides the possibility for a continuing proactive role for any of its young
users who wish to be involved. They can physically reshape ‘mud city’ without
discarding the UFO.

4.3 Internal view of ‘city of mud’

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An earlier project in Scotland again illustrates the bilateral subtleties of

automated and manual ownership when it comes to controlling air and, in this
case, daylight as well as heat from solar radiation. Methilhill Primary School in
Fife, by project architect George Gibson of Fife Council, was included in the
‘Building 2000’ programme of the Commission of European Communities (CEC).
As such, it was subject to intensive dynamic computer modelling at pre-contract
stage. Key for the classrooms was the facilitation of natural ventilation and
daylight, the aim being to displace electricity. There are two main architectural
features to assist in realization – a pair of central atria and large roof windows
located between the atria and the perimeter. Sliding–folding screens allow
classrooms to extend into the atria, which have background floor heating for cold
weather. The sets of roof windows, with opening lights operated by thermostatically
controlled actuators – three seconds to open and close – have a manual override.
Sets of shading louvres below the glazing are entirely operated by poles, while
teachers also control venetian blinds to the vertical windows. Since orientations
of classrooms vary from northeast and southeast to southwest and northwest,
the issue of glare from the sun will vary considerably over a day, the southerly
orientations being the most vulnerable. Also, the southeast façade is twice as
long as that facing southwest. Apparently there is a tendency for blinds along this
edge to be closed in the morning to prevent solar glare, and thereafter, artificial
lighting remains on, and there is seldom a later decision to re-open blinds. Hence,
a main objective of the architect has been compromised to some extent.
Nevertheless, it would seem that a building such as a primary school does have
to provide teachers with the means of individually adjusting their environment,
even if sometimes this runs counter to energy-efficiency. This interface between
manual and automatic controls will be revisited in Chapter 6 in regard to the
detailed design of the adjustable, south-facing and fully glazed façade of another
Scottish school with similar architectural ambitions to save electricity by means of
daylight and natural ventilation.

early passive solar precedents – bifurcation

Most of the first wave of explicitly passive solar modern buildings, many of which
were built in the USA in the 1930s and 1940s, adopted a ‘direct gain’ strategy,
which was more in tune with the pragmatism of the school in Fife than the
aesthetic romanticism of JUgend FOrum. Rationalism prevailed, the means of
thermal storage conforming to the same utilitarian ideology as the envelope. At
the start of this period there were fixed and movable systems to control incoming
solar gain, as well as to conserve it once captured. It has already been mentioned
that in 1935 the Libby-Owens-Ford glass company marketed its first sealed
double-glazed units, which effectively halved the rate at which heat is lost. Even
though the organic seals were problematic, with many cases of misting between
the two panes, this represented a significant technical advance.

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It was also in 1935 that architect George Fred Keck worked with two
commercial companies to design and produce external aluminium venetian
blinds (Boyce, 1993). These were used in five houses over the course of the
following two years. In one of them, the Cahn house, completed in 1936, the
movable blinds worked in tandem with a fixed roof overhang. The recognition of
architectural geometry and movement to permit appropriate phasing with solar
geometry and movement was established for ‘direct gain’ solutions. In the same
year, the Doldertal apartments in Zurich were completed. Designed by Marcel
Breuer with Alfred and Emil Roth, they had curtains around the recessed first and
second floor terraces, and adjustable awnings and shutters for windows that
were flush with the façade. JUgend FOrum undoubtedly takes this principle
beyond the pragmatism of flexible shades and fixed overhangs. But the innovation
lies in refinement, rather than the principle itself, and, as we have seen, that
particular refinement was still susceptible to problems of thermal control.
It was exactly a decade after the technical advances of 1935 relative to
direct solar gain, that another architect, Arthur Brown, built the first of many
modern ‘indirect solar gain’ projects (Butti and Perlin, 1980). This marks a
radical change of approach, where thermal storage intervenes between solar
irradiation that has passed through outer glazing and the internal spaces to be
heated. In the case of Brown’s design for a house in Tucson, Arizona, a 20cm
thick, black-painted concrete wall separated a south-facing conservatory from
other accommodation including bedrooms and kitchen. Brown estimated this to
delay transfer of solar heat by some eight hours (although one would have
expected a shorter period of around five and a half hours for normal dense
concrete). However, in cold, overcast weather, considerable amounts of heat
would have been lost due to lack of insulation. The combined U-value of this
wall and the outer glazing would have been about 2W/m2K, approximately ten
times as great as a modern energy-efficient wall in a cold nocturnal state.
Hence, for this particular application of indirect solar gain, there are two
issues. Firstly, if winters are not predominantly sunny, the net balance of gains
and losses of energy will not be favourable. Secondly, the dividing wall
respectively constrains prospect and sunlight from and into the rooms that lie
behind it. In recognition of these factors, the indirect competitor to a direct
passive solar strategy also developed in two directions. One strand retained
mass-storage walls, but eliminated the space between transparent envelope
and thermal store as an amenity, the gap between glass and wall shrinking to a
few centimetres. Although the scope to adaptively control such components
may appear to be rather limited, and may be underestimated or misunderstood
by both designers and users, it is still present in most case studies. Another
strand embraced sunspaces, where the positive transfer of solar energy is not
predominantly by conduction through a storage wall. Convection and radiation
play stronger parts, and they are inherently much more open to adaptive control

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4.1 Details of the 1967 and 1974 Trombe- by occupants. Introduced in the opening chapter and remaining contentious for
Michel wall experiments many reasons, sunspaces will be reviewed at some length in the middle part of
this chapter.
4.1(1) The main difference between the two versions
was the thickness of the storage wall, reducing Meanwhile, the ‘indirect gain’ strand of thermal storage walls has been
from 60cm of very dense concrete (conductivity employed and refined in various climatic regions, including some within the
1.75W/mK) in 1967 to 37cm in 1974. The time scope of this book.
lag for heat to travel through the thick wall was
reckoned to be too long at 14–16 hours, while it solar thermal storage walls inhibit adaptive control
was too short for the slimmer version at 9–10 hours. In terms of research and development applied to indirect solar walls, the first
The conclusion for this particular climatic location major advances occurred in Odeillo in southern France. Odeillo is home to the
was that 45cm would have been appropriate. Centre National de la Recherche Scientifique (CNRS), within which was
Another difference was that since the volumetric established the Laboratoire Energetique Solaire. It is located at 42.5°N latitude
heat loss had improved from 1.63W/m3K in the
and an altitude of 1550 metres, and typically enjoys 204 hours of sunshine in
1967 prototype to 1.00W/m3K in 1974, the area of
January (Palz and Steemers, 1981). This is nearly 70 per cent of the available
collector was correspondingly reduced from 0.16 to
period of daylight. At the same time in January the mean temperature is well
0.10m2 per cubic metre. Although a British report,
below 2°C. In other words there is an excellent match between the solar supply
compiled not long after the second experiment (Long,
1976), refers to ‘a glazed south-facing wall which is and the demand for heat. Moreover, solar geometry at this latitude results in a
insulated from the interior of the house’, no insulation substantial reduction in transmitted solar energy through vertical glazed
was used in these early experiments. This was a later surfaces during summer months. As noted previously, once the angle of
development, as in the use of transparent insulation incidence (that between the solar beam and a line normal to the glass) is over
in the 1980s. the critical fifty degrees, much of the incident short-wave radiation does not get
4.1(2) It was also estimated that the later wall provided
transmitted through a glass cover. Such a free heating potential during winter, in
some 5 per cent more useful heat by convection than tandem with an inherent passive overheating regulator in summer, invited
the earlier one – 35–40 per cent of the total solar innovative exploitation.
contribution rather than 30–35 per cent. It was in 1967 at Odeillo that architect Jacques Michel and scientist Felix
Trombe designed and tested the first of their ‘indirect gain’ experimental solar
dwellings. Its south-facing thermal storage wall was patented as ANVAR
TROMBE MICHEL. This subsequently became a passive solar champion, and
its performance has been well published alongside that of a modified version
constructed in 1974 (Trombe et al, 1979; Keable, 1979). 4.1(1) Of course,
issues of detailed design lie in the purely passive realm. There is no scope for
adaptive control by occupants. However, the Trombe-Michel wall and its earlier
precedents did provide for adjustment by the user with regard to convection.
Both the monitored versions of the Trombe-Michel wall differed relative to
that of the 1945 Brown house in that convective exchange between the air
behind the outer glazing and the inner rooms was more systematic. In the
Brown house, there were connecting louvred doors. In order to exploit thermal
buoyancy more effectively, the solar wall at Odeillo incorporated ventilators with
hinged flaps at high and low level. These enabled cool air at floor level to be re-
circulated past the absorbing face of the wall, picking up any heat from the sun,
and re-enter the room at high level, 4.1(2) with the operation of this left in the
hands of occupants.

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In relation to hot weather in summer, Trombe and Michel enhanced their

advantageous passive starting point by projecting the mono-pitch roof beyond
the façade. Further, by opening vents at the top of the south wall to the outside
and low level ones inside, together with others in the north wall, the space
between glass and wall functions as a ‘solar chimney’. Relatively cool, dense air
entering the bottom of this sun-heated gap again becomes less dense as it
warmed, but this time rising to exit at the top, with the upper vents to the interior
closed. Hence the sun assists air to cross-ventilate from the cool north to the
warm south.
These devices, rather than the wall itself, provide the possibility for adaptive
control. In terms of the monitored performance at Odeillo, the vents were
significant. However, it should be acknowledged that perception of irritatingly
cool draughts in cool or cold weather might well cause occupants to use them
sparingly, assuming that they are to be manually operated. This would especially
be the case when the temperature of the surface of the wall was below the
desired temperature of the air. The consequent increased radiant loss from
occupants to this surface would tend to increase sensitivity to the movement of
the air as it executes its convective loop. In particular, the air cooling and
descending along the north wall and returning to the lower vents across the
occupied part of the floor could result in discomfort. It may also be noted that in
terms of technical advancement, the high and low level ventilators associated
with a solar collection device were not new. Edward Morse, a notable American
botanist and ethnologist, first attached one to his home in Salem, Massachusetts,
in 1892, three quarters of a century before the first Trombe-Michel prototype. By
coincidence, the location shares almost exactly the same latitude as Odeillo.
The solar geometry in both locations is the same even if other climatic
parameters are not.

Trombe-Michel principle moves north to Ireland

There were many experimental attempts to exploit the ‘indirect gain’ Trombe-
Michel principle in more northerly latitudes with more temperate and cloudier
winters. One of these was a slimmed down version located in rural Ireland. The
Oakpath Research Centre at Carlow to the southwest of Dublin at 52.8°N,
monitored this project (Figure 4.4) with results reported at the inaugural North
Sun ’84 in Edinburgh (O’Farrell and Lynskey, 1984). However, most of this
information belongs in the next chapter on passive control. In terms of adaptive
control by users, the attention focuses on the manually operated bespoke
timber vents at the top and bottom of the absorber wall. Although they were
fitted with proprietary draught sealers they came in for considerable criticism:
‘The adjustable vents to the wall were not satisfactory and these should be
precision made and more easily operable… Greater control of the air movement 4.4 Trombe-Michel principle applied to Irish
would have increased the performance.’ agricultural cottage in Carlow – south façade

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Note that, for monitoring purposes, both top and bottom internal vents
4.2 Christopher Taylor Court: variable
estimates of U-values were fixed in the open position, while the standard ‘Greenwood Airvac’ vents at
the top of the external glazing remained closed. However, having suggested
The solar demonstration report for the Commission
that greater control by occupants of more sophisticated manufactured
of European Communities (CEC) and the Energy
components could have improved performance, it was also acknowledged that
Performance Appraisal (EPA) report for Energy
‘the additional operational attention required make it a debatable method for
Technology Support Unit (ETSU) respectively
realizing solar gain within normal housing in these climates.’
estimated U-values of 1.08W/m2K and 0.65W/m2K.
However, it is estimated that the ‘cold’ or ‘dark’
thermal storage wall in England with movable insulation
nocturnal U-value at 0°C could be as high as
1.30W/m2K. Meanwhile, depending on the precise A few years later a similar wall in the UK omitted inner vents altogether, but had
specification of the shutters, the corresponding a different method of potential adaptive control by the occupants. This is the
nocturnal U-value for the shuttered windows may be Christopher Taylor Court sheltered housing scheme by architect David Clarke
about 0.60W/m2K. Associates, located in Bourneville ‘solar village’ in Birmingham at 52.3° north
latitude. Sections of solar storage wall in both the living room and the bedroom
in each flat have been located next to an equivalent width of fenestration. After
a cold sunny day, the idea was that residents could move an insulated sliding
shutter from behind the wall to cover the window and French door. This would
inhibit loss of heat through glazing, whilst simultaneously allowing the wall to
donate its stored heat to the room. Overheating could also be avoided by
locating the shutters behind the wall throughout the 24-hour cycle in warm
weather, as well as opening windows to increase ventilation. However, according
to two monitoring studies (Lewis, 1989; Yannas, 1994, pp98–102), the optimum
positioning of the sliding panel was not well understood by all of the residents.
Apparently around 35 per cent did not use the shutters at all, while some 60 per
cent claimed that they did operate them logically all year round, although not
necessarily understanding their insulating role. An additional problem for those
that used the shutters as a matter of routine is that on a cold night following an
overcast day, while the window would be thermally efficient, the wall would then
tend to lose heat outwards quite rapidly. 4.2 ‘Thermal mass dilemmas’ in
Chapter 5 will probe more deeply into this aspect of the passive performance.
Hinged timber awnings were also intended to shade the windows in summer
in order to limit overheating, with the warden manually changing their positions in
spring and autumn. However, the residents complained that they blocked out too
much light and they were reportedly not used after the first summer of occupation.
Certainly they were tucked away below balconies and eaves in the spring of 1992.
The complaint about poor daylight, particularly within the sitting room is not
unreasonable, given that the net glazed area is less than 9 per cent of its floor
area. Indeed, including the kitchen, planned as an open recess to the rear of the
sitting room, the proportion of glazing appears to be struggling to meet the
statutory minimum percentage of the floor area. The irony is that in spite of such
misgivings about daylight, curtains are used quite liberally during the hours of
daylight, especially on the ground floor. It would appear that the desire for privacy
is stronger than the need for daylight (Figure 4.5).

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The monitoring also provided evidence that windows were opened to 4.5 General view and close-up of south façade of
regulate overheating, while thermostats remained set very high. Temperatures in Christopher Taylor Court – note prevalence of
curtains for privacy on ground floor
both flats and corridors ranged from 20–25°C and averaged about 23°C daily
over the entire year. Furthermore, it was estimated that air was replenished more
that twice hourly on average. As a result, the energy consumed for heating the
complex was much higher than predicted, representing about three quarters of
the total use of energy. However, neither of the two monitoring studies provided
definitive answers as to why ventilation was used, rather than thermostats, to
regulate indoor thermal comfort. The residents are of course elderly, and older
people with a relatively sedentary lifestyle and slow circulation do need higher
temperatures than more active younger occupants of housing. Nevertheless,
there are striking similarities to the two new housing schemes in Glasgow that
were included as case studies in the previous chapter. It may well suit residents
of any age that radiators never switch off, and that some fresh air is a welcome
complement to a comfortably warm room. This seems to be the most likely, and
to some quite logical, rationale for maximum settings of thermostats together
with open windows. Unfortunately such a system of control does not sit easily
with the aim of conserving energy.

thermal storage wall in Scotland with transparent insulation

Another UK solar demonstration project employing a modified form of the
Trombe-Michel wall was also compromised to a significant extent by the actions
of users. This is the world’s largest application of transparent insulation,
commonly abbreviated to TI (see also Chapters 2 and 6), on the southerly
façade of a student residence in Glasgow (Figure 4.6). This project was
commissioned by the University of Strathclyde (Twidell and Johnstone, 1993),

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with a German company sub-contracted to design and fabricate the TI ‘LEGIS’

wall, as it was named. The building as a whole was designed by architects
Kennedy and Partners, and completed in 1989. The basic principle is to lower
outward loss of heat by conduction by inserting the TI between the glazed cover
and the solar storage wall. At the same time the TI allows a relatively high rate
of solar transmission inwards, thus significantly raising the temperature of the
wall in sunny weather. Like Christopher Taylor Court, there are no adjustable
vents set into the wall. Here the scope for adaptive control by the occupants lies
principally with the windows, their blinds and auxiliary heating appliances. If the
passive TI wall under-performs in cool overcast weather, the students are more
likely to be tempted to overuse the auxiliary heating, particularly during the
evenings and overnight.
Further, if the considerable thermal mass is allowed to cool over a prolonged
period, from late December to early January for example, the room might be
both cold and stuffy. One can imagine the circumstances of students returning
in festive mood, and entertaining a friend or two. The heating would need to be
on, in all probability while the window was also open. The final report of
monitoring does suggest that such scenarios were prevalent.
A number of critical issues were highlighted with regard to heating. The first
4.6 Solar TI façade of a student residence in was that the consumption of electricity by students is not metered. They pay a flat
Glasgow, facing slightly west of south rate for the accommodation regardless of how much energy is consumed. To
make matters worse the 200W electric panel heaters in rooms could not cope
with surges in demand. Although students can activate them at any time, they are
electronically disabled at regular intervals. The report acknowledges that some of
them managed to permanently override this control. It was also found that the
intended method of operation and control ‘was a mystery for the great majority of
occupants, none of whom had been given an explanation of the system.’ Similarly
the controls for larger 750W heaters in the common rooms had been overridden.
One of the reasons in this case was to facilitate drying of clothes. Although there
was a communal laundry in one of the blocks, the desire to localize washing and
drying of at least small items was strong. It is known that excessive humidity
attributable to the drying out of the masonry subsided to a reasonable level after
the first winter. However, drying clothes inside the bed-sitting rooms in particular
would tend to encourage students to open windows as a means of regulating
humidity as well as to facilitate general freshness.
The monitoring came up with several findings regarding the use of windows.
One was that the role of trickle ventilators was poorly understood. Alternatively
these devices may not have provided sufficient ventilation for some students. It
is recorded that although 46 per cent claimed not to open their windows during
winter, of the 54 per cent who did more than a third opened them for around two
hours daily and nearly a fifth for as long as six hours. From data in the report, it
is possible to estimate that the air in the bed-sitting rooms was replenished at

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an average rate of 0.74 times per hour. 4.3 This is not in itself excessive, but 4.3 Strathclyde student residence: air
for the users who admit to opening for several hours at a time, it would lead to change rate from monitored data
a need for auxiliary heat to augment that provided by the solar wall. In other
The corridor, common room, kitchen, toilets and
words it would increase the temptation to override the automatic control for the showers were served by a mechanical heat recovery
electric heater. system. The net load per student week is given as
The other aspect that is relevant here is the intensity of occupation. 11kWh. The balance attributable to ventilation or ‘air
Although a high rate of occupation will increase incidental thermal gain, it will leakage’ is given as 15kWh. This may be redefined
also increase the need for ventilation. Almost half of the students claimed to as a flow of heat averaging 89.3 watts daily (15
occupy their flat for 16 hours daily, and a third for 12 hours. Only 5 per cent divided by 7 days, divided by 0.024). Since the
alleged the lower time of 8 hours, while the balance claimed 20 hours. In other mean differential in temperature between inside
words, the flats were rather intensively occupied, with an average of nearly 14 and outside is given as 18.3K, the rate of loss due
to ventilation is 4.88W/K. The net average volume
hours daily.
of a bed-sitting room is 20m3. The hourly rate of air
thermal storage wall in Sweden with isolated solar supply change is then given by 4.88 divided by 20 and also
by a coefficient of approximately 0.33 representing
Another notable variant on the thermal storage wall was the refurbishment in
the density and specific heat capacity of air.
1986 of a three-storey block of flats in Göteborg, Sweden, by architects Christer
and Kirsten Nordström. This project has already been cited in Chapter 2 in
terms of its integrated multi-functionality. It may be difficult to imagine how such
a closed and hidden system can be subject to the adaptive control of users. It
is true that heat from the wall itself is only likely to be affected by the placing of
furniture and furnishings, and it was reported after initial monitoring in the early
part of 1987 that the solar installation had worked very well (Nordström and
Nordström, 1987). However, it was also reported that the auxiliary district
heating system was not readily adjusted. In spring, some residents opened
windows in order to avoid overheating. To address this waste of energy, the
central heating was reconfigured during the summer of 1987 so that it could be
‘balanced and adjusted to the solar system.’ Nevertheless, anxiety was
expressed that since the residents paid a flat rate for heating together with their
rent, they lacked motivation to be frugal with regard to consumption of energy.
In this regard it is a similar situation to that of the students at the solar residence
of the University of Strathclyde in Glasgow.
Christer Nordström explains the situation with regard to the pattern of
opening windows and the subsequent action taken in more depth:

Yes, we had problems with the control system because the whole building
was controlled by one central unit. The tenants tended to open their
windows when the solar system was activated and the indoor temperature
went up. In order to save energy, we had to find a way to manipulate the
control system and adjust it to the new ‘solar situation’. After monitoring
(= looking) which windows were opened, we found an old lady who never
opened her windows and we put the temperature detector in her flat. After
this, the energy used for space heating went down from 80 per cent
(compared to the situation before renovation) to 40 per cent… yes, it was

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very successful. When the tenants opened their windows in winter, their flats
became cold and as a result they closed them. But, of course, it all
depended on the old lady... I do not know what happened and if she is still
living there. But the energy manager of the public housing company told me
one month ago that they made a check on the energy consumption in the
late 1990s and that the system was still working and the energy
consumption was very low.

He also adds: ‘During the 1980s there were a lot of experiments with advanced
equipment which turned off the heat when the tenants opened the windows – but
without success.’ (Quotations are from email correspondence, 19 February 2004.)
In any case it is evident that it was not simply the random and intermittent
opening of the windows that was critical. These flats had a great deal of
insulated thermal capacitance after their renovation in 1986. This would have
ameliorated the thermal penalty of open windows, providing they did not remain
open for lengthy periods. In this instance it was the arbitrary location of the
master thermostat in a single flat that was the influential wild card.
Nordström goes on to talk about a carrot and stick monitoring system
applied to a recent housing retrofit:

In our latest multi family solar renovation (255 flats from the late 1960s) a
system for individual monitoring of space heating consumption + domestic
hot water (DHW) + water + electricity was introduced. It has saved about
15–17 per cent of the energy. As you know, in Sweden all heating is normally
included in the rent, which means that the tenants have no reason to save.
With this system they will get a reduction of the rent if they have a low
indoor temperature and have to pay more if their flat is very warm. It is a
simple technology – the indoor temperature is monitored in each apartment.

Although this level of management was not available for the 1986 project, there
were other efforts to influence the occupants towards more energy-conscious
behaviour. It was apparently the social engineering in the form of the communal
greenhouse that allowed the architects to proactively wield some propaganda,
if not ‘adaptive control’, in this regard.

the case for an unexpected ‘human interaction factor’ in predictions

What the above projects indicate is that even where passive, active or hybrid
solar strategies and mechanisms are designed to be self-controlling, the system
as a whole may still be vulnerable to unexpected adjustment by users. This
means that when the primary solar set-up is found to work as well as predicted,
there remains scope for the consumption of energy to be well above the
anticipated level. When the design deliberately allows for participatory control,
the possibilities widen. There is therefore an argument for building in a more
credible human interaction factor into simulations – a pragmatic recognition that

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occupants will use whatever means are at their disposal in order to meet their
particular needs or desires, whether driven by thermal comfort, security,
functional convenience, amenity and so on.
A relatively extreme example, which would have been difficult to predict,
was that of a taxi driver. He lived on the uppermost floor of a block of flats in
Easthall, Glasgow, which were upgraded as a European Solar Demonstration
Project in the early 1990s. His bedroom was located below a fan that transported
air from a roof-mounted solar air collector through an air-to-water heat
exchanger to a preheat tank. The fan was designed to switch on whenever a
certain temperature was reached in the collector. Unfortunately, due to the
vagaries of the Scottish weather, this occurred intermittently during the daytime,
when the tenant, who worked night shifts, was trying to sleep. In spite of pads
below the fan to absorb vibration, the acoustic interference was sufficiently
irritating for him to gain access to the attic and disable the system.
There is another Scottish project where a control, deliberately provided for
occupants to use, proved problematic. This was the mid-1980s passive solar
housing project in Stornoway in the Outer Hebrides or Western Isles, mentioned
briefly in Chapter 1. In an effort to provide short-term thermal storage solar air
collectors were designed to charge a small rock store – an insulated bin filled
with clean stones. Ducts from this led to the northern part of the main living
space in each of four or six flats. Although these were designed so that fresh air
would always flow from rock store into individual dwellings, the reality was
judged to be such that cross-flows of air between dwellings could occur.
Allegedly, cooking odours as well as noise could transfer between flats via the
rock store, clearly an undesirable situation. In any event, there is anecdotal
evidence that the tenants tended to keep their adjustable ventilators closed,
thus obviating the delayed distribution of solar heat.
As indicated earlier, the pioneering dwelling built in 1945 by Arthur Brown in
Tucson, Arizona, may be held to be the progenitor of two passive solar models.
Having dealt with adaptive control relative to mass-storage walls, where
interaction with users tends to be indirect like the system itself, attention now
turns to unheated sunspaces. Since these are potentially attractive spaces,
which also add to the equity of any property, the tendency is for occupants to
be able to interact more directly. Principally due to this factor, applications of
any sunspaces such as conservatories or atria, which are either unheated or
heated to a relatively low level, have tended to be controversial as savers of
energy. Interestingly, the air collectors were not the principal solar feature for
either of the two Scottish projects just mentioned, but rather small, unheated
glazed buffer spaces. Both were also monitored, although the project in
Glasgow (55.9°N) was measured and analysed much more intensively than the
one in Stornoway (58.2°N). Both provided useful insights, not only in terms of
the behaviour of users, but also in terms of certain fundamental aspects of the
detailed design.

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Conservatories conserving?
This section will confine itself to domestic applications in order to keep the
focus on the interaction between occupants and the controls at their disposal.
Larger spaces, such as atria, employ the same thermal principles, but
environmental adjustment tends to be more centrally managed (Chapter 6).
Also, all the sunspaces reviewed are intended to be unheated. They may be
considered to have achieved a particular temperature at any given time, or over
any given period, due to three categories of free thermal gains. These were
brought up at the outset in Chapter 1, but it is as well to set out their respective
roles in slightly more depth.

• Solar greenhouse effect: the first aim is to capture solar energy through a
transparent outer envelope by means of the greenhouse effect. Transparent
materials transmit a significant proportion of incoming short-wave radiation
from the sun, but re-transmit little of the outgoing long-wave radiation from
internal surfaces. Thus there is the potential to utilize free solar heat in
daytime. The effectiveness, in terms of keeping the temperature as high as
possible for as long as possible after sunset, is partly regulated by the
specification of the thermal storage surfaces, including their insulating
jacket. This means building in heavy absorbers with a slow response. They
will be slow to heat up initially, but they will also be slow to lose heat. In
terms of more immediate comfort, which would enable intermittent use of a
sunspace during brief spells of sunshine during winter, some lighter lining
materials may also be advisable. Effectiveness is also partly controlled by
the glazing specification, bearing in mind that thin single glazing will
maximize radiated gains, but also losses, mainly by conduction. This tends
to suggest either some form of double-glazing, which will also reduce
surface condensation, or a convenient type of movable insulation, or both.

• Heat donated by host space: the second category of free heat to a

sunspace is outgoing thermal energy from the interior. In this sense a
sunspace may be viewed as part of a multi-layer thermal resistance, in the
same way as the air inside a cavity wall. Also, if the air in the sunspace is
then taken into the house as all or part of the ventilating requirement, we
have a very basic form of passive heat recovery. Again the specification of
glazing is relevant as well as that of the opaque outer surfaces. Apart from
the thickness and type of insulation, reflective surfaces could reduce
outward loss of long-wave radiation, whether attributable to previously
admitted solar heat or that in transit from the interior.

• Shelter effect and other solar gain: the third free input comes by virtue of
the climatic sheltering effect due to the presence of the sunspace, coupled
with solar gain through any opaque components. The dividing surface
between sunspace and interior is no longer subject to evaporative cooling,

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or to the conductivity of saturated material and the adjacent layer of air

increasing. This effect would occur in the absence of any glazing on the
outer skin. Solar thermal gain through opaque material, mainly by
conduction, may also be significant in autumn and spring, depending on
colour and the main thermal properties of the various layers – conductivity,
density and capacitance – as well as respective thicknesses, areas,
orientation and tilt. These variables will regulate the time-lag for an external
solar impact to be registered on the inside as well as the thermal damping
factor. (Thermal damping factor is the ratio of the range in temperature on
the inside surface to that outside and is known as decrement factor when
expressed in heat flux – ie a ratio of watts rather than one of degrees
Kelvin.) It will also, of course, influence the rate of heat being lost from the
sunspace and the effectiveness of short-term thermal storage as indicated
above relative to the first two categories of gains.

new-build Scottish demonstration

Without getting further into scientific detail, it is self-evident that gains and
losses will compete, and that both initial and detailed architectural decisions will
have a bearing on optimizing the thermal effectiveness of an unheated glazed
space. The first chapter gave an introduction into the potential for specific
architectural solutions to influence the theoretical outcome in differing climatic
contexts within the UK. However, the monitored performance of projects such
as that in Stornoway confirms that the influence of occupants on performance
can significantly modify differences implied by design and specification.
The most influential controls that occupants have at their disposal are:
firstly, windows and similar devices that are capable of being manually opened;
secondly, thermostats controlling the temperature in adjacent heated spaces;
and thirdly, the ability to heat the sunspace. If outer windows are left ajar for
prolonged periods, the tendency will be for the sunspace to equalize its
temperature with that outside. On the other hand, if the windows between the
sunspace and the heated interior are left wide open on a frequent basis, the
tendency will be for the respective temperatures in the sunspace and heated
interior to equalize. Ideally one would wish that the temperature within the
sunspace averaged significantly above the external or ambient temperature.
However, realistically, one can also expect it to be well below that of the rooms
inside. 4.4(1) In a cloudy, temperate climate it would be wishful to imagine that
over a winter the sun would be able to raise the temperature of the air in the
sunspace above that in the heated spaces other than intermittently on
favourable days.
Hence the periodic arithmetic mean temperature inside a sunspace,
whether daily, weekly, monthly or seasonally, is likely to be somewhere in
between that outside and that inside adjacent heated accommodation. Then, if
the thermostats are set high, there will be two consequences. Firstly, the

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4.4 Details of the Stornoway climate, transfer of heat to the sunspace from the interior will also be relatively high,
sunspaces and predicted savings especially if intervening windows or doors are left ajar for significant periods.
However, secondly, although this may appear beneficial in enhancing prospects
4.4(1) Mean ambient temperature in Stornoway,
September 1985 to May 1986, was 6.1°C, while the for recovering some energy via incoming supply of air for ventilation, it will
calculated mean in the sun-porch was 14.8°C, a lift inevitably increase loss of energy through the outer skin. If an occupant tends to
of 8.7K. The maximum monthly mean lift of 12.0K open both inner and outer windows frequently, regardless of the weather, the
occurred in February 1986, a particularly sunny, but net result is bound to be to increase the overall demand for space heating. On
also cold month. Values for 1986–87 were similar the other hand, if the occupants selectively opened up between interior and
– a seasonal mean lift of 8.2K, and a maximum mean sunspace only during sunny conditions, the combined spaces could function
monthly lift of 10.4K in March 1987, again a sunny successfully in a ‘direct gain’, as opposed to ‘direct loss’, mode.
but cold month. Predicted mean internal temperatures There are of course other variables such as use of curtains and blinds that
varied according to occupancy patterns, but 21°C was
may affect both incoming solar energy and loss of heat. Although predictive
used as the demand setting in the main room.
modelling suggests that this aspect can be relatively significant, empirical
4.4(2) Each sun-porch is 3.2m wide by 1.2m deep by monitoring indicates that the regimes adopted for ventilation and control of
2.1m high, and externally double-glazed on the south- temperature are the main drivers. The project in Stornoway was subjected to
facing vertical surface only. This fenestration is 3.0m rigorous dynamic computer simulations in the pre-contract stage (Porteous,
wide by 2.4m high with two small opening sections, 1983), which indicated worthwhile potential savings attributable to the small
together roughly 10 per cent of the total area of glazing.
south-facing sun-porches. These were located one above the other in two and
Critically, in terms of gain and loss, the outer glazing is
three storey terraces. 4.4(2) For example, the annual mean daily heating load
little over a quarter of the total bounding surface of the
for a flat in a first floor, end-of-terrace location would be 30 per cent less than
sun-porch. Of the remainder, about 80 per cent is in
an equivalent ‘direct gain’ flat. 4.4(3) This predicted saving also effectively
contact with either heated rooms or the stairwell. The
balance is bounded by the ground or roof-space and shortened the length of the heating season by two months. September and May
insulated in both cases. The net area of glass in the were respectively included and eliminated in the ‘direct gain’ reference and
single-glazed dividing screen is a modest 1.95m2. ‘indirect gain’ solar models. 4.4(4)
Expressing this another way, and excluding the contribution from the air
4.4(3) 10kWh/day was predicted to reduce to
collectors and rock store, the annual saving was predicted to be 22.0kWh/m2
7kWh/day, with the same floor area and glazing, but
without the screen dividing the sun-porch from the
heated floor area (101.4 – 79.4). This may be further translated as 3.3kWh/m2
living space. This value excludes the contribution via heated floor area for each m2 of buffered wall. Such figures indicate worthwhile
the solar air collector rock store. Adding this in, the potential, especially since in this case the sunspace has been included as an
percentage saving was predicted to increase to 36 essential planning element – the entrance lobby.
per cent. In each case, temperatures in the sunspace The project was initiated and supervised by the Western Isles Islands
were considered useful up to 24°C. Council (now known as Comhairle nan Eilean Siar). 4.5(1) One of three ‘most
4.4(4) The shrinking of the heating season due to any purpose’ island local authorities in Scotland, it was, in the 1980s, and remains
energy-saving measure is dependant on assumptions today, anxious to exploit renewable technologies as well as to provide the best
with regard to intensity of occupation and the heating standard of rented housing possible within economic limitations. The terrace of
regime adopted, including the setting of thermostats. 22 small flats, associated with some larger family villas, is notable as the first
It should also be borne in mind, having previously new-build, passive solar social housing scheme in Scotland. Figure 4.7
referred to a parity between November and April in illustrates its essential features schematically.
terms of mean monthly ambient temperature, that In terms of economics and specification, the logic of double-glazing the
the combination of all climatic variables, including outer screen, but not the inner one, was driven partly by necessity. The local
solar radiation, in this modelling study tended
building authority did not recognize the validity of the solar buffer space. It was
towards a heating season with its centre of gravity
not a ‘conservatory’ as defined in the statutory standards, and the bureaucratic
in mid-January – whether the nine months from
attitude expressed was simply to ignore the inner screen. The decision to
September to May or the seven from October to April.

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ADAPTIVE CONTROL

single-glaze the latter was taken by the architect for reasons that are now
somewhat obscure, but probably to shave costs. The screen was rather
rudimentary tectonically, and although it was draught-proofed, there were
subsequent complaints of draughts in cold weather. The inevitable gradient in
temperature from one side of the screen to the other certainly provides a need
for effective seals and for purposeful, rather than accidental, control of
ventilation. In this instance, with the screen closed, the tenants could open a
large hit-and-miss ventilator above it, the intention being that preheated air
could move from sun-porch to living space at high level without being perceived
as a cool draught. Nevertheless, when there is a significant difference in
temperature between the inside and the outside of the single glazing, it is
probable that downdraughts would occur. Air warmed by the heating unit would
rise to the ceiling, but cool as it came in contact with the glass. The subsequent
increase in density would then cause the air to descend to the floor.
In the post-contract stage, a more basic form of theoretical modelling,
which took into account variables due to the specific locations of every flat as 4.7 Schematic of Stile Park solar housing in
well as the intensity of occupation, was compared to quasi-measured 4.5(2) Stornoway – stacked sun-porches

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4.5 Realization of the Stornoway project – consumption over two years from 1985–87 (Saluja, Porteous and Holling, 1987;
energy consumption factors Porteous, 1990). Taking 16 out of 22 flats as not having a misleading
characteristic, such as part-time occupancy or use of bottled gas in addition to
4.5(1) The Director of Architectural Services was John
Paterson, the supervising senior architect who initiated the measured electric heating, the comparison between prediction and reality
the project was Alan Holling, and the project architect was encouraging. In the first season from September to May, the average swing
was Fred Courtney-Bennett. ‘Most purpose’ Scottish in consumption was 3.3 per cent higher than predicted. In the second year it
island local authorities were established in 1975. was 6.8 per cent lower.
However, these percentages are somewhat misleading in that the absolute
4.5(2) Although there was a split metering system to
values of consumption will vary considerably during shorter time steps. For
assist in analysing consumption of energy, reductive
estimates had to be made with regard to use of example, a small percentage swing in February could represent a larger number
direct electric heating (ie non-storage), allowing for of energy units compared with a larger percentage swing in September. Also the
normal use of lighting, cooking and other appliances. predictions for similar flats took into account varying occupancy factors. As a
This estimate was then added to the measured consequence someone staying in all day, perhaps with a young child, would
electric storage units to give a quasi-measured total. have had a higher predicted load compared with another person who worked all
4.5(3) The maximum gust in March 1986 exceeded
day. In fact, the average absolute consumption over both years was less than
32m/s and yet the consumption was just less than predicted, respectively by somewhat more and less than 400kWh.
100kWh or 3kWh daily per flat lower than anticipated Looked at more closely, it was apparent that the amount of the saving
post-contract. relative to prediction reflected certain aspects of the weather. For example, the
saving in February 1986 was significantly greater than in February 1987, with
the former having sunnier weather and little rain compared to the latter. Then the
saving in March 1987 was much greater than in March 1986, when there was
less sun, more rain and more wind. The variations below what was estimated
might therefore seem perfectly logical, if it were not for the fact that the
monitored climatic data were used for these post-contract predictions.
The explanation is likely to lie in the assumptions that were made with
respect to demand for heat and ventilation in the post-contract, predictive
algorithms, compared with what actually happened (bearing in mind that there
is also an element of uncertainty embedded within metered data). It would seem
that the theoretical analysis underplayed the potential for the sun-porch to
preheat air for ventilation and gives some comfort with respect to infiltration of
cool air due to the pressure of wind. 4.5(3) There also appeared to be a trend
for higher than expected heating at the beginning and end of the heating
season. This is most likely to be due to an increase in the opening of windows
in response to the ambience of autumn and spring, but with heating still
switched on.
Taken over the entire period from September to May, there was a mean
average reduction of about 12 per cent in the 1985–86 heating season compared
with the theoretical value for the same period. This may be regarded as a relatively
unusual occurrence, indicating that assumed variables were on the pessimistic
side. On the other hand, the measured load for space heating is not only high
relative to current standards and practice, but also higher than pre-contract
predictions. Expressed relative to the heated area, the quasi-measured arithmetic

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mean for space heating in 1985–86 was 97kWh/m2. If the sun-porch is included 4.6 More details of the Stornoway project
as useful area, which it is, the figure looks somewhat better at 86kWh/m2. and monitoring
There are a number of factors to take into account when considering such
4.6(1) The U-value of external walls was just within
calculations. The average annual wind speed in the Western Isles is the highest in a maximum limit of 0.6W/m2K, subject to increases
the UK, with the mean monthly values often reaching 8m/s and rarely falling below in conditions of driving rain. Normal double-glazing
4m/s. Correspondingly, the driving rain index is in the severe category. The pre- was used, with a U-value estimated to be 4.1W/m2K
contract predictions used a climate-file that represented a less aggressive for the outer aluminium windows to the sun-porches.
Scottish location. The dwellings are also not insulated particularly well and As the inner sliding-folding glazed screen between
therefore more vulnerable to extreme weather. A pragmatic decision was taken by the porch and the living room was single-glazed, its
the client not to improve on the statutory standards of the time. 4.6(1) timber frame and sheltered location yields a similar
From the viewpoint of occupants, the sunspaces provide choice. In closed U-value to the outer glazing, implying a composite U-
value for inner and outer glazing of about 2.1W/m2K.
mode, they define defensible space between the private interior and the
Ignoring the potential for preheating the supply of
stairwell. This includes its role as a draught lobby, enabling arrival and departure
fresh air, the U-value for both layers of fenestration is
without much cool air coming inside the flats. In open mode, the threshold
similar to that of a double-glazed timber window with
remains in terms of finish – quarry tiles before carpet – but both thermal lobby
a low-emissivity coating.
and privacy are compromised. From a sample of 14 householders who
completed questionnaires, it was apparent that varying choice was exerted. 4.6(2) Six householders claimed to have the dividing
screen mainly open in summer, at least during the day.
4.6(2) Overall, it would appear that the different regimes adopted with respect
Another five claimed the opposite, while the remaining
to opening windows and control of temperature were not far off the mark
three opted for intermittent opening and closing.
compared with the theoretical values used. 4.6(3) In terms of the latter, it is
During winter, all but two asserted that the screen was
perhaps worth noting that the only fixed provision for heating was an electric
kept closed, while those two opened intermittently,
storage unit in the living room and an infrared heater in the bathroom. This made presumably responding to fine weather. Significantly,
use of other direct appliances inevitable, electric or otherwise. In the same most occupiers admitted to opening other windows
group of 16, only one claimed not to use any auxiliary means of heating, and out regularly during winter – kitchen, bathroom, bedroom
of the entire 22 householders, 4 admitted to using bottled gas. The use of such and outer ones in the sun-porch. This may have partly
appliances introduces some additional fuzziness in terms of the monitoring. It reflected the apparent efficacy of the ‘passive stack’
would also have been relatively expensive for the tenants, peak-time units being system of ventilation. This method of exhausting
around three times as much as the off-peak units in the case of electricity. On contaminated air was also intended as the main
the other hand, it would at least have provided a degree of responsiveness in instrument to draw fresh air from the sun-porch into
the main living space, rather than the reverse and
relation to intermittent passive solar gains.
the expectation to save energy by means of passively
Also, given the potency of interventions by users, highlighted by a factor of
preheated air was reliant on it.
nearly five between the highest and lowest consumer in the first year, it is
surprising that the average differences between theory and practice were not 4.6(3) The average daily rates of air change every
greater. All forecasts endeavour to make assumptions on the basis of some hour assumed for the living room and the rest of
known variables and others that are subject to what might be considered likely the flat were 1.0 and 1.25 respectively while the
temperature setting in the living room for a range of
or reasonable actions by users. Lowest and highest values are by definition
occupancy regimes, such as ‘in all day’ or ‘evening
extremes. By way of contrast, ‘likely or reasonable’ might be expected to come
only’, was taken as 21°C.
close to some kind of statistical average, whether the arithmetic mean or
median in the case of a small sample such as this. 4.6(4) 4.6(4) The low consumers appeared to be more
Returning to the question of whether conservatories conserve, the answer dominant here. The median value was lower by 15
per cent compared with expectation, and the median
indicated by the project in Stornoway is affirmative, at least on average, with an
heating load from September 1985 to May 1986
expectation to save some 30 per cent compared with the equivalent ‘direct
was 3kWh/m2 lower than the equivalent mean value.

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4.7 ‘Heatfest’ and its organizers: gain’ model. The experience here also seems to provide some degree of
Easthall, Glasgow confidence that, in spite of widely varying consumption, forecasting reasonable
middle ground still has validity, providing an ‘unexpected’ factor is built in.
‘Heatfest’, held over a weekend in late January 1987,
was a community ideas competition. It was hosted
further insights from Scottish urban retrofit
by Easthall Residents Association who organized it in
association with a community technical aid centre, Indeed, the experience with Stornoway provided confidence to employ similar
Technical Services Agency, and was also sponsored small glazed spaces as components of a comprehensive refurbishment package
by the Scottish Solar Energy Group and the West of at Easthall, a housing estate dating from the late 1950s and early 1960s on the
Scotland Energy Working Group. eastern periphery of Glasgow. The essential difference here was that the
existing blocks were randomly oriented. Obvious targets for conversion to
unheated glazed spaces were the recessed balconies, or verandas as they are
called in Glasgow. However, these could be oriented from due south to due
north or any variant between those extremes. A solution that presented itself
during an intensive, community-led, brainstorming event 4.7 was to construct
two glazed spaces for each apartment (Ho, 1995). The kitchens were always
located on the opposite façade to the balconies and living rooms. They were
also very small relative to modern expectations. Therefore, there seemed to be
a justification for a small glazed extension to function as a utility room. This
would free up space for dining, as well as removing a principal source of
moisture from the heated kitchen. Admittedly, if the extension were to function
as a source of preheated air, some of this moisture would be invited back into
the kitchen. However, provided there was an efficient means of exhaust from it,
this would not be problematic. Moist air would not be able to circulate
throughout the flat. The glazed balcony on the opposite façade, which
completely buffered the main bedroom and was also accessible directly from
the living room, could then function as a source of preheated air for these
primary spaces. Movement of air in this case could be regulated by the
continuous extraction via passive vents into the existing chimney stack, or
mechanically from the bathroom, that is, sunspace to living room or bedroom,
and possibly on to hallway to bathroom. Thus, in winter, the only room which
would require direct external ventilation, as opposed to being supplied via a
preheated buffer, would be the small second bedroom (Figure 4.8).
The critical controls available to users in the Easthall project were almost
identical to those in Stornoway – adjusting levels of heat and ventilation.
However, since there were two unheated glazed spaces per flat, there were
more windows to affect performance, and variable orientation was an added
factor. Since one of these buffers was designed to be a wet utility space, it was
also anticipated that its outer windows would be opened quite frequently. The
other main difference between the Stornoway and Easthall projects was
constructional. Although Easthall’s starting point was extremely poor in terms of
4.8 Plan view of model of passive solar flats at
energy efficiency, it was to be improved to a better standard than the new-build
Easthall, with original chimney breast in key
location – stacked glazed-in balconies face in Stornoway. On the other hand, at the pre-contract, predictive stage, the
southeast or west in demonstration proposed specification for the outer glazing of the buffer spaces was more

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austere at Easthall. It seemed important to prove that a basic single-glazed 4.8 Initial predictions for the Easthall
unheated space, buffering part of a rather poorly insulated wall, could make project compared to Stornoway
significantly greater savings than a well-insulated envelope without such an 4.8(1) Easthall’s original proprietary block walls
addition. 4.8(1) In other words, it was a relatively harsh comparison. The extra had a U-value of 2.70W/m2K, which were improved
insulation shortened the heating season, thereby reducing the solar role, while tenfold to 0.25W/m2K, partly by insulating an integral
the specification for the sunspace could not be leaner. Nevertheless, the saving cavity and partly by external insulation. The predictive
predicted (Porteous, 1988) bore up well compared with Stornoway. 4.8(2) comparison was between: (i) upgrading all external
Whether further improvements to general energy efficiency would take the walls to the 0.25W/m2K standard along with double-
realization of complementary solar savings to a critically low point is a key glazed windows, but no sunspaces; and (ii) single-
glazed sunspaces buffering the wall,having only its
question. The logical answer is that it could, since some of the winter months
cavity insulated and buffered windows single-glazed,
are very poor in terms of solar supply. In mitigation, the opportunity for passive
and with the remaining areas of wall and windows
or hybrid heat recovery afforded by the sunspace remains on the most overcast
upgraded to the new standard.
day, as well as during the hours of darkness.
Pursuing this further and returning to the issue of the duality of the 4.8(2) The predicted saving of 30 per cent in
orientation of the glazed spaces at Easthall, the predictive work held a surprise. Stornoway corresponded to 22.0kWh/m2 heated floor
area (101.4 – 79.4). In Easthall it was 25 per cent
The mean predicted September to May temperature in the north-facing, glazed
or 19.8kWh/m2 heated floor area (79.5 – 59.7). This
balcony was almost identical to that of the south-facing utility space. 4.8(3)
was for an upper floor, gable-end flat in each case,
The former is of course recessed. It is also slightly smaller compared to the
the significance being that it is one where there are
latter and it has as one of its heated neighbours the main living room, albeit
losses through the roof and three walls, but not the
bordering one of its short edges. Overall it serves to highlight the importance of floor, since it is assumed that the flat below is heated
energy, initially donated from heated spaces, being partly recovered by to the same temperature. Quantitatively, a coincidence
supplying air via the buffers. It also indicates the advantage inherent in limiting is that Easthall’s theoretical standard upgrade without
the external envelope of sunspaces. A favourable orientation is only one sunspaces matches the space heating load of the solar
component of the ‘gain to loss’ scenario. one in Stornoway: 79.5 compared to 79.4kWh/m2.
When the project was eventually realized as a European solar demonstration, The equivalent predicted saving for a first floor flat
4.9 it was decided to improve the specification by double-glazing both the outer at Easthall, with no losses via either roof or floor,
and inner screens. Neither of the two blocks of 18 flats that were upgraded in this was proportionately slightly greater at 28 per cent.
However, expressed relative to floor area it drops
programme had such an extreme orientation as that of the original predictive
slightly to 18.7kWh/m2 (66.2 – 47.5).
model (living rooms facing north). One had living rooms facing southeast, while
the other had living rooms facing west. Since one might expect reasonable parity 4.8(3) the north-facing balcony was predicted to be
in the case of the east–west block, it is interesting to compare the measured 13.42°C compared to 13.67°C for the projecting
temperatures in the two equivalent second floor, gable-end flats. In each of these utility space in a second floor flat, and similarly close
flats and in each of two monitored heating seasons, there was less than one for other locations.

degree of a temperature difference between the respective buffer spaces:

4.9 Political birth pangs of the Easthall
European solar demonstration project
Flat a balcony 1st year 15.06°C balcony 2nd year 15.95°C
Although submitted to Brussels in 1988 and
utility 1st year 15.93°C utility 2nd year 15.91°C
approved in 1989, the contract between all parties
Flat b balcony 1st year 16.88°C balcony 2nd year 17.36°C was not signed until November 1991. Local politics
was influential in this delay. The first proposer was
utility 1st year 17.08°C utility 2nd year 16.66°C
Easthall Residents’ Association, the second Glasgow
City Council and the third Technical Services Agency.
The architect was Community Architecture Scotland,
the contract was supervized by Stuart Goldie.

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Comparing one flat with the other, there were somewhat more significant
differences, which corresponded with respective internal temperatures. In
broad terms, differences of some three to nearly four degrees in the influential
heated spaces corresponded to a range from less than one to nearly two in
adjacent unheated glazed spaces. It was also evident in the case of these
particular two flats that it was the bedroom that was the driver for the glazed
balconies, rather than the living room.
However, two specific flats cannot be deemed representative of a larger
sample. Looking at all 18 flats in the east–west block, there is a discernable gap
between the glazed balcony and the utility extension:

E–W mean balcony 1st year 14.5°C balcony 2nd year 14.7°C
utility 1st year 13.7°C utility 2nd year 13.5°C

This may be due to several factors, including the respective functions of the
spaces as well as their physical differences. In the other block, where balconies
face southeast while utility spaces face northwest, a rather larger gap in
temperature opens up. It is reasonable to assume that this reflects the disparity
in orientations:

SE–NW mean balcony 1st year 15.5°C balcony 2nd year 15.3°C
utility 1st year 12.3°C utility 2nd year 12.1°C

It is then evident that the average for all flats is close to 15°C for the balconies
and 13°C for the utility spaces. Indeed it was precisely these values for the first
year when the mean indoor temperature was just less than 20°C and that
outside just over 7°C. Thus the average temperatures for both buffer spaces
appear to be well situated relative to heated spaces and ambient conditions.
Nonetheless, around the average lay a wide range responding to the variable
controls as outlined. Although not actually the case, it would be theoretically
possible to have an average where one group tended towards the ambient
temperature and another towards the internal temperature, but with few halfway
between the two. In fact, only three of the new utility spaces came close to the
ambient temperature and none of the former balconies. However, quite a
significant number of balconies as well as a few utility spaces came rather close
to the internal temperatures, signalling a weakening of their indirect passive
solar attributes. The higher the internal temperature, the worse this would be…
that is unless the equalization of sunspace and internal temperatures was
attributable predominantly to solar gain rather than purchased heat.
Taking first the issue of indoor temperature, there were dwellings where the
temperature from September to May averaged about 17.5°C, or even slightly
lower. Conversely there were several scoring over 22°C and one of almost 24°C.

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Also, the median average virtually coincides with that of the mean, with the 4.10 Easthall: ventilation and temperature
seventeenth and eighteenth highest at 19.98°C and 20.1°C respectively in the as key influences
first monitored heating season. These 24-hour seasonal averages were
4.10(1) The highest eight consumers coincided with
significantly higher than anticipated. The mean value predicted for all flat all but one of the highest eight ventilators and half
locations, assuming about twice as many would be in an ‘all-day’ occupancy as of the group of eight with the highest temperatures.
would be out regularly during the day, was lower by almost two degrees at On the other hand, all but two of the eight with
18.3°C. It was assumed that the higher reality reflected a certain degree of the lowest temperatures, and all but one of the
luxuriating in affordable warmth after years of suffering the cold conditions eight lowest ventilators, are also among the eight
attributable to fuel poverty. lowest energy consumers. The eight with the lowest
Although there will always be some exceptions, there was a definite temperatures were estimated to have a ventilation
tendency for those with the highest temperatures to have a high rate of rate some 37 per cent below the mean, while the
corresponding group with the highest temperatures
ventilation and so also high consumption. 4.10(1) This again indicates the
only averaged 10 per cent above the mean.
temptation to overheat, and then resolve consequent feelings of stuffiness by
opening windows, although there are other social factors at work here to be 4.10(2) Baker and McEvoy, in exploring appropriate
discussed in the final part of this chapter. Conversely, although they were in the values for controlled trickle ventilation, cite British
minority, low ventilators, low temperatures and low consumption corresponded. Standard 5250 together with two standards of air
It is tempting to conclude that if people can be persuaded to accept relatively change due to background infiltration – firstly an
average value of 0.7ac/h and secondly a lower value
modest, although still quite adequate, temperatures, then the fuel saving is
of 0.2ac/h for a well sealed construction. Thus, to
likely to be boosted due to a correspondingly modest regime of ventilation.
give a recommended total in the range 1.0–1.5ac/h
Thus the gap between desired or realized rates of ventilation and those
(to provide adequately low relative humidity and
envisaged, or generated, in predictive tools, is again evident. It is not a matter
freedom from problems of condensation) in the first
of improving air-tightness. That was not an issue after this comprehensive case, added controlled ventilation should be in the
refurbishment. The crux is what people do in terms of attempting to control their range 0.3–0.8ac/h, and in the latter case this should
environment to their satisfaction. Balancing energy efficiency with air quality increase to 0.8–1.3ac/h. While the low ventilators at
and freedom from condensation, a normal expectation is that hourly rates of air Easthall may reflect a lower intensity of occupation,
change (ac/h) should be from 1.0 to 1.5 (Baker and McEvoy, 1999). 4.10(2) At and thus not be a cause for concern in terms of
Easthall, analysis of measurements indicated that one third of the households environmental quality, the high ventilators denote
fell below this benchmark, with a mean value just below 1.0ac/h. The following poor energy efficiency.
summary is revealing:

mean for lowest ventilator 0.6ac/h mean for lowest 8 ventilators 0.8ac/h
mean for highest ventilator 4.0ac/h mean for highest 8 ventilators 3.0ac/h

The second set of values predictably had a very serious effect on consumption
of fuel for space heating. The following takes key values from the first year of
monitoring 4.11(1):

lowest consumer 26.1kWh/m2 mean for lowest 8 consumers 38.1kWh/m2

highest consumer 193.3kWh/m 2
mean for highest 8 consumers 154.0kWh/m2
mean consumer 90.74kWh/m2 median consumer 82.5kWh/m2

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4.11 Easthall: consumption influenced by The mean consumption is only 6.5 per cent lower than that of the Stornoway
distribution of demand for heat project even though the standards of insulation were significantly better. This
was disappointing. The predictive methodology had taken a realistic approach
4.11(1) Full measurements could not be made in
two out of 36 houses. Thus results are based on to ventilation, making due allowance for opening of windows during the heating
34 households, with the median falling between season. In fact the rate, again assuming twice as many ‘all-day’ consumers as
numbers 17 and 18 when ranking consumption. opposed to those where the heating need would be restricted to mornings and
These were very close, with the 17th at 82.5 and evenings, was very close to the actual median position at 1.4ac/h. On the other
18th at 82.6kWh/m2. They had variations in terms of hand, the achieved temperatures in the predictions were more modest, as
achieved temperature – 17th at 19.67°C and 18th stated above with a mean of 18.3°C. This corresponded to a space-heating load
at 21.45°C – as well as ventilation rates – 17th at of 62kWh/m2.
1.44ac/h and 18th at 1.34ac/h. From the predictions it also looked as if every degree of increase in
4.11(2) Flats with similar temperatures, but different temperature would add about 6.5kWh/m2 on to consumption. However, the
heating loads: their respective mean average daily results indicated that a larger penalty is possible. There could be several
temperatures over the first monitored heating reasons for this. Installed insulation might not be as effective as it should be.
season, September 1992 to May 1993, were Heating may displace potentially useful solar gains. There was a mix of electric
19.33°C and 19.06°C. The space-heating load of systems (mainly storage) and standard ‘wet’ gas-heated systems, with all
the flat with the marginally higher temperature for water-filled radiators having thermostatic control valves. The former are
the same period was over 25kWh/m2 higher than
inherently unresponsive and, as already indicated, the latter are vulnerable to
the other.
being set too high so that occupants feel they are working. However, the main
4.11(3) Comparing temperatures in spaces other complexity would appear to be related to the distribution of heat within
than the living room, the three-month value was respective dwellings. Some occupants chose to heat all spaces, while others
15.6°C for the lower consumer, compared to 18.2°C did not. For example, two of the flats were estimated to have the same mean
for the higher one, even though the living room rate of ventilation, very similar mean temperatures, but markedly varying annual
averages one degree warmer in the former case.
heating loads. 4.11(2) Although they were in different blocks, so that solar gain
4.11(4) While, in this second comparison, the high was a variable over the daily cycle, each flat was in a first floor intermediate
consumer heated the living room a degree higher location. Thus the scope for errors in heat loss through the fabric was fairly
over the entire heating season and over three limited and, at first sight, the large gap in heating loads looks puzzling.
degrees higher from December to February, the The explanation for this apparent conundrum was that one tenant was
contrast in the rest of the house was more extreme:
heating the whole flat fairly evenly, while the other appeared to be concentrating
20.54°C compared to 14.36°C. The net result was
solely on heating the living room. Indeed, the contrast between the respective
that the high-temperature flat consumed more than
mean temperatures in all spaces except the living room for the December to
40kWh/m2 more than the other one. Out of the eight
February period was stark. 4.11(3) It is clear then that distribution of heat
flats with the lowest temperatures during winter in
spaces apart from the living room, six were in the within a home is very important.
group of the eight lowest consumers. The picture is Therefore, there is a question as to whether we should design to expect the
less clear-cut at the top end, where only three of the main living room to be a great deal warmer than bedrooms. The answer might
group of eight with the highest temperatures in this well be affirmative, provided bedrooms are simply used for sleeping, rather than
zone coincided with the eight highest consumers. as bed-sitting rooms for teenagers. It at least challenges the concept of full
central heating being required, or even desirable, once the envelope of a
dwelling has been made energy-efficient. The combination of solar heat gains
and incidental heat gains from occupants, appliances and so forth may be
enough to heat all but the main space up to a suitable level for comfort relative
to purpose.

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However, it would be precipitate to advocate such a step before establishing 4.12 Easthall: auxiliary heating and
whether the tendency to heat only the main space was at all widespread in this window opening
particular sample. Looking at another pair of flats with the same estimated mean
4.12(1) The annual consumption for space heating
rate of air change, but one with a significantly higher heating load than the other, of the more energy-efficient of the two households
the same conclusion was reached with respect to distribution: low temperatures who agreed to keep diaries was more than 6kWh/m2
outside the living room generally corresponded with low consumption. 4.11(4) less than the mean average, although just less than
Daytime use of bedrooms, say by teenagers, as well as variable heating of 2kWh/m2 above the median. Use of the auxiliary
kitchens, bathrooms and hallways is clearly influential in this regard. electric heater averaged more than four hours
It is also significant that in this particular project, not only did all the flats daily during the main three months of winter, and
have full central heating, they also all had a fixed means of auxiliary heating in somewhat less in November and March. The opening
the living room. It would certainly have been politically unacceptable at that time of windows in winter was mainly confined to the
glazed louvres and door between the kitchen and the
to forego the central heating, but the residents also forcefully expressed a wish
utility space, with occasional opening of the sliding
not to be deprived of a source of visible radiant warmth at the touch of a switch.
patio doors between the main bedroom and glazed
In the case of two of the flats, one just above the median in terms of consumption
balcony in February. The opening up of the dividing
and the other the fourth highest consumer, the householders kept detailed
windows, those that separate heated from unheated
diaries not only of the use of auxiliary heating, but also of the opening of space, increased significantly during the autumn and
windows and other ventilating devices. These were particularly illuminating. spring. During the same periods, outer windows of
The lower of the two consumers occupied the middle ground. It was also an the two glazed buffers were also extensively opened
‘elderly’ household, which may have been responsible for the December to during daytime. In March, for example, all available
February mean living room temperature of 23.5°C. Such a plateau of heat was windows were opened for a minimum of two and
undoubtedly in part due to the generous use of the auxiliary electric heater, a half hours daily, while all of the dividing windows
while the regime adopted with respect to opening windows was fairly were open for more than twice that amount. In the
reasonable. 4.12(1) The fact that there was approximate parity of hours same month it is recorded that the auxiliary heater in
the living room was used for three hours daily.
between autumn and spring suggested it was the perception of weather that
drove the decision to open windows, rather than an awareness of the ambient 4.12(2) This tenant also started to use her auxiliary
temperature. In reality, opening in spring will be generally more punitive in terms gas fire in mid-September for three hours daily, and
of compromising energy efficiency. peaked at ten hours daily during the first week in
The diary for the house with the fourth highest consumption follows much December. While the heat in the living room was
the same pattern, except that in this instance there is no part of the year when augmented by an average of seven and a quarter
hours daily during this month, the opening of its
the opening of windows is particularly restricted. The woman of the house had
window averaged well over two hours.
been brought up to keep a house well aired, and that is what she did. 4.12(2)
Having said that, the airing tended to occur in the morning, while the auxiliary
heating was switched on later in the afternoons and evenings.
Returning to the question of whether conservatories conserve, the detailed
monitoring at Easthall confirmed this to be the case. If one assumes that
occupants would have adopted the same regimes with respect to heating and
ventilation in an equivalent reference house, insulated to the same level but with
no glazed buffers, there is a significant increase in the heating load. Taking the
example of the mean average consumer, this is of the order of 2500kWh or
40kWh/m2 floor area, and in proportional terms, the theoretical saving is over 30
per cent. Since the monitoring indicated clearly that the lower band of
consumers tended to ventilate less and were less indiscriminate in their demand

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4.13 Easthall: real versus effective rates for heat, one may be optimistic about a larger proportional benefit for them even
of ventilation though the quantitative saving falls. 4.13
It is always tempting to adopt ’what if?’ scenarios. What would have been
The mean average ventilation rate estimated for the
mean average consumer was 1.8ac/h and 1.6ac/h the consequence of stronger advice about setting of thermostats? Would an
in first and second monitored years respectively. additional incentive or reward of some sort for low consumption, or a penalty for
However, the heat recovery aspect of the glazed high consumption, have improved the results? Could more advice and ‘sticks
spaces reduced these values to ‘effective’ rates of and carrots’ have constrained the range within tighter limits? In terms of advice
1.1ac/h and 1.0ac/h; since the glazed spaces are at least, the evidence at Easthall would suggest otherwise. 4.14 But one
at a higher temperature than that outside, the real should bear in mind that this was after weeding out six flats with some kind of
rate of exchange with these spaces may be viewed misleading or aberrant characteristic. Overall, it would appear that the adaptive
as a lower ‘effective’ rate with the outside air. The control of the user is likely to be potent and to negate, significantly, average
same principle may be applied to mechanical heat
predicted energy efficiency.
recovery. Looking at the two examples of the flats
Finally, before looking at attached sunspaces in other housing projects, it
with consumption on either side of the median
should be borne in mind that the glazed balcony at Easthall does not compromise
line, the effective rates fall to 0.8 and 0.9ac/h,
daylight to the living rooms. Thus the lack of roof glazing, inherent in a three-
corresponding to real rates in the order of 1.3 to
1.4ac/h. storey stacked system, is inconsequential, with the new outer glazed skin only
marginally impacting on the status quo for the bedrooms. This was not so in the
Stornoway project, an aspect which consciously limited the depth of the sun-
4.14 Easthall compared to Stornoway:
porches. Indeed, the use of sunspaces to directly buffer living rooms in particular,
consumption range – influence of advice?
and sometimes all the main accommodation, has become dominant in such
Easthall’s highest to lowest ratio of energy applications of indirect passive solar gain. Therefore, the tendency is either for
consumed almost doubled from the first year at roof-glazed sunspaces, which can be of a relatively generous depth, or stacked
7.4 to the second year at 14.2 (the sample where sunspaces in the case of flats, which are necessarily of shallow depth, conforming
measurement continued dropped by 10 flats in year
to the Stornoway precedent. The other main buffering variable is height. So far
2). The size of flat, and therefore differentials in the
this detailed exploration of the way in which occupants control performance has
make-up of the household may be influential, since
been restricted to small, shallow, single-storey conservatories.
the equivalent ratio for the sample of 16 one- and
two-person flats in the Stornoway project is lower
other sunspace paradigms
– 4.8 in the first year, falling to 3.75 in the second
year. Firstly, to expand this repertoire, adhering to a small footprint on plan that does
not impact on daylight or sunlight into the heated rooms, and extending
vertically to two storeys, a 2003 experimental solar house provides an apparently
effortless variant on a sun-porch. Designed by Bean and Swan Architects for
Berwickshire Housing Association at Ayton in southeast Scotland, the porch is
independent of the main living room, but linked to two bedrooms and the main
circulation system. Roughly square on plan, it is recessed centrally on the front
façade and oriented fifteen degrees east of south (Figure 4.9). It is designed to
function as a source of preheated fresh air for ventilation, with high-level hinged
flaps to two bedrooms and a small window to an extended landing on the first
floor. It is also designed to be connected to an air-to-air heat exchanger,
advantageous in cold weather, when the exchanger on its own would not be
able to heat up incoming air to a comfortable level for supply. To avoid
overheating in warm weather, there is a high level roof-window with an
automated actuator powered by a small solar photovoltaic panel. This is

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4.9 Solar house at Ayton with double-height,

recessed glazed sun-porch

important since the timber walls lining the porch will rapidly emit absorbed solar
heat. Not only does excess heat in summer need an efficient escape route, but
also the thermal emphasis should be on rapid convective transfer to heated
rooms during sunny winter weather.
With respect to adaptive control, since the roof window is operated
automatically and the norm for an entrance porch is to close both outer and
inner doors on entering and leaving, the focus is on the three upper vents.
Normal thermal stratification, with warm air rising within the porch, should
ensure a satisfactory preheating effect when the vents are open. When closed,
the porch is still an effective thermal buffer, with only two double-glazed
surfaces, that of the tilted roof and the outer wall. Thus it is not too vulnerable to
ill-judged operation by occupants. Since the porch does not project, the
adjacent living room, with windows facing south and west, is not threatened by
loss of either daylight or sunlight. The same applies to the bedrooms. On the
other hand, unlike the bedrooms, the benefit of preheated air for ventilation to
the living room could only occur indirectly via the stairwell. For example, air
entering the upper landing from the porch could descend the stairs as it cools
and enter the living room via its internal pass door, if left ajar. However, there are
too many unknowns in such a scenario and it would be delusory to expect this
to happen on a regular basis.
As a generic system, the sun-porch at Ayton seems robust, and any
additional solar cost should be modest, providing an entrance lobby is taken as
a prerequisite. It is similar to the double-height sun-porches that architect
Tegnestuen Vandkunsten has designed for a terrace of maisonettes above flats

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in Ballerup outside Copenhagen in Denmark. This was part of the eclectic

Egebjerggard ‘boiby’ Housing Exhibition of 1996 (Figure 4.10). Here the porches
are vertically glazed only, and over two storeys high. The living room is located
at the upper level and a small window to the sun-porch provides the possibility
for a preheated supply of fresh air. Apart from the two doors and the remotely
opened light at the top of the external skin, this is the only variable control. Thus
the scope for compromising the designer’s intention is again limited. Provided
such spaces are spacious enough on plan to accommodate at least one chair,
they can also function as an attractive conservatory or winter garden, rather
than only as a utilitarian lobby. But in terms of value for money, the question
arises as to whether the main living space might not have been the more
appropriate recipient of such generous glazing, rather than such a small
transitory space.
Thus in these two examples, where the presence or absence of a tilting
glazed roof is not paramount, the height adds a literal thermo-circulatory
dimension of reliability with regard to performance. The opportunities for
inappropriate control by users become more constrained. The solar housing at
Zollikofen, outside Berne, has already been cited in Chapter 2. Here, tilted and
4.10 Maisonettes over flats in Ballerup with vertical surfaces have been melded and the height increased by one storey.
double-height, corner glazed sun-porch
Undoubtedly the three-storey sectional arrangement, associated with seasonally
contra-posed convective regimes, will promote energy saving in winter and
avert overheating in summer. However, because the sunspaces now buffer all
the heated accommodation, the issue of blinds becomes contentious. Not only
will they impede outward views, but they may also occlude daylight to the point
where the occupants are tempted to switch on artificial lighting. Effectively, they
may become barriers to the enjoyment of good weather.
As an alternative, the more traditional form of a lean-to conservatory should
not be lightly dismissed. A mono-pitch glazed roof can be shaded without
interrupting views through the vertical windows. However, roof-blinds might still
excessively restrict daylight to the interior. Also, if, as is commonly the case, the
height is lowered and the depth is increased, there will be a greater risk of
overheating together with a greater temptation to use the space as another
heated room. This issue was discussed in the previous chapter relative to both
the individual solution for Brian Edwards and the Hockerton terrace for five
families. Although each of these projects conform to a basic lean-to model, the
former belongs in the Ayton camp, with no direct links to living accommodation
other than one bedroom, while the latter conforms to Zollikofen by functioning
as an intermediary to the entire heated volume.
A relatively early UK example of lean-to glazed buffers to all heated rooms
is that of Paxton Court (also known as Netherspring) in Sheffield, designed by
architect Cedric Green. Here, the model for procurement relates to the issue of
operation by the users. This was a competition-winning, passive solar, self-

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build, cooperative project. As one might expect, a considerable amount of the

final detailing was left up to individuals, and this included the means of
conserving and controlling solar energy. Thus there were some ingeniously
economic variants when it came to movable insulation and roof-shading
devices, as well as general finishes (Figures 4.11a and b). It is also likely, given
the degree of participation in the realization of their new solar homes, that the
subsequent adaptive control would be sympathetic to optimizing their
performance. In particular, it did not seem likely that there would be a temptation
to heat the spaces in winter, even though their dimensions were generous. They
were utilitarian garden rooms, simply increasing the potential use of a normal
back garden: patio, clothes drying and so on.
Even so, some of the initial architectural decisions did present problems. For
reasons of economy, the lean-to glazed roofs were fixed directly to rafters, with no
opening lights. Exhaust of warm air was restricted to a rather small area of glazed
louvres located in the gables of the conservatories. At the time of a visit in 1986,
when the project was fairly recently occupied, it was noted that a maximum–
minimum thermometer had reached nearly 40°C. Monitoring of one of the two-
storey houses was carried out as part of the Energy Performance Appraisal (EPA)
by the Energy Technology Support Unit (ETSU), Harwell, UK. In terms of success
as a conserver of energy, this monitoring found the heat loss coefficient to be
237W/K – some 25 per cent greater than the predicted value of 190W/K (Yannas,
1994,, pp52–59). This was attributed to lack of air-tightness, estimated to be 1.5
changes of air every hour, which was roughly twice the value assumed at design
stage. However, it is equally possible that, had the building been more airtight, the
occupants would have chosen to ventilate up to such a value.
Most lean-to conservatories fall short of buffering all heated accommodation,
4.11 Self-build, cooperative passive solar houses
generally favouring attachment to the main living space. A good example of this at Paxton Court, Sheffield
is an earlier project for Berwickshire Housing Association in Scotland by a local a two-storey houses – cloth shades; ‘Alreflex’
insulating blinds
architectural practice, Aitken and Turnbull. Located at the edge of the small
b single-storey houses – bamboo shades;
town of Coldstream, the dwellings are planned in semi-detached pairs, with insulated plywood shutters

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each entered from the south through a generous glazed porch. This also buffers
the entire south façade of the living rooms and the wall up to the level of
windowsills at first floor level (Figure 4.12). It was intended that preheated air
from the sun-porch could enter either the living room or a first floor bedroom,
pressure-steered by continuous low-flow mechanical extract from kitchen
bathroom and toilet. However, in one house visited in 2000, after a year or so of
occupation, the tenants had taken radical adaptive action. They had removed
the double-glazed doors between the porch and the living room. They had also
reduced the intended thermal storage by carpeting over the ceramic tiles in the
porch. Thus this particular dwelling was operating in a responsive ‘direct solar
gain’ mode, rather than a less responsive ‘indirect’ one. From information
provided on fuel bills, it was estimated that the annual space heating load,
including the area of the sun-porch as part of the heated area, was in the order
of 75kWh/m2. This is on the high side for an energy-efficient prototype at the
turn of the millennium, but not catastrophically so.
Regardless of the prevalence of lean-to conservatories and regardless of
the actions of occupants, whether or not in tune with energy efficiency, they are
inherently restrictive as a typology. They go together with low-density, suburban
housing. Then, unless they are fully recessed within the overall envelope as at
Ayton or Egebjerggard, they may shade adjacent parts of the façade. On the
other hand, the recessed type is to some extent self-shading, as is a continuous
terrace of lean-to conservatories, such as at Hockerton. At the same time, there
is an increasing environmental pressure towards more compact urban
typologies. This in turn pushes the sunspace agenda towards the precedents of
Stornoway and Easthall – hence justifying the space accorded to them here.

4.12 Lean-to sunspaces at Coldstream

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ADAPTIVE CONTROL

A recent rural development in Scotland employs slim, semi-recessed

sunspaces, without roof glazing, as part of a passive solar strategy (Figure 4.13).
Although the setting is a village, and the dominant housing form is that of a
short, two-storey terrace that blended with the local Scottish vernacular, the
typology of the sunspace itself is capable of translation to urban flats or
maisonettes. Designed by architect Gordon Fleming of ARP Lorimer Associates
for Ayrshire Housing Association, the exposed maritime climate of Ballantrae
4.15(1) was influential in the design. The dominant wind is from the south-
west, and it seemed logical to locate small sunspaces on the south or west
sides of the houses to partly buffer living rooms, dining-kitchens and bedrooms,
and act as intermediaries between house and garden. On plan, over and above
the shallow, semi-recessed form, self-shading has been minimized by
chamfering the two glazed connecting edges between sunspaces and heated
rooms. The spaces are large enough to house a couple of chairs, but are
deliberately too small to function as extra rooms. The idea was to inhibit any
temptation to heat them.
In this case, the sunspace is also an integral component of a proprietary
mechanical system of ventilating the houses. 4.15(2) A manifold in the attic,
when switched by the occupant to the ‘warm’ position, can search for the
warmest air, either from the apex of the attic itself or from the top of the 4.13 Semi-recessed, double-height sunspaces at
Ballantrae
sunspace. Alternatively, when switched to ‘cool’, the air enters via a vent
located in the eaves of the north side of the roof. Air is supplied to the interior
through a register in the ceiling at the top of the staircase. The stairwell and hall
then act as a plenum, potentially supplying air to all other rooms, when doors
are ajar. Due to the particular location, mains gas was not available and it was
decided to use electric storage heating units in all the main spaces. This,
together with lighting and power for all other electric appliances, operates via a
special tri-tariff arrangement known as ‘comfort plus’ whereby a central
controller searches for optimum inputs from either off-peak, peak or an in-
between ‘shoulder’ supply. However, although this process is automated, the
occupant can set different regimes for three different zones within their homes.
When visiting the scheme on a sunny spring day in late April 2004, the radiant
warmth was tempered by a stiff sea breeze. Several issues emerged concerning
the interface between what the architect had provided and what the tenants were
doing in terms of environmental control. The observations are based mainly on
two of the houses that were visited, but also on information provided by the
people involved in their procurement. In the latter category, some of the residents
had been switching off their system of mechanical ventilation. In some cases, this
may have been due to them not realizing that the controller was switched to the
‘cool’ position, or vice versa. It should be borne in mind that the first summer of
occupation, 2003, was exceptionally warm. However, the other factor with regard
to this system is that it is intended to run continuously. This means that when set

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4.15 Ballantrae rural housing: to ‘warm’ on a cold evening, both the sunspace and attic options for supply will
supplementary information be cold. 4.15(3) The delivered air will then tend to descend through the stairwell
to the ground floor and settle close to the floor before joining a convective cycle,
4.15(1) This village is known chiefly as the setting
for Robert Louis Stevenson’s novel, The Master of promoted mainly by the heating units, and rising again. In other words, it will
Ballantrae. provide an environment that is likely to be perceived as draughty. One of the
tenants specifically confirmed this characteristic during the visit, and also
4.15(2) This is the ‘Drimaster 2000’ supplied by
commented that his feet could become uncomfortably cold in such circumstances.
NuAire Ltd.
The same tenant also commented that his bills seemed to be much higher than
4.15(3) The aim of the continuous 24-hour cycle that of his neighbours across the road. 4.15(4) In this regard, it was noted that
is to avoid risk of stagnant air and excessively high on the afternoon of the visit, the storage heater in his living room was fully on,
humidity overnight. discharging a significant amount of heat.
4.15(4) The tenant who complained of discomfort In both of the homes visited at Ballantrae, the occupants had adopted quite
reported that his quarterly electricity bill for the hot a liberal regime with respect to open windows, but the heating was also still on.
summer of 2003 had been roughly £300, compared In one case, there clearly was a different approach to each of three zones, and
with £70–80 for his neighbours. this was evident even on one floor – ‘off’ in hall, ‘on’ at a low level of output in
kitchen and fully ‘on’ in the living room. In the second house, all ground floor
units appeared to be on at the same medium level of output. Looking round the
entire scheme, there was considerable diversity with regard to the propensity to
open windows. Generalizing however, many seemed to favour either almost
complete closure, or a significant amount of opening, which included the doors
connecting sunspaces with gardens. This may have related to whether people
were in or out, given that the visit was not only on a Sunday afternoon, but also
the best Sunday afternoon of the spring up till then. What is not known is
whether any of the houses with closed windows may have had the heating
completely off. However, given the fairly unresponsive nature of the heating,
together with the prospect of quite a cool evening following the sunny day, the
likelihood of this being the case seems rather remote.
In the case of the dwellings with sunspaces open to the garden, the
mechanical supply of air to the stairwell would probably have come from the
attic. The grey roof tiles would have absorbed a large proportion of the incoming
short-wave radiation, and, in turn, this would have impacted on the attic.
However, in the case of closed sunspaces, the air may well have come from this
source. Whilst the difference between the two temperatures may have been
marginal, there is no doubt that the open houses would have consumed more
units of energy over the day. Thus we again have a dilemma between an
environment that feels good for the given conditions, and one that is more
energy efficient.

further thoughts on options for mechanically assisted ventilation

It is worth comparing this particular ’mixed mode’ system of ventilation with
another generic one. In Ballantrae, a mechanical supply to a central circulation
space is augmented by natural ventilation – opening windows, some directly to
the outside and others to the sunspace – as well as by opening internal doors.

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The flow of air in and out of windows and their trickle vents will largely be
dictated by wind pressure and less so by thermal buoyancy. In the project at
Ballantrae, the kitchen windows face south and this may result in cooking
odours and moisture circulating into other parts of the house. The more
conventional solution is to target mechanical extraction from wet zones, with or
without heat recovery, and again augmented by windows, and perhaps also by
unheated glazed buffers.
This is the system employed at Easthall. The essential difference between
the two tactics is that while the latter automatically gets rid of moist air at
source, in the former case, this aspect is very reliant on what the occupant
does. For example, if the door from the hallway to the kitchen in the Ballantrae
houses is closed, air has to be supplied and exhausted either directly via the
normal window, or indirectly via the sunspace, or a combination of the two. If
the sunspace is involved, it is quite possible for moist, and possibly smelly, air
from cooking to re-circulate through the house. A related issue, which is causing
some problems for the tenants, is that the outer fenestration of the sunspaces
is single-glazed and surface condensation can be heavy. At least one resident
used the sunspace to house a tumble drier, apparently opening the outer doors
when the drier was in use. Even so, the risk would be that not only would the
windows function as condensers, but also some of the very moist air would
migrate within the house.
Despite these issues of manual control by occupants that can impact on
energy-efficiency, the basic idea of exploiting the air from sunspaces through
integration with a mechanical system is intriguing. In theory, the latter should
provide a degree of control that might be lacking in a purely passive set-up. An
earlier, more urban variant of double-height sunspaces, with glazing limited to
the vertical surfaces and where the circulation of air from them is driven by an
active system, is that completed in 1990 by the late Theo Bosch in the provincial
town of Deventer in Holland (Figure 4.14). Here, a mechanical heat exchanger
recovers thermal energy from outgoing air from all wet spaces, its supply of
fresh air being limited to bedrooms on the upper level in the case of maisonettes.
One of these opens on to the upper part of the sunspace, and it seems probable
that occupants might wish to have such windows open, especially overnight.
This assertion acknowledges the difference in attitude towards a normal window
on an external wall compared with one like this, which is more removed from the
outside world. Without the mechanical system, one would have expected warm
air at the top of the sunspace to flow into the bedroom, at least during daytime
if the internal window were ajar. Then it might eventually return to the bottom of
the sunspace via the stairs and living room. However, the mechanical extract
from the kitchen and toilet at the lower level requires a supply of air. This could
either come through the north or the south façade. In the latter case, it would 4.14 Semi-recessed, double-height and single-
either draw air in from the sunspace at low level or directly from the one window, height stacked sunspaces at Deventer

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which opens directly to the outside from the living room. This is a similar
situation to that at Easthall or Ballantrae, where occupants have a choice. In the
interests of energy-efficiency, one would hope that they would ventilate via the
sunspace in winter. But that might not be so, and hence, as we have seen
above, consumption could vary radically.
However, assuming that occupants conform to reasonable expectations,
the mechanical system would counteract natural thermo-circulation during the
day by drawing sun-warmed, less dense air from the top of the sunspace back
down to the bottom. During the night, with an open window between the main
bedroom and the sunspace, the mechanical supply of warm air would tend to
enter the upper part of the sunspace and then cool in contact with the outer
glass, increasing in density and descending ready for entry into the living room
and kitchen. In other words, at night, or on a cold and overcast day in winter, the
mechanical system will not have to counteract natural thermo-circulation.
Rather than competing with a warming cycle, it will work in harmony with a
cooling one. There is also a small heating coil integrated with the exchanger as
a failsafe for conditions where the fresh supply would otherwise be too cold.

4.15 Stacked sunspaces at Graham Square in raising architectural stakes – widening performance gap
Glasgow – facing 15˚ north of west Returning to Scotland, a final and more recent case study is difficult to ignore in
terms of the matter in hand – ‘conservatories conserving?’ This is an award-
winning design by architects McKeown Alexander for Molendinar Park Housing
Association (Platt, 2000) and it is again urban, involving stacked, shallow,
single-storey, vertically glazed and recessed sunspaces. The site is known as
Graham Square, the former threshold to an abattoir in the East End of Glasgow.
Aesthetically, the stakes have been raised higher than at either Stornoway or
Easthall. With the completely glazed façades reminiscent of much earlier
modernist schemes, such as the 1931 Clarté flats by Le Corbusier in Geneva,
this project has an aura of flats only available to a wealthy elite. However, it is
predominantly rented social housing, and compared with pioneers such as the
solar demonstration at Easthall, the most significant change in terms of
performance is the greater height and width. 4.16(1) In other words, the area
of the solar façade has increased while the loss of gain by self-shading is
relatively slight (Figure 4.15). Apart from three of the flats, where sunspaces are
about two thirds of the more typical width and are in a corner situation, the
entire living-dining-kitchen zone is buffered.
Although the sample was small, a mainly qualitative survey (Hayton, 2004)
uncovered some interesting aspects of control by the occupants. Ironically,
although all local housing associations in Scotland pride themselves on
participation in the process of procurement, only one seventh of the tenants
here chose to participate in this survey. Altogether only four households took
part, two home-owners and two tenants. Whether by coincidence or not,
according to the figures provided by Hayton, the two tenants were much more

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energy-efficient than the two owners. One of the latter spent more than three 4.16 Graham Square urban housing:
times as much as the lower of the two tenants. supplementary information
Once respective differences in floor areas are taken into account, the range
4.16(1) The height is about 2.8m, and the width
is even more extreme. Translating Hayton’s figures for expenditure to net energy some 6.5m, while the depth is very similar to that at
needed for space heating per unit area, the lower of the two tenants is estimated Easthall at 1.2m.
to be less than 35kWh/m2, the next at less than 55kWh/m2. On the other hand,
4.16(2) These values are based on assumptions for
the lower of the two owners at close to 110kWh/m2 and the profligate owner at
gas consumed for cooking and heating water, and
just over 300kWh/m2. One may note that this last estimate is nearly 60 per cent
70 per cent efficiency for the combination gas boiler.
above the highest consumer at Easthall. 4.16(2)
If actual efficiencies were higher, the net rates per
Then, if we accept that at least three of the four dwellings at Graham Square unit area would also rise. With the low U-values, a
are representative of the range for all twenty, the results bear comparison to condensing gas boiler was considered uneconomic.
those of Easthall, with the two tenants in the lowest three and ten respectively. However, this means that the UK’s Standard
However, even when disregarding the aberrantly high owner, there is still a Assessment Procedure (SAP) rating is adversely
factor of three between the highest and lowest. Such differentials serve to mask affected. There is a paradox here. If, a condensing
improvements in energy efficiency 4.16(3) at Graham Square compared with boiler would be inefficient due to high levels of
Easthall. There is no doubt that the primary reasons for the substantial range in insulation, a rating should not be penalized.
consumption are again the regimes adopted with respect to setting thermostats 4.16(3) U-values for opaque surfaces at Graham
and opening windows. It may also be significant that the tenants had the benefit Square are approximately 0.20W/m2K compared
of detailed advice from the housing association with respect to the use of both with 0.25 and higher at Easthall, while windows at
the heating system and the sunspaces, whereas the owners did not. Graham Square all have low-emissivity coatings
Sadly, the two tenants with the low consumption appeared to make very compared with normal double glazing at Easthall.
little use of the sunspace as an amenity, finding it generally either too warm or
too cold. This may have something to do with the orientation. The flats of the
two tenants face approximately fifteen degrees north of due west. This means
that their opportunities for enjoying direct solar radiation will be very limited in
winter, when the sun sets well to the south of due west. It would only come into
its own during sunny early evenings in spring, and could then well become too
warm if not adequately ventilated. Paradoxically, it would appear that the low
level of use resulted in the spaces functioning effectively as thermal buffers. On
the other hand, the two owners had flats facing fifteen degrees west of due
south. They had more opportunity to enjoy the spaces and it was the case that
they opened up the dividing screen much more frequently.
Overall, the performance of a varied typology of unheated sunspaces
relative to energy-efficient housing, mainly in the rented sector, has been shown
to be sensitive to the vagaries of occupants. This particular architecturally
upmarket scheme is no different. It is very difficult to see how the architects
could have designed out all the susceptibilities that have been described,
although there is clearly scope in terms of heat delivery. In particular, ubiquitous
water-filled radiators, with thermostatic valves, have been shown to be very
temptingly open to overuse in an affordable context. In any case, if standards of
insulation are high enough, and if there is a workable system of controlled
ventilation that involves some form of preheating, we have seen that the need

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for auxiliary or purchased heat can be very low. On the other hand, it has been
shown that any group is likely to contain a wide range from what might be
perceived as sensibly low, to irrationally high, consumption. It also has to be
accepted that the lowest group is probably more likely to correspond with
predictions or expectations for energy-efficiency than that in the middle. A case
is evident for predictive modelling to acknowledge a more realistic standard
based on a higher level of middle ground, which has been derived from
measurement. Also, using the word ‘vagaries’ relative to a whole range of
tactics adopted to provide comfort is perhaps unfair. The word should be more
fairly aimed at the high end, where erratic whimsies are perceived as a factor.
Then again, one person’s whimsy may be another’s rationale.

Socio-demography in focus
Up until now, there has been little attempt to provide further meaning or reason to
explain what causes one household to be a high consumer as opposed to a low
one. However, certain behavioural patterns, which could be categorized as having
a social or demographic bias, are relevant here. Some are so prevalent that they
are difficult to isolate. For example, all of Glasgow’s peripheral housing schemes,
and areas to the near east of the centre, are characterized by social ills such as
high unemployment, drug dependency and crime, as well as a relatively high
incidence of disability. Although social and economic disadvantage may be very
pronounced in Glasgow, such symptoms can be found in many of the cities
located within the climatic scope of this book, and they also have a direct
relationship to issues such as demand for heat and air in homes.
It should also be recognized that floor areas for social housing tend to be
close to the statutory minimum. Whilst this might indicate that they may be
more economic to heat than a larger house, when small houses are intensively
occupied, they need to replenish their air at a significantly higher rate than a
larger counterpart. As we have seen, as soon as a large demand for air prevails,
the result is a larger consumption of fuel, already recognized as a ‘chicken and
egg’ situation. The demand for air, to at least some extent, appears to be driven
by the demand for heat. Further, despite a modern, middle-income tendency for
more work to be done in the home, it is indisputable that dwellings in the low-
income sector will be occupied for more hours every day compared with those
higher up the social scale.
Another factor that has already been mentioned is that poor people, in
Scotland at least, are now in transition from years of suffering the additional
burdens of fuel poverty – cold, damp, mouldy homes – to affordable warmth.
The tide is turning in this regard. Thermally sub-standard stock is gradually
being upgraded (Communities Scotland, 2004) and new dwellings have to
conform to increasingly tighter thermal standards. Therefore, it is not surprising
to find people wishing to enjoy this novel wealth of comfort to the hilt. Over and
above a reactive attitude to the affordability of heat, we have a more generic

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aspiration towards whole-house comfort. This is a characteristic that is difficult

to pin down further. However, there are specific socio-economic influences that
were apparent to some extent in Graham Square, which also correlate with
some of the earlier findings of the Easthall solar demonstration.
Having gone into aspects of performance that are inextricably tied to the
habits and aspirations of occupants, the scene is now set for an appraisal of
particular ‘lifestyle’ or socio-demographical influences, some more readily
identified than others. It also means that such influences are not likely to be tied
particularly to sunspaces or to any one country. Having made this point, there
are nevertheless certain social housing models that are associated with some
countries more than others.

Scottish experience
In the case of Scotland, it is the ‘housing association’ model that has gained
prominence over the last two decades. Hence it is convenient to continue with
the four households in Graham Square in Glasgow, who cooperated with
interviews and questionnaires.
The owner with the very high consumption provided some clues regarding
this phenomenon. Smoking frequently inside the flat had the consequence of
windows also being opened frequently to clear the air. Also the second member
of the household was a cat, who was given the run of the sunspace as a garden,
with the intervening sliding glass door constantly in the open position. Effectively
this extended the heated volume to include the sunspace. Consequently,
double, rather than quadruple, glazing then bounded the living room. Also, the
impact of smoking on the metabolism often results in smokers feeling cold,
while non-smokers are comfortable. Feeling cold in the living room was admitted
in this case, the implication being that the thermostat would tend to be mainly
set to its maximum level.
It was ironically the larger rented flat, which was occupied most intensively
and generally all day rather than from evening to morning, that had the lowest
consumption. One possible reason for this was that an agoraphobic son often
used his computer all day long. Both this and the intensity of occupation itself
would add to incidental thermal gains, thus reducing the need for auxiliary heat. It
may also be that maintaining a steady diurnal cycle of temperature was inherently
more efficient than providing twice-daily surges of heat. Certainly the occupancy
during daytime would be able to take more advantage of useful solar gain. The
dwellings are lightweight in terms of their construction, so that for those who were
regularly out from morning to evening, much of the heat gained from the sun
would already be lost by the time when heat was most needed.
A further factor at Graham Square is the relatively generous volume in the
larger of the two flats in the Hayton survey. Since each is for a maximum of four
people, but, in the case of the lowest consumer, was actually only occupied by
two, there was approximately 120m3 of air available per person. If we compare

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4.17 Easthall: ventilation related to this to two people occupying an Easthall flat (also capable of taking four people),
smoking, children and pets the figure drops by 37.5 per cent to 75m3 per person. The argument can be made,
that far from it being inherently more economic to heat the smaller volume, it
4.17(1) The estimated rate of ventilation went up by
50 per cent comparing 8 dwellings with no smokers conversely leads to more indiscriminate opening of windows, and hence to higher
to 26 with at least one smoker. It also went up by heating loads. The greater consumption of the less extravagant of the two owners
50 per cent comparing the 8 dwellings with no in the survey at Graham Square conforms to this hypothesis. It is a much smaller
smokers to 9 with at least one smoker and a pet. The flat than those occupied by the tenants, and the volume of air per occupant is
difference in consumption was even more marked. approximately 77m3, quite close to a flat at Easthall occupied by two people.
It went up by 80 per cent comparing non-smoking The issue of smoking and the presence of pets was evident at Easthall,
households to smoking ones and up 96 per cent both apparently adding to the need to ventilate. 4.17(1) The presence of young
compared to smoking ones with pets. children also seemed to correlate to ventilation and fuel consumption, and the
4.17(2) The 9 houses with children were estimated presence of smoking and children generates an additional bias. 4.17(2) The
to have an average of over 40 per cent greater rate thermal influence of pets, particularly dogs, is tied to the temptation to use a
of ventilation and 35 per cent higher consumption glazed space as a kennel, and to ventilate it liberally. Odour is an added factor.
compared to those without. Also, of the 9 with With young children, the home tends to be more intensively occupied as well as
children, the 6 smoking households ventilated more super-heated. The amount of laundering tends to increase significantly and
than 60 per cent and consumed more than 100 per odour can again be a factor with babies. One mother understandably changed
cent compared with the non-smoking ones.
her baby in front of the gas fire with the window open to clear the air. The glazed
balconies were also ideal play spaces and, in any case, young children tend to
4.18 Ottrupgård Fjernewarme rural co- wander from space to space, leaving doors ajar.
housing: energy efficiency values
Danish and German experiences
4.18(1) During a visit in 1996, the following U-values
were reported – roof 0.13W/m2K, walls 0.24W/m2K, The issue of families with young children in a rural setting, as opposed to an
floor 0.15W/m2K and argon-filled windows at urban one, was again perceived as an energy factor in the Ottrupgård
1.60W/m2K. Fjernewarme Danish co-housing development mentioned earlier (Chapter 2).
This was a scheme with a strong commitment to efficient use of renewable
4.18(2) The average annual demand for space and
water heating was reportedly about 100kWh/m2 or
energy, in this case an active solar array together with a bio-fuel boiler to provide
11,000kWh for a house of 110m2. If 3700kWh were low-temperature district heating. It is the same psychological issue concerning
deducted for water heating, the balance for space ownership of controls, which was addressed in the first main sub-section of this
heating would be approximately 66kWh/m2. chapter, but set in the context of a particular social group with a common sense
of purpose. An important by-product of their communal approach was that
much of the activity that generates moisture and requires energy has been taken
out of the individual homes.
These were well insulated 4.18(1). In spite of this, the average annual
demand for space heating appeared to be quite high 4.18(2) – of the order of
66kWh/m2. Warm water coils below the flooring should result in comfort being
achieved at relatively low air temperatures, while the multiple-thermostat factor
is not present. The internal brick leaf of the outer walls together with solid
internal walls will also provide good thermal storage. This in turn should enhance
the capability to air the houses intermittently without losing too much energy.
Although the estimate of 66kWh/m2 by no means represents an exorbitant
heating load, it does suggest a relatively significant proportion due to ventilation.
The system for control was a cord-operated trickle vent as an inlet to each

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room, with passive stack exhaust from bathrooms and kitchen. However, in the
safe country context, it is likely that there would be a lot of movement in and out
of houses, especially by the children. This would add to the more general
tendency to open windows at times when the ambient temperature is low.
Finally one should bear in mind that these houses are some 75 per cent larger
than the meagre volume of the flats at Easthall in Glasgow. Therefore, one could
reasonably expect the thermal load for ventilation to be higher, even at fairly low
rates. On the other hand, it has already been argued above that more air per
person can lead to less opening of windows. Actually both propositions could be
valid. Assuming comparison of a family of four in Ottrupgård compared with the
same number at Easthall, the estimated mean consumption of the larger Danish
home lies at the top of the lowest third of the monitored Scottish group.
Another co-housing project in the Vauban district of Freiburg, Germany,
came about as a result of a policy to promote participation by citizens. Priority
was further given where it was recognized that groups of citizens had a clear
policy for sustainability. Groups were also required to form an association,
which would work with research partners. In this case the project was given the
title ‘Wohnen & Arbeiten’ (Living & Working), and the association ‘Ökobauverein
e.V., Freiburg’ (Association for Sustainable Buildings) was founded. All residents
were required to be members of Ökobauverein. Architect Michael Gies of id-
architektur, together with the Fraunhofer Institut für Solare Energiesysteme and
the Fraunhofer Institut für Systemtechnic und Innovationsforschung in Freiburg,
then designed the building (Figure 4.16). The aim was that its active and passive
solar features, together with its measures for energy conservation, would come

4.16 South façade of the ‘Wohnen & Arbeiten’

(Living & Working) block in Freiburg

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close to eliminating space heating in the normal sense. This means that one of
the commonly abused controls already identified, a thermostatic control valve
on each radiator in each space, is no longer available. There is actually one
radiator for extreme conditions in the dining-kitchen and a small one in the
bathroom, but otherwise the flats are kept warm at the same time as they are
ventilated by a mechanical heat recovery system.
This is a similar tactic to that adopted by Brenda and Robert Vale in the
Hockerton housing in England (Chapter 3). The Vauban flats have ducts to
deliver fresh air at 18°C through grilles in the floor. This then leaves rooms at
about 20°C from the kitchen and bathroom, having picked up additional heat
from the occasional use of the radiator, together with passive solar gain,
occupants, appliances and lighting, each of these varying according to time and
circumstance. The system is expected to be at least 82 per cent efficient,
although claims of 85–90 per cent were made during an initial visit in 1999. Such
values imply that the exchanger itself is of very high quality in terms of both
design and manufacture. It is also relevant that there is a communal laundry in
the basement. None of the dwellings have to deal with the moisture from
washing and drying clothes. Therefore, the rate of replenishing fresh air is not as
great as it would otherwise have been. Also, the proportion of working space –
ateliers and offices – will help to keep the production of moisture relatively low.
Moreover, like Hockerton, there is a considerable amount of thermal mass,
mainly in floors, masonry partitions and party walls, and the dining-kitchen area
is tiled as a passive solar absorber and heat store. This means, that although
there is always a possibility of residents opening windows in cold weather, the
capacitance will help to limit the negative impact of such actions. Most
importantly, because this is another self-build cooperative development, the
occupants all have a stake in responsible energy conservation. This started with
the design itself, a no-frills geometrical approach where the quality of
construction and services can be prioritized. Although each flat is individually
tailored in terms of layout and some finishes, their container is a very
straightforward rectilinear block. Thus the high proportion of shared walls and
floors are thermally advantageous.
When it came to the external envelope, because unlike Hockerton there are
no solar buffer spaces, the glazing specification is extremely high. Sturdy timber
windows, including sliding patio doors, are triple-glazed with two low-emissivity
coatings and cavities filled with heavy gas to give a U-value of 0.7W/m2K and 75
per cent transmission. All opaque external surfaces have 25cm of insulation,
while access decks on one side of the block and verandas on the other are
independently supported to avoid any thermal bridging. Each of these zones is
capped by a tilted solar array, photovoltaics over the south-facing veranda, and
flat-plate solar thermal collectors over the access galleries. By being directly
involved in the building process, residents know about the specification and

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what is expected of them in terms of responsible use. There is a further incentive 4.19 Vauban, Freiburg: details of monitored
to be economic with hot water, since this is metered, while the small amount of energy
energy supplied to radiators is included with the rent. In any case, the general
4.19(1) Less than a quarter of the 40kWh/m2 is
socio-political climate in Germany, and particularly in Freiburg, is very attuned for water (8.7kWh/m2). Nearly 18kWh/m2 of the
to environmental awareness and responsibility. remainder needed for space heating is met by heat
The project was nearing completion in the summer of 1999, so that only recovery; and in order to address a final heating
predictions were available with respect to performance. The passive and active deficit of about 13kWh/m2, a thermal supply of some
solar contribution was estimated to be over 20kWh/m2 and estimates of residual 13.25kWh/m2 is required from the CHP system to
loads seemed quite optimistic compared to other projects. But in Freiburg, top up that from the flat-plate solar array. The CHP
home to the headquarters of the International Solar Energy Society, ISES, and and the 45m2 of flat-plate collectors together supply
the reputed solar capital of Europe, one gets used to very low forecasts of 32kWh/m2 to the thermal store, two thirds of which
is usefully used for space and water heating (12.6
consumption. A small combined heat and power (CHP) system, burning natural
+ 8.7 = 21.3kWh/m2). In other words, the efficiency
gas, was designed to meet the residual annual load for space and water heating
of the thermal store and associated distribution
together with the balance of the electrical load. In addition, it was intended that
is a modest 66.6 per cent. However, some of the
gas for cooking would come from a biogas reactor supplied by so-called ‘black
losses will be reclaimed inside apartments as useful
water’ from a vacuum sanitation system. Although Jörg Lange, resident and incidental gains.
‘father’ of the project, has not yet given up on it, apparently the biogas reactor
4.19(2) 36.4kWh/m2 of natural gas is supplied
never worked satisfactorily and the company assigned to this part of the plant
annually to the CHP system. The electrical output is
is bankrupt. There is also a ‘grey water’ recycling system (from showers and so
8.5kWh/m2, to which 1.8kWh/m2 (m2 still refers to
forth) used for flushing toilets and gardening purposes; all rainwater is returned
floor area) is added from the solar photovoltaic array.
to the ground via ditches and gravel filters.
After allowing for pumps, fans and electrical controls,
Revisited five years later, the project has been monitored as part of IEA Task there is 6.5kWh/m2 available for other electrical
28/38 ‘Sustainable Solar Housing’ (Voss et al, 2002). The annual net thermal uses; this amount can be exported to the grid to
demand for space and water heating is given as just below 40kWh/m2, having offset, or even overtake, what has to be bought from
allowed for free solar and incidental gains. 4.19(1) On top of this, there is the it. The combined electrical and thermal efficiency of
electrical demand, met partly by the photovoltaic array and partly by the CHP the CHP plant works out at 85 per cent.
system. 4.19(2)
It is an open question as to what extent socio-demographic factors may
have been relevant to the actual consumption. A key value to bear in mind and
compare with other projects is the net demand for space heating of roughly
30kWh/m2. In other words, in this urban block, the loads appear to be less than
half that achieved for the Danish rural co-housing. Leaving aside climatic
differences, which may in any case not be too significant, the compactness and
shared surfaces in Freiburg must play a considerable part in this. But the heat
recovery system is also crucial to the comparison. It is likely that it meets most
if not all of the thermal demand arising from ventilation. Again, a question arises
as to whether other urban versus rural factors had relevance to the differential,
in spite of similar environmental aspirations and probably quite a similar socio-
demographic mix. Whatever the answers, and for all the apparent success of
the urban over the rural model, 30kWh/m2 is compatible with the figure quoted
as a ‘passive solar exemplar’ by the Fraunhofer Institut in 1999 (assuming the
latter excludes the contribution from heat recovery). One may conclude that

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one-off experiments such as the ‘solar house’ in Freiburg, which is probably

around half that value once heat recovery is included, are meant to encourage
designers and users to strive towards greater efficiency, rather than to represent
a realistic expectation for real multi-unit housing projects.
This German social and environmental paradigm marks an appropriate
point to return the spotlight to aspects of design that initially set the scene for
the occupants. Chapter 2 discussed strategic architectural positions, specifically
with regard to the advantages and constraints of solar features having more
than one function. Having now teased out some discernable traits with respect
to the manner in which people interact with buildings and the extent to which
this affects their ability to conserve energy, it is now time to give some more
attention to static aspects of design that have potency in their own right. The
contention is that even though the holistic architectonic of a building, as
conceived and realized by a design team, is always to some extent vulnerable
to interference by users, it should also provide and protect a significant degree
of immutability.

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REFERENCES

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Baker, P. H. and McEvoy, M. E. (1999) ‘An investigation into the use of a supply
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Bloss, W. H. and Pfisterer, F. (eds) (1987) Advances in Solar Energy

Technology, proceedings of the Biennial Congress of the International Solar
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Blundell Jones, P. (1996) ‘Space Craft, Youth Club, Möglingen, Germany’, The
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Boyce, R. (1993) ‘Keck’s Art Deco and Art Moderne residences’, in Keck and
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Butti, K. and Perlin, J. (1980) ‘An American revival’, in A Golden Thread: 2500
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Communities Scotland (2004) Scottish House Condition Survey 2002,

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Hawkes, D. (1988) ‘Energetic Design: Netley Infants’ School’, The Architects’

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occupants on environmental performance in mass housing’. Special Subject
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Ho, H. M. (1995) User-Performance Sensitivity of Small Sunspaces in a

Scottish Housing Context, PhD thesis, Mackintosh School of Architecture,
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Long, G. (1976) Solar Energy: its Potential Contribution within the United
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Nordström, C. and Nordström, K. (1987) ‘A multifamily solar house in

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O’Farrell, F. and Lynskey, G. (1984) ‘The construction and performance of a

Trombe wall in a northern climate’, in MacGregor, K. (ed), North Sun ’84: Solar
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Palz, W. and Steemers, T. C. (eds) (1981) Solar Houses in Europe: How They
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Platt, C. (2000) ‘Market Place: McKeown Alexander at Graham Square’,

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(2002) ‘Solarenergie und Energieeffizienz in Geschosswohnungsbau –
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Chapter 5 Passive Control

Passive solar architecture is achieved by designing to capture, store and deliver

the sun’s energy. In its purest sense, there are no moving parts. Therefore, this
chapter starts with built form. At a conceptual stage, architects either rely on a
specific brief from a known client, ideally the eventual user, or a less specific
one, where the project is speculative. In this case the user may be either
completely unknown, or unknown apart from a type. It is also normal for a
project, whether bespoke or speculative, to be designed for a particular site. In
this case, there will be known characteristics that are unlikely to change
significantly, such as topography, and others that may well be changed by
neighbours, such as shading by obstructions. Having said that, architects often
have the scope to intervene both with the topography and shading obstructions
within the curtilage of their site. In general, the bigger the site, the greater is their
freedom to do this.
Therefore, the site together with the brief will have a considerable bearing
on the ability to engage with the free heat of the sun in order to reduce the
overall consumption of energy. This applies equally to the thermal loads for
heating and cooling, as well as electrical loads for a large range of functions. In
the latter case, an active–passive partnership might be for photovoltaic panels
to power small appliances and mechanical equipment such as fans and pumps,
while passive design directly displaces artificial lighting. In order to do this, the
three-dimensional realization of a building is the primary enabler, just as it is for
the deliberate acceptance or rejection of solar heat. Initially this involves an
overriding strategy for the geometry of spaces, individually and together, then
moving into ever increasing detail. Such detail includes fine-tuned form, as well
as the thermal and other physical properties of materials. Orientation and tilt has
already been discussed to some extent in the second chapter. The opportunities
and constraints embedded in a strategy of integrating solar components were
compared with those of one of isolation. Here the broad decisions, which are
embodied in plan and section, are reintroduced in relation to the passive control
they provide. The proposition is that such control may be designed to be either
immune, or at least not overly sensitive, to manual interaction with users.
Similarly, strategic form and dimensioning should harmonize with more

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sophisticated forms of active control, which may, for example, be required to

control the movement of air or shading. For this reason, whilst the focus in this
chapter is on static components, these inevitably may require to be placed in a
context of elements that are movable, such as windows, as well as fluids, such
as air and water, which may be mechanically assisted.

Plan and section

Whilst some aspects of plan and section have already been covered in earlier
chapters, and much of the above introduction could apply to case studies such
as the simple urban co-housing block in Freiburg or the rural housing at
Hockerton, it may be refreshing to start by looking at another facet of culture.
Galleries and museums represent a typology that has the capability of being
much more passive in character than is generally the case. We tend to associate
galleries with sophisticated air conditioning, and precedents also often dull our
expectations for very much in the way of natural light. However, there was a
programme funded by the European Union in the late 1990s to explore passive
options, including exploitation of daylight, through case studies of museums of
antiquity in several countries (Tombazis and Preuss, 1998).

light orchestration – Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum

Following this cue, an older art museum where the topography of the site is
particularly relevant to sunlight and daylight is the Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum
in Ålborg, Denmark, by Elissa and Alvar Aalto with Jean-Jacques Baruël. Of
course, Alvar Aalto is renowned for his imaginative use of daylight, and in the
only gallery of his prestigious career it would have been virtually preordained
that maximization of natural daylight would be of prime importance. Won by
competition in 1958, the building was not finally opened until 1972, after many
years of struggling to secure finances and four years of construction. More
recently, three years before Alvar Aalto’s centenary in 1998, it was blessed with
a preservation order.
The input of both Elissa Aalto and Jean Jacques Baruël to the project is of
some conjecture. Both were much younger than Alvar, but each worked for him
during a significant period. Alvar married Elissa, then a young assistant in his
office, in 1952, three years after the death of his first wife. Jean Jacques Baruël
worked in Aalto’s office in Helsinki from 1948 to 1954. He knew and admired his
architectural rationale, as did Elissa, and he stoically defended the design
against dilution during a prolonged and difficult period of gestation. The Ålborg
museum was also drawn up in Baruël’s office in Copenhagen at much the same
time as two other projects in which Aalto was not directly involved, but where
his influence is evident. (One of these was a college in Sönderborg, Denmark
and the other Nyköping Town hall, Sweden. Both are shown with the Ålborg
museum in Architectural Review, March 1973.) After Aalto’s death in 1976, both

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his widow and Baruël were involved in subsequent sensitive interventions to

provide more storage and working space for staff on the lower floor.
The site, originally a sports ground, is a sausage shaped hollow lying to the
southwest of a cemetery and separated from it by an access road. The axis of
the long dimension of the hollow is northwest to southeast and the gallery,
located towards the southern end of the site, adhered to this. The road is some
three metres above grade, while the ground to the southeast, southwest and
west is densely wooded and rises steeply. Indeed, the highest southwest edge
is nearly thirty metres above the level of the base of the site and the slope is
approximately 42 degrees. This means the location chosen for the building will
be heavily shaded during winter and it is estimated that the entire built volume,
including the highest roof, will be in shade at the time of the winter solstice.
However, this is not a building trying to exploit sunshine in winter to offset
the demand for space heating. Rather it is a building that succeeds in exploiting
solar energy in the form of daylight to displace electricity for artificial lighting. In
appraising this aspect, it should be borne in mind that the brief specifically
asked for side views out, as well as overhead daylight. This was in recognition
of the natural beauty of the site, including its sunken character embraced by the
steeply wooded embankments. The footprint of the gallery is compact and
roughly square. On section, the gallery is elevated as a piano nobile, accessible
directly from the level of the road and sitting above staff parking and services,
as well as public ancillary accommodation such as a seminar room and
cafeteria. The last two have an intimate relationship with the immediate external
landscape, respectively a stepped amphitheatre set into the slope and a
sculpture garden within the northern part of the hollow. The gallery above, as
one might expect, is generally introvert in character. The exception to this is the
part of the main entrance foyer that connects via a generous cascading stair to
the lower level. Here a long stretch of fenestration provides a downward view
over the sunken lawn. Other views out are mainly upwards. A deep-plan form
was chosen, but where there is no need to have more than one level of gallery,
there is naturally some emphasis on the upper parts of the structure, in particular
the roof, in terms of a capacity to admit daylight.
Having steered the light inside, adopting various techniques to baffle direct
sunlight from paintings, the floor, with its generous grid of pale marble adhering
to all possible locations for hanging, is an essential reflective component.
Photographer Hélène Binet remarks on this, (Harlang and Bak, 1999): ‘The
museum’s interiors are opaque. Only the marble ground reflects the light in such
a way that it shines. The ground thus becomes the source of a floating body of
light and the viewer walks between two poles of luminescence.’ Actually, her
first sentence is not strictly accurate. Glass is visible from many angles in the
galleries, and Binet illustrates this in several of her striking black and white
photographs. Her last phrase also tends toward hyperbole since the white and

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light beige vertical surfaces that separate the ‘two poles’ are very much an
integral part of the naturally lit backdrop to exhibits.
Two main techniques are used to capture daylight – vertical clerestory
windows to the highest gallery, and tilted fenestration bounding raised monitors
for the more general gallery space (Figure 5.1). The latter lies to the southeast of
the former and is a large orthogonal space punctuated by a regular grid of
columns (Figures 5.2a and b). Movable display walls may be located in a variety
5.1 Cross section of roof monitor at Nordjyllands of ways relative to the columns. The roof over this part is the most prone to
Kunstmuseum
shading, and hence some loss of intensity of daylight, but the tilt of the glass in
the monitors compensates for this by pointing towards the brighter part of the
sky (Figures 5.2a, b). A third variant is a set of smaller bays as a continuation of
the main space along the southwest edge. These are naturally lit at the rear, by
engaging with the first of a stepped cascade of clerestory windows to the high
gallery (Figure 5.2c). They also have generous windows facing the steeply
wooded slope, part vertical and part tilted. Although the topography and trees
shade the building in the depths of winter, it was a challenge to devise ways of
excluding direct sunlight at other times. Of course one might well question the
basic idea of full transparency in the first instance. Alternatives might have been
to use translucent glazing or some other diffusing membrane. But that was the
architectural position adopted in response to the brief, and it is not as perverse
as it might seem.
The alignment of the building means that all the main surfaces can receive
sunlight at some time of the day for a significant part of the year. On the other
hand, it was inevitable that the built geometry should respond to the axiom that
sunshine will enter northeast and northwest glazing at much lower angles than
those facing southeast and southwest. The basic idea of the raised monitors
was to reflect direct sunlight from concave scoops suspended within their
volume. The orientational divide meant that the northerly surfaces of glass could
be larger than the southerly ones. This was simply achieved by tilting the
copper-clad roof of each monitor by 20 degrees from the horizontal. Since the
glazing is almost 70 degrees, this means that the opaque roof is nearly at right
angles to the high clerestory and at an obtuse angle of some 120 degrees to the
low one. Even if other angles could satisfy the lighting criterion, the resultant
asymmetry contributes satisfyingly to the aesthetic dynamic (Figure 5.1). A
visitor may not, and does not need to, interpret the clues as to the functionality
of the geometry, where the dichotomy of orientation is not immediately obvious.
However, if the logic is followed, it is evident that it is not necessary to align all
the monitors in the same direction. One alignment can have the high side facing
northeast, while on another it can face northwest. In fact, five relatively long
monitors adopt the former orientation, and three shorter ones the latter. On
touring the gallery, the shift of axis heightens the architectural experience. It
marks arrival at the southwestern edge and a change of direction, which is in
tune with the smaller bays as one moves on clockwise (Figures 5.2a to c).

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All monitors are rectilinear on plan and glazed on either three or all four 5.2 Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum
surfaces. This means that if the high glazing is to the northeast, there are short a gallery approaching from entrance and
looking southeast with direction of monitors
trapezoidal ends facing southeast and northwest. Consequently, the scoops on b still looking southeast, with monitors at right
the sunnier ends have more to cope with in terms of blocking out the sun, and angles to southwest edge to right
all eight monitors are glazed on their sunny ends. Given the fact that all the c turning round to northwest: small galleries
to left of corridor, which forms the first of a
glazing is clear, the scoops become paramount as baffles and reflectors.
series of steps in the roof form, with high
However, being able to glimpse trees and sky as one moves through the gallery gallery on the far side of the wall on right
is tremendously uplifting, as are the shadows cast by sunlight on to the curved
surface of the scoops. The combination of the window frames and spherical
artificial lights are the enliveners in this regard (Figure 5.3a). Here, as in many of
Aalto’s buildings, the lights are placed in such a way as to exploit reflective
surfaces, thus mimicking natural light.
Visiting the building during the afternoon of a sunny summer solstice may
well have been one of the most severe tests for the monitors and their light
scoops, especially at their southern ends where the three concave surfaces
intersect. Certainly flashes of sunlight were able to bypass the baffle and
directly illuminate walls, as well as floors (Figure 5.3b). In terms of curatorship,
one can only assume that this happens relatively infrequently, or to such a slight
extent, that it is not considered problematic. The question is whether or not the
architects would have known this in advance. Whilst there was no computer
software to visualize solar penetration at the time of design or construction,
apparatus known as a ‘heliodon’ was available for physical modelling. Some of
the original design sections suggest quite a detailed exploration of solar

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5.3 Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum

a shadows of light fittings enliven light-
scoops
b sunlight edits floor and display surfaces on
summer solstice

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geometry, but only an accurate three dimensional construct used with a

‘heliodon’ could have dealt with the level of complexity involved in the interplay
between opaque curved surfaces, glazed openings and a moving sun.
The conjunction of design intent and function becomes intriguing here. Had the
architects not wished the scoops to appear as suspended islands or peninsulas in
a sea of glass, solid ends could have dealt with solar baffling more effectively. Each
of the four peninsulas have one solid end, but these face northwest and are close
to the first major step-up in a series of five main horizontal roof planes, a plinth from
which the high gallery ascends a further three steps. (The corridor in Figure 5.2c
forms the southwest edge of this plinth.) But the added aesthetic value of the
scoops as inverted islands and peninsulas is undeniable. It almost seems as if they
are held up by ‘sky hooks’… until one rationalizes! The loads from the roofs of the
monitors and their hanging scoops are transferred via slim steel struts, which are
lined up with glazing mullions and seem to slide past cantilevered trays of the main
concrete roof. One could argue that this is an explicit structure. But in reality,
comprehension of the gymnastics takes time and thought. This is a game played to
the hilt by very talented players.
Having established a language of curves to tackle the reflection and
diffusion of sunlight into the main part of the gallery, this is elaborated by means
of a subtle mix of convex, concave and flat surfaces in the more specialized
spaces. The high gallery is the spatial crescendo of the building. Its dramatically
stepped section (Figure 2.1c, p25) faces southwest and incorporates a series of
light shelves, scoops and louvres, the last external. Deep concrete beams
provide a further barrier for oblique sunlight. But again it is possible for
occasional shafts of sunlight to circumvent the defences, punctuating both floor
and walls, and of course any work of art in their path.
Other spaces, such as the small bays behind the southwest wall of the high
gallery, have to take more direct action against sunshine in summer. They have
internal solar blinds. Even so, a narrow strip of sunlight is able to sneak past and
edit paintings, even if ephemerally, on one wall at right angles to the window.
However, in spite of any reservations that a curator might have in this regard, the
strategy for natural lighting as a displacer of fossil-fuel energy appears to be
entirely effective. On that bright afternoon, only a few lights were switched on,
and hardly any of these were in the galleries themselves. This may be counted
as a considerable success. In many other buildings, where the architects have
designed for such displacement, the use in reality is very different.
There is one environmental downside, which is relevant to the passive
characteristics of the design, but also relates to the active system for ventilation.
As mentioned, the afternoon of that summer solstice was sunny. But it was also
quite windy, and the wind, influenced no doubt by the proximity of Ålborg to the
sea, was distinctly cold. Therefore, it would have been reasonable to expect that
the thermal cooling load for the mechanically supplied air would not have been

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very intense. However, the subjective perception during a gentle walk through
the building, particularly in the lower general gallery space, was of overheating.
It was definitely too warm and stuffy.
Two aspects of the design are significant. The first is that the scoops are
inherently lightweight. The design idea described above has made this
inevitable. They are also clad in an acoustically absorbent ribbed timber lining.
Although light in colour, resulting in a fairly high reflection of incoming short-
wave radiation, this will still heat up significantly when drenched in sunlight.
Subsequent convective and radiant exchanges will result in a layer of warm air
near the ceiling. Unless dissipated quite rapidly, it will tend to stratify downwards
into the zone occupied by visitors. This is what seems to be happening. Air is
delivered through grilles set in the marble flooring, thereafter exiting through
slots or grilles located at high level in walls. But these are few and far between,
and the only other means of exhaust is by natural leakage through high-level
fenestration. From an aesthetic viewpoint, this has been discreetly handled.
Some of the walls are hollow, allowing air to return to the plant-room via the
network of ducts below the primary floor slab. The problem is simply the
scarcity of the exhausts relative to the large floor area. The other apparent
potential solution might have been to make use of the generous space within
the scoops. But this has been obviated by the concept of the inverted islands
and peninsulas.
So we have a building where the passive and active systems are not in
complete harmony when it comes to heating and ventilation, but where a
deceptively simple strategy for natural lighting appears to have been
exceptionally meritorious. Although this was recognized by a commentator
shortly after completion, it was also not without serious critique (Brawne, 1973).
Michael Brawne refers to the merits of the central high gallery with its ‘series of
beams and curved terracing, longitudinal shields controlling and diffusing
daylight.’ The accolade is in the sentence that follows: ‘None of these elements,
however, eliminates the essential and undefinable quality of daylight; its reality
is not destroyed by having to pass through controlling layers: it is only deflected,
not filtered.’ Later, however, he complains that the architecture, particularly the
height, overwhelms the function of this particular space to house temporary
exhibitions. He asserts: ‘Not even the monumental and vibrant canvases of
Rothko could come into their own in such a setting.’ He has similar detailed
criticism of the general gallery space, alluding to the difficulty that the tartan grid
of marble slabs and carpet squares sets up when locating sculptures relative to
paintings. He thought that sculpture belonged on the marble, which placed it
too close to the movable walls. Thus there is an acceptance of the architectural
strength in terms of admitting daylight, but also weakness relative to the briefing
requirements: ‘What is therefore worrying at Ålborg is to see a level of
architectural ingenuity which has few recent parallels but which is not at the

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same time linked to a conceptual understanding of the inherent problems of the

building type.’

light and air – Kuntsbygning in Århus

There is at least one other recent example of a Danish gallery that provides a
skilfully muted architectural response to issues of flexibility for visiting
exhibitions, while at the same time it cleverly exploits both daylight and natural
ventilation, despite constraints. This is the modern art gallery in Århus by
architect Mads Møller, also mentioned briefly in the second chapter.
The starting point is particularly relevant. The original gallery, opened in
1917, was small. Vernacular in character, its three main spaces are top-lit and
exploit the whole volume enclosed by pitched roofs. What is surprising is that
there is no apparent system of either mechanical or natural ventilation. Air
appears to enter and exit by fortuitous leakage through fixed skylights,
combined with the opening and closing of external doors. The volume of air is
also considerable relative to the normal number of visitors to such a gallery, and
there is plenty of height to enable beneficial stratification of the warmer air
above the occupied zone. Heating pipes, ranged around the splayed surfaces
at the base of the pyramids, provide some downward radiant warmth as well as
preventing downdraughts from the glass in winter. It would seem that such
simplicity was inspirational to Møller.
The main architectural feature of his first extension in 1993 is a long curved
wall. Concave to the interior, it effectively blocks out direct sunlight into the new
space during the warmest part of the day. At its eastern extremity the wall faces
almost due south, while at the other it has curved by about 90 degrees to face west.
The wall also continues beyond the ends of the new extension, thus enabling full-
height windows that are substantially shaded. The new roof stops short of the wall,
allowing a narrow strip of natural light to wash its internal surface. However, at the
time of a visit, spotlights shining on to the same surface compromised this effect
(Figure 5.4). Finally, additional natural light is provided by a series of three glazed
pyramids. Each of these has a horizontal translucent laylight flush with the ceiling.
Again, there is no apparent mechanical ventilation, other than a simple extract from
a small cafeteria. Although the ceiling is flat and significantly lower than in the
original gallery, the extension is open to it. Thus excess heat, which is not caught by
the fan, will tend to migrate to the older and higher spaces, while fresh air can enter
through the new glazed screens. Indeed, it would appear that a glazed door closest
to the serving bar is regularly opened in fine weather so that visitors can consume
their fare outside on a sheltered patio.
The next extension, opened in June 2003, posed a more difficult challenge
in terms of adherence to natural light and ventilation. The need was significantly
to expand the area available for exhibition, without losing the gallery’s status as
a pavilion set in a relatively constrained, landscaped urban plot. Møller’s answer

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5.4 Kunstbygning in Århus. Curving

southwesterly wall of 1993 extension –
artificial and natural lighting compete

was to extend down into the ground to the rear of the first extension. The roof
of this new space would then be the floor of a new sculpture court. To contain
this at the southwest boundary, a linear glazed lantern has been wrapped round
the retaining wall, which rises some 2.5m above the level of the sculpture court.
A short strip of clerestory glazing sits on top of the wall, and then kicks out by
about 2m as a glass roof before descending as a fully glazed screen to the floor
of the court. The ensemble, with some help from reflective appliqué material,
plunges natural light down the length of this major new display surface and on
to the lower floor. Viewed from the level of the court, the blend of transparency,
reflectance and opacity provides scintillating ambiguity in terms of enclosure.
On descending into the gallery, one is by contrast very aware of the solidity of
the bounding walls, their edges forming a deep tray that holds back many
tonnes of ground. The wall, which one naturally turns to face at the foot of the
stairs, is the one below the linear lantern and its additional luminosity is evident.
Of course its source of light is not explicitly revealed until one is close up to
works of art displayed on it, and by then the soaring height of the slot above
provides a further spatial accent (Figures 5.5a and b).
Possibly influenced by the earlier precedent at Ålborg, Møller has also
chosen to use clear glass. Therefore, in terms of curatorship, the issue of direct
sunlight must be addressed as well as reflected daylight. Apart from a relatively
short time during the morning, when sunlight can illuminate the inside upper
part of the rear wall, and very briefly a slot at its base, the structure itself protects
the new gallery. However, the long linear light box is one component of a triad.
To gain access from the 1993 extension, the curved wall has been pierced. One
passes through this into another lantern enclosing the stairs on its convex

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southwest edge. Although the amount of daylight that passes down through
this is relatively restricted, it does receive sunlight. A final glass-sided cube, an
off-centre island in the court, sheds daylight between the other two sources.
This can also admit sunlight, depending on time of year and day. However, the
stair-wall is not used for display, while solar blinds are provided on the two
sunny surfaces of the cuboid lantern. Thus the issue of solar heat gain and glare
has been dealt with very simply, while daylight does displace a significant
amount of artificial lighting… just not so comprehensively as at Ålborg.
Additional roof lighting could have been provided, but one has to bear in mind
that, unlike Ålborg, visitors have a direct relationship with the lanterns at what is
still the natural ground level. To have increased their frequency would have
compromised a restrained aesthetic dialogue, and the effectiveness of the court
as a singular outdoor room. The architectural response to this dilemma was to
provide large square diffusers below arrays of luminaires, which match the
laylights of the first extension. The quality of the light coming from these in
daytime is of course different from that upstairs, but they are not seen side by
side, and the aesthetic reference is valuable.
Compared with Ålborg, the other major difference is that the lanterns
provide air as well as light. Given the liberal dimensions of the sunken gallery,
this tactic appears surprisingly serendipitous. All three have opening lights, but
it does not necessarily follow that an adequate supply will enter and leave, and,
more importantly, disperse evenly over the area of the floor. However, although
it was admitted that the gallery had overheated during its formal opening, it
seems to work well under normal circumstances. In fact, the perception was

5.5 Kuntsbygning in Århus

a looking southwest from foot of stairs into
2003 extension below sculpture court
b looking up into glazed lantern above
southwest display wall of 2003 extension

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rather better than for the mechanical system at Ålborg. The fluid dynamics on
any given day would be sensitive to wind direction and strength, as well as solar
intensity. One could easily imagine a southwest stream of air entering at high
level along the long lantern, descending to the floor, since it would be fairly cool,
and then leaving by the other lanterns as it heated and became less dense. The
thermal mass of the wall behind the stairs would help in such a scenario,
especially if warmed by the sun. The means of heating is not for the most part
evident and it is probably safe to assume that low temperature coils play a part.
Following the precedent of the original building, there are other slim heat
emitters visible at the base of the lanterns. Again, these will tackle downdraughts
from the glass in cold weather.

relevance of latitude to designing for daylight

What singles out these two Danish case studies within the geographical scope
of this book is the fact that clear glass is deliberately used as a passive solar
mechanism to displace electricity. Therefore, their particular latitude is relevant
to the size, orientation and tilt of fenestration and techniques adopted to
intercept direct sunlight. There are several other galleries of note that also
exploit daylight imaginatively, but without such direct relevance to latitude and
orientation. The use of diffuse glazing is common to all of these, but their overall
architectural concept and expression is remarkably varied.
For example, in Barcelona, Spain, well outside the climatic territory of
interest here, there is the gallery devoted to the work of Joan Miró. The first
phase by Josep Lluis Sert was opened in 1975, and the prominent rooftop light
catchers, which face northeast, southeast, southwest and northwest,
accentuate the chunky concrete architectural rhetoric of the period. Then, more
than six degrees further north at 47.5°N and more than 20 years later, we have
Peter Zumthor’s ethereal glass tower in Bregenz, Austria, with similar orientations
for its four identically dimensioned façades (Figure 5.6a). In this building, the
light, which is initially diffused through the vertical surfaces into generous
horizontal voids below respective floor slabs, is delivered through diffuse glass
ceilings to each gallery. The exception to this is when exhibiting artists, such as
Gilbert and George, insist on exclusively lighting the gallery artificially. Then
blinds descend and the subtly varying natural luminance and raison d’être of
Zumthor’s concept is sabotaged, apart from above the staircases (Figure 5.6b).
The similarly demure glass-clad gallery by Gigon and Guyer in Davos,
Switzerland, not far south of Bregenz, employs very much the same technique
(Figure 5.7). This is not, however, a multi-storey gallery, and it does raise the
5.6 Kunsthaus in Bregenz
a detail of glass rain-screen at external corner question as to why light should be bent through 90 degrees when roof glazing
on sunny day would have been possible. To the west of Bregenz, back in Switzerland in the
b looking down staircase, with indirect northern suburbs of Basel, this is exactly the approach used by the Renzo Piano
daylight through ceiling on sunny day
Building Workshop for the Fondation Beyeler. Here a multi-layer diffusing roof in
conjunction with some shaded full-height windows creates an enormously

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pleasurable and appropriately atmospheric environment through the use of

natural light. In aesthetic and tectonic terms, features such as the tilted arrays
of absorbing glass embellish the horizontal presence of the building (Figure
5.8a). Indeed, viewed across fields from the west, the gallery is reminiscent of a
prairie house by Frank Lloyd Wright (Figure 5.8b).
Such examples reinforce the point that some solar techniques are equally
valid for widely varying locations, while others require specific fine tuning. The
use of clear glass at Ålborg and Århus implies the latter. However, the use of
diffuse glass in the other four examples does not necessarily provide a
climatically transferable formula for overall energy efficiency. There is the gain
and loss of heat to consider as well as daylight. For example, one would expect
the spacing and tilt of fixed devices used to limit the transfer of solar heat in
Basel to be optimized relative to 47.5°N. Even so, there may still be a substantial
cooling load in summer, which can only be addressed by use of air-conditioning.
Such a load would increase, the hotter the climate, while the frequency and tilt
of the devices would have to alter. The extensive use of concrete and limited
area of glazing by Sert in Barcelona, compared with the galleries in Bregenz,
5.7 Inside the lighting void over gallery at Davos
Davos and Basel, also suggests a logic that relates to respective Mediterranean
and mid-European climates. So too does the dispersed plan of the former, with
its greater self-shading and greater surface area for heat to dissipate. Compare
this with the compactness of the latter three, which aligns well with the higher
levels of insulation.

daylight and air for utilitarian use – sport, production and transport 5.8 Fondation Beyeler, Basel
a detail at edge of glass roof – note tilted
Devoting space to a particular end use, inevitably brings up the issue of absorbing glass sheets
transferability of concepts and techniques to other building functions. For b general view from west

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5.9 Sports ‘factory’ – schematic

section showing system for
natural light and ventilation
Architects: David Morley
Architects
Project: National Cricket
Academy, Loughborough
University

example, the provision of natural lighting and ventilation through roofs over a
series of sports buildings in the UK by architect David Morley is on a similar
exploratory and developmental path to that of the gallery in Basel (Figure 5.9).
However, the differences are just as significant. These buildings by Morley are
all essentially large sheds, which have to observe strict economic constraints in
5.10 ‘Showroom’ for PV factory in Freiburg – comparison with a gallery. They are sports factories rather than cultural
louvres functionally advertise the product
beacons. Within their respective architectural territories, however, similar levels
of architectural ingenuity are discernable, and investing in visual prestige is now
more common in the industrial sector than formerly. The solar photovoltaic
factory in Freiburg by architects Rolf + Hotz is an example of this (Figure 5.10).
It advertises its products by using them functionally and evocatively as fixed
louvres clipped to a tilted south façade. The spacing and tilt of the louvres is
such that a significant amount of direct and reflected solar energy is transmitted
in winter, while shading is maximized in summer. The effectiveness on a hot day
in late June has been described elsewhere (Porteous, 2002, p158), with a drop
in temperature from outside to inside of some 10K.
Buildings for all forms of public transport are quite analogous to factories,
except in this instance the assembly line is moving people and their baggage
through the system. In recent times more attention is being paid to the quality of
that process, and although we have been accustomed to bus terminals being
the poor cousin of railway stations and airports, this is no longer the case. The
one completed in 1996 in Göteborg, Nils Ericsson, designed by architect Niels
Torp, is a case in point (Cerver, 2000). It is a structurally economic building,

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essentially a large shed, but one where the quality of the environment is akin to
that of a botanical greenhouse (Figure 5.11a). Torp has used the cross section
to good effect in terms of maximizing daylight and ventilation, while avoiding
excessive solar heat gain. A clever asymmetric section uses two sets of
propped trusses. One set is oriented slightly south of due west and therefore
has to deal with considerable solar gain during the warmest part of the day. It
also covers the main part of the concourse. The stepped section of the glazing
provides the means of integral shading canopies as well as generous natural
ventilation (Figure 5.11b). On the other side, facing somewhat north of east, a
faceted cascade of glass sits over the curvature of the top booms of the trusses.
Small retail units are located at intervals along this side. Much of the solar
radiation that passes through the glass in the morning is absorbed by the roofs
of the retail units, while later in the day as the ambient temperature rises, the
geometry of the section ensures that most of the direct radiation is reflected.

daylight and air for educational buildings

Publicly owned educational buildings also tend to have quite stringent budgets,
as well as being required to convey status. The library by the vibrant Dutch
architectural practice of Mecanoo for Delft Technical University is an example
where a quirky form has a thermal rationale, while at the same time it does not
compete with an earlier lecture theatre by the respected partnership of Van den
Broek and Bakema. In other words, it respects both its climatic and architectural
context. But avoiding confrontation with an earlier presence does not mean that
it dumbs down. Essentially, a rhomboid on plan is tilted up from the green sward

5.11 Bus station at Göteborg

a inside concourse looking north-north-west
– note asymmetric cross section
b west-south-west façade, with stepped
cascade of windows in open position

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to the east of the theatre and is gently fractured by a depressed wedge, which
is the entrance. Additionally, a truncated cone dramatically punctures the raised
lawn. It allows daylight deep into the centre of the new building and
accommodates four reading levels above the main entry concourse (Figure
5.12). The point of the cone is visually completed as a playful frame of struts and
tension cables. Thus viewed from the earlier building, the cone appears as a
large sculptural element in the verdant parkland of the campus, while the main
mass of the rhomboid is largely suffused as landscape. The tilted turf roof
effectively denies a west elevation, otherwise vulnerable to overheating.
Substantial edges become visible as one moves round the building, clockwise
or anti-clockwise, but by then the relationship to the older theatre is not so vital.
The distortion of the north, east and south walls of the library from the vertical
plane is also surprisingly functional. To east and south the tilt is outwards to
protect smaller working spaces from excessive solar heat gain, while to the
north, the fully glazed façade tilts back to maximize daylight to a large computer
hall. Like the factory in Freiburg, other detailed environmental aspects of the
library have previously been fleshed out (Porteous, 2002, pp186–188), the focus
here directed to the passive strengths of plan and section.
Returning to Scotland, a new adult learning centre by architect Richard
5.12 The cone sheds daylight deep into the Murphy in Kirkintilloch, has a section that follows the rationalist approach of a
library at Delft Technical University
linear extrusion. Its straightforward spatial quality evokes the directness of the
factory in Freiburg, as opposed to Mecanoo’s oblique and rather hedonistic
expression of a building in the round. The linearity was a simple response to the
site, a relatively narrow strip of ground between an unassuming road and the
Forth and Clyde Canal, recently restored and providing a seductive green link
between Scotland’s two main cities. Attention was therefore directed to the
canal, lying to the north of the road and well below it in level. The building is
entered from the east towards a centrally located circulation spine, which
initially heads west. Individual classrooms lie to the south of this route adjacent
to the road, while a slight fall in level defines the main computing concourse
facing the canal. At the west end, a dogleg stair allows the circulation spine to
return to an equivalent first floor position as a gallery. Accessing a second
south-facing tier of classrooms, this overlooks students working at computer
clusters, each of which is marked by a triangular oriel window cantilevered
towards the canal. A second staircase at the east end then provides a link back
to the entrance.
Along the line of the wall between the circulation spine and the classrooms
is a continuous strip of opening windows. The roof projects over this to provide
protection from direct sunlight for much of the year while the low angle sunlight
of winter is reflected off the ceiling that slopes down to the north and terminates
over another band of clerestory glazing above the oriels (Figure 5.13). Although
there is a considerably greater proportion of glass along the northern edge than
the high southern clerestory, the canal is lined with mature trees. Thus the

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southern edge has greater potency in terms of daylight than one might imagine,
and the combination is successful in rendering artificial lighting unnecessary in
this prime space during bright weather. There are two sources of electric light,
and both of them exploit the sloping ceiling as a reflector. The first is a series of
halogen up-lighters mounted below the upper gallery. The second is a series of
fluorescent luminaires. These are hidden in a trough that forms a pelmet to the
oriel windows and the sill of the northern clerestory.
However, harping back to the issue of adaptive control, the lighting is not
automated. A receptionist is in charge of the switches. During two separate
visits, one in summer and one in spring and both on sunny days, she had put
the strip of luminaires on. Although she agreed that the daylight was perfectly
adequate without them, she appeared to like their added artificial ambience.
She also operated the actuators for opening the high-level clerestory, while cost
cutting had apparently removed this facility for the lower one. The section
implied the potential for cool, moist air to enter from the north, descend until
heated by people and computers, and then rise by natural buoyancy and exit at
high level to the south. Alternatively, with a strong southerly wind, reverse cross-
ventilation would be possible. To a degree, these scenarios were compromised.
Opening along the south edge was in the hands of the receptionist, the lower
clerestory was effectively limited to its natural lighting function, and opening the
oriel windows was in the hands of the users. Moreover, the receptionist was in
the line of fire from cold draughts as visitors operated a wide automatic sliding
entrance door. Hence she was relatively disinclined to open the upper windows
in sunny, but cool, weather.

5.13 Learning Centre, Kirkintilloch – cross section

maximises opportunity for natural light

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Despite these factors, which were not insuperable, the plan and section
conforms to a strong environmental agenda. A final passive attribute is that the
slope of the site allowed the heating plant to be located below the computing
concourse. Much of the heat lost from the plant in winter is gained by this
primary, north-facing space. Together with the incidental gains and insulated
outer shell, it should have a very modest demand for auxiliary heating, while the
rooms on the south side have greater potential for useful passive solar heat
gain. Overall this building supports the claim that, if well designed, the passive
attributes of plan and section can fulfil their intended role despite some
idiosyncratic control. Within the concourse, the part most vulnerable to
overheating due to lack of open windows is the upper access gallery. This is not
too critical for a circulation route. The low, north-facing sedentary area should
remain adequately cool under such circumstances, and if it does start to
overheat, students have openable windows to hand. They can compensate to
an extent for any failings of management.
If the building had been organized and shaped less optimally, an active
system of energy-conscious control could have struggled to work efficiently. On
the other hand, it is inherently threatening to performance if designers grow too
complacent in terms of their expectations for plan and section, especially the
latter. For example, expectations for thermal buoyancy or ‘stack effect’ are
frequently unrealistic. Schematic arrows on published sections suggest that air
will move in a certain way, when there is very little difference in height between
openings, and there may be very little difference in temperature between two
bodies of air.
A building of a similar size to the Scottish learning centre, but with an
explicitly ecological and solar agenda, and a section that appears to rationally
assist in this purpose, is that of De Kleine Aarde (The Little Earth), an
environmental research and demonstration centre in Boxtel, near Eindhoven in
the Netherlands. Designed by Tjerk Reijenga of BEAR Architecten, a single-
glazed rectilinear atrium separates a relatively slim two-storey block from a
deeper single-storey wedge on plan. The latter houses cafeteria, kitchen and
ancillary spaces, while the former has a series of rooms for work and education
below overnight accommodation for visitors. The rooms and the mono-pitch
roof over the two-storey part face north. The orientation suits offices, which
tend to overheat through use of computers, while recesses on plan allow some
east and west sunlight into bedrooms above. In juxtaposition, the glazed roof of
the atrium has a gentle pitch to the south where it meets the flat roof (Figure
5.14). This in turn overhangs the southerly glazed façade of the cafeteria,
allowing it to receive sunshine in winter, while being shaded in summer. The
atrium provides a thermal buffer and source of fresh air to both heated parts of
5.14 De Kleine Aarde, Boxtel – inside the atrium the building in winter. It is a quasi-outdoor space, which is solar enhanced and
with all south and north windows open sheltered from bitter Dutch winds. The logic of the design suggests that natural

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ventilation should occur primarily from south to north. Fresh oxygenated and
moistened air can enter via a clerestory ribbon of windows above the flat sedum
roof of the single-storey block and exit via a second strip at the top of the glazed
mono-pitch. In addition, the glass roof incorporates photovoltaic cells, at the
time of building in 1995, the largest building-integrated array in the Netherlands.
Its important secondary function for the atrium is to provide dappled shading in
warm, sunny weather.
All this seems very plausible. However, one has to keep in mind that the
cross section of the atrium is such that its respective banks of opening windows
rely heavily on wind, rather than thermal buoyancy. When the direction is
southerly, cool air should indeed enter through the vertical clerestory on the
south edge, and descend to the floor down this side of the atrium before rising
on the northern side to exit. Any solar absorption by the north wall of the atrium
will enhance this mode of circulation. If the wind is from the north, it should
provide quite strong negative pressure at the high part of the glazed roof, and
so the circulation should still work from south to north. If the wind is from the
east or west, the circulation of air within the atrium may be different, but one
would not expect it to be stagnant. The only potential problem is that on a hot
and still day there is not enough height between respective opening sets of
windows to induce convection.
This was the situation at the time of a visit on 12th August 2003. That day
marked the zenith of a heat wave, with the temperature outside reaching at least
36°C. Inside the atrium, in the shade at floor level, the reading on a maximum-
minimum thermometer reached 48°C in the course of that afternoon. A potential
solution to such an extreme situation would have been to specify opening windows
at the foot of the two glazed gable ends. Although there were double doors in each
of these locations, and they could have been wedged open, this was not policy.
They were the type of doors that invite being closed. It was also not policy to leave
the high-level sets of windows to the atrium open at night in case rain came into the
atrium. This in turn raises questions about attitudes to what are intended as
protected outdoor spaces, rather than normal indoor ones. The other issue here
was that a timber superstructure was specified as a conscious environmental
choice. Thus, although the south-facing wall inside the atrium will provide a
welcome rapid response to passive solar gain in winter, it will also contribute to
overheating on a hot day in summer. The floor constitutes the only significant
thermal capacitance capable of damping down swings in temperature.
There are two points to make here. Firstly, it is seldom possible to optimize
all aspects of thermal performance through plan and section, and in this case
the overheating did not critically affect the operation of the building. Indeed, in
spite of the temperature in the atrium in what was an acute test, the rooms
facing north remained acceptably cool. However, the second point to make is
that design could have improved the situation. Low-level windows in the gables

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would have helped natural thermo-circulation. This might have made the atrium
slightly more tolerable on this unusually hot and windless day. The other
seasonal expectation, to enhance passive gain in winter, would have been more
difficult to address. The low pitch of 15 degrees or so is not ideal for maximizing
transmission of direct gain, which in this case is further inhibited by the presence
of solar cells. But if the pitch had been raised, there would have been all sorts
of serious architectural implications. As it was, it had an easy visual relationship
between the two-storey building and the single-storey one.

sectional consequences of stack-dominated ventilation

Buildings which have made a greater effort to provide effective stack-controlled
natural ventilation, invariably have more striking or strident sections. Thurfjell’s
‘shark’s fin’ tower (Figure 5.15a) exhausts air from the Wasa City atrium in
Gävle, Sweden. In this case, in common with many such spaces in Scandinavia,
the atrium is not completely fortuitously heated. It is connected to a district
heating system, and warm coils in the floors provide background heating in
winter. The aim is to heat it to 18°C during working hours and 10°C out of
working hours. Also, according to predictions (Glaumann, 1989), the promenade
level should not rise more than 8°C above the outside temperature. The venting
of warm air becomes critical in summer, and hence the ‘shark’s fin’, which
punctuates the more traditional geometry and has 30m2 of vertical north-facing
opening windows, varying from 23–28m from the lowest floor level. There are
also sliding shutters on top of the main part of the glass roof to the atrium, their
highest point being about 18m above the floor. In winter, when these are closed,
air from the atrium passes through air-to-air heat exchangers located on the flat
roofs of the flats. These supply air to the shops at the base, which in turn
circulate it back into the atrium. Accepting the need for this active assistance in
winter, it is the section in particular that allows the building to passively play the
dominant part in handling air movement.
The venting tower for the atrium of the Eco-Centre in Jarrow, near Newcastle
in the northeast of England, designed by architect Carole Townsend of Earth
Sense, is another example where there is a large differential in height between
inlets and outlet (Figure 5.15b). This compact building, triangular on plan, was
built to a tight budget, but did not compromise its objectives by economizing on
height. In this case, the ventilation is designed as a once-through natural system
at all times. Air enters offices via trickle vents or open windows, and is drawn
across into the central atrium principally by thermal buoyancy. Wind will also
play a part, particularly if the opening vents at the top of the tower are subject
to negative pressure.
Another seminal building in the UK, Queens Building at Leicester’s De
Montfort University, is fully naturally ventilated and daylight optimized (Twidell
and Howe, 1994). Designed by architects Short Ford and Associates together
with Max Fordham as environmental consultant from 1989 into the early 1990s,

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it is a testament to relatively simple physical and computational modelling. 5.1 5.15a Looking up ‘shark’s fin’ tower of atrium at
Wasa City at Gävle
Whilst the rich neo-Gothic flavour of the architectural detailing might not be to
5.15b Looking up triangular tower of atrium at the
everyone’s taste, stripped back to the essentials of plan and section, it is Eco-Centre in Jarrow
spatially impressive (Figure 5.16). It is also equally effective as a boldly
pioneering experiment in natural ventilation, executed at a time when mechanical
solutions were more in the ascendancy than they are now.
Some architects are undoubtedly more reluctant to engage with the visual 5.1 Predictive methods used for Queens
consequences of natural ventilation to the extent that is the case in the last Building in Leicester
three examples. The verticality or simply the bulk and height of devices to Sophisticated ‘computational fluid dynamics’ (CFD)
exhaust air may run counter to their fundamental aesthetic concepts. If this is is now commonly used in advanced convective
the case, and the intention is to exploit natural ventilation as far as reasonably performance analysis. In this case the computer
possible, it usually means that there is greater reliance on wind-driven model ECADAP (Environmental Computer Aided
convection… as at Boxtel. Over and above the spatiality of plan and section, the Design and Performance) and the physical model
other passive environmental controller is that of thermal mass. Commonly, there in a saline solution both ignored the effects of wind.
is not enough to damp down excessive swings in temperature. At De Kleine The assumption was presumably that if the system
worked solely by thermal buoyancy on a calm day,
Aarde, the green agenda of minimizing energy for production and carbon
and provided dampers were incorporated to control
neutrality took priority over thermal capacitance. It was not that the issue was
excessive ventilation due to wind pressure, the
ignored. However, for at least some architects, the rudimentary science of
tests were adequate. A good match was obtained
dynamic thermal behaviour remains mysterious, with the consequence that it comparing the two methods. In addition, a dynamic
tends to be prone to myths and misunderstandings. thermal simulation model, ESP (Environmental
Systems Performance), was used to predict hourly
Thermal mass dilemmas
temperatures in the auditoria. Results indicated only
Getting to grips with the basics of thermal time lag, damping, capacitance, nine hours annually with the temperature exceeding
admittance and response is in reality not too formidable. The first two terms are 27°C, and none during the academic period.

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5.2 Open and closed systems for ducting air relevant to the entire external envelope from outside to inside, and also
connected to the third, as well as to the thermal properties of conductivity and
5.2(1) An open system is normal for mechanically
ventilating and heating/cooling buildings. Rooms density. The last two are concerned more specifically with exposed parts of the
become part of the network for circulating and inner linings. However, if air ducts, either for the delivery of air into occupied
often re-circulating air, but traditional modern metal spaces 5.2(1) or closed loops, 5.2(2) are embedded within solid parts of a
ducting does not contribute to the passive storage
capability of a building.

5.2(2) Closed loops, if embedded in the solid parts

of a building, can help to reduce both heating and
cooling loads, but are unconnected to the ventilation
needs. A body of air simply goes round and round
a connecting system of cavities, although it will
need some topping up to compensate for leakage.
One of the first closed loops to be integrated with
passive solar heating accommodated air heated by a
furnace. This was the hollow system of ‘radian’ tiles
devised by architect George Keck towards the end
of the 2nd World War (Boyce, 1993). We are now
also used to closed loops being used to circulate air
that has been preheated by the sun. Keck’s hollow
floor was an updated hypocaust, except, unlike the
Roman version, the air did not contain the products
of combustion and it returned back to the plant room
to be reheated. The duct-tiles were also the main
passive solar absorber, and they were an attempt
to make auxiliary heating more responsive to solar
gain. The supply of warm air could be rapidly turned
off, so that the tiles would soon be able to accept
the solar gain, but without this being displaced by
the purchased fuel. The storage capability would
be less than that of a solid slab, but in areas with
a relatively small winter supply of sunshine, this
would be advantageous. The innovation was also
contemporaneous with the ‘solar hemi-cycle’
designed by Frank Lloyd Wright for Herbert Jacobs
and his family. Its closed loop of warm water gave
rise to the problem of solar displacement (Chapter
1). It is intrinsically less responsive to solar gain than
Keck’s solution.

5.16 Bridges in the multi-level circulation spine

of Queens Building enliven spatial drama

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structure, the lining material of such voids also becomes relevant. Indeed, it can 5.3 Units of thermal capacitance
add significantly to the admittance and short-term thermal storage capability or
5.3(1) Thermal storage may be described as ’specific
capacitance of a building, as can increasing the area of surface in contact with heat capacity’ (J/kgK – joules, the basic units of
the interior – for example, by coffering or corrugating a concrete ceiling. By energy, per kilogram, the basic unit of mass, and
moderating temperatures, such tactics reduce the amount of energy required to degree Kelvin or Celsius). Alternatively, it may be
heat or cool the supply of air. Ultimately, the critical aspect of capacitance described as volumetric thermal capacity (J/m3K,
(along with conductivity and density) relative to these other four thermal definers which is the product of density, kg/m3, and specific
of time lag, damping, admittance and response, is its location. heat capacity) or simply thermal capacity (J/K, the
If the focus is specifically on admittance, which may be loosely defined as the product of mass, kg, and specific heat capacity). To
ability to store and release heat to a bounding space, the performance is make matters worse, some textbooks use slightly
different units for ’specific heat capacity’: kJ/kgK
compositely influenced by the location, area and properties of the surface and a
(J/kgK divided by 1000) or Wh/kgK (J/kgK divided
limited thickness of material behind. One may think of admittance as a dynamic
by 3600, the number of seconds in an hour). With
thermal transmittance or U-value that is concerned with a relevant lining of the
regard to this last unit the essential relationship
construction. Therefore it is conductivity that is fundamental, but of course this
to remember is that one joule equals one watt
also relates to density. Dense materials have a slow response due to fairly high multiplied by one second (or one watt equals one
conductivity, capacitance and admittance. Less dense materials have a lower joule divided by one second). A watt is a flow of
conductivity, capacitance and admittance, and so a faster response. Therefore, energy, while a joule is a flow quantified over time.
high admittance moderates both cooling and heating loads, and a great deal of
5.3(2) To estimate time lag and damping, ‘specific
thickness is not necessary to achieve this. This point was forcibly made at the
heat capacity’ (J/kgK) is used in conjunction with
‘Cool Space’ Conference held at the RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects) in
density (kg/m3) and conductivity (W/mK). The ratio
London early in 2001 (Williams, 2001). However, Williams did not emphasize the of conductivity to density multiplied by specific heat
crucial role that thermal mass plays with regard to time lag and damping, that is capacity (so denominator is volumetric thermal
its intervention between the environment outside and the one inside. capacity) is called thermal ‘diffusivity’. The square
Unlike admittance, which is only concerned with a few centimetres next to root of the inverse of thermal diffusivity (seconds per
occupied spaces, or air-transport ducts contained within the structure, the square metre) is then used to determine the time
entire thickness of the envelope is then of significance, as well as its thermal lag and damping factor for single homogeneous
properties. A 60cm brick wall will behave differently from one that is only 20cm materials. That is actually quite easy with the aid
thick, just as it will behave differently from one of stone, which is also 60cm of a normal calculator. However, for multi-layer
constructions, the mathematics is much more
thick. The overall thermal performance of relatively thick masonry walls may be
complex. It is not simply the sum of the values for
quite acceptable in terms of energy efficiency, even though U-values are high,
individual layers, and we now rely on computers to
relative to modern standards. This will of course depend on both the
make such calculations.
programmatic and climatic context, but it means that thermal mass and
dynamic behaviour cannot be ignored.
For the mathematically minded there are of course SI (Standard International)
units associated with thermal capacitance – rather too many, one might be
forgiven for thinking! But the concept is clear. Capacitance describes the ability
of a material to store energy. 5.3(1)
When it comes to estimating thermal time lag and damping, it is again the
basic thermal properties, available from many sources, that control performance.
5.3(2) They are used to determine other important thermal attributes. It is quite
easy to conceive how relatively thick and heavy constructions will influence
internal temperatures, but putting values on it is more daunting, especially when

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there are several layers of different materials. To acquire this knowledge, which
is important in terms of dynamic performance, the mathematical journey from
the initial properties in modern multi-layer construction is fairly demanding.
Normally, architects require others to do this for them, but they should get to
grips with the essential principles, in the same way as with structure and
mechanical services.

embedded fluids for heating and cooling

As usual, the easiest way to explain concepts is by means of case studies. One
example is the Gleneagles Community Centre to the west of Vancouver in
Canada by John and Patricia Patkau (Carter, 2004). They have used large tilt-up
concrete sandwich panels, a common system in North America, as structural
spine walls that also incorporate the means of both heating and cooling (Figure
5.17). Approximately 30cm thick overall, the inner layer of concrete incorporates
a serpentine arrangement of water-filled pipes. Protected by insulation, the
filling of the sandwich, the walls present a suitable area of surface for radiant
warmth or coolness to the interior. The distance from the pipes to the inner
surface is appropriate in terms of thermal admittance and capacitance. In
winter, a geothermal heat pump can keep the wall at a steady 21°C, but cool
water can circulate in warm summer weather. The network of absorber coils is
buried some 1.5m below the car park, where the ground temperature will be
fairly stable – cooler than ambient in summer and early autumn, but warmer in
winter. Low-grade heat is thus extracted from this source, when the circulating
fluid in the coils has expanded and cooled into a vapour. It is then compressed
by the pump, thus heating up and returning to a fluid state to exchange its

5.17 View into gymnasium at Gleneagles

Community Centre, looking towards
thermal wall

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thermal energy with water. In this way, static thermal mass is exploited at both
the supply and delivery end of an active system, with solar energy passively
involved by heating the ground.
The ceiling, formed by cassettes of rough sawn timber spanning between
the main laminated timber arches, has other environmental functions. Although
it also has a certain amount of useful thermal capacitance, it acts most
purposefully as a lung or sponge, absorbing and desorbing considerable
quantities of water vapour produced by the athletic activities of the users. It also
functions as an acoustic absorber, damping down the reverberation that would
have become dominant with another smooth, hard finish. That is not to say that
the ceiling could not also have accommodated serpentine heating coils. These
are now available as proprietary systems for many types of construction,
including timber, and are used in floors, walls and ceilings. It might also be
argued that they are less riskily incorporated in non-structural layers.
In principle, the walls of the Gleneagles Community Centre have much in
common with the solar retrofit of housing in Göteborg by Christer and Kirsten
Nordström. One difference is the system for collecting solar energy, which is
more direct, although still isolated from the means of delivery and requires the
active assistance of fans. The other is the use of air as the fluid for transporting
energy. The apertures are necessarily larger, and the mass separating them from
the interior is considerably thicker than the inner leaf of the Patkau wall. It is also
inherently less problematic in terms of future maintenance. Although some dirt
might bypass filters, this will not impinge on the interior, as might leaking water.
Modified walls from outside to inside have a brick skin, 8cm insulation, air
ducts, the original solid ‘no-fines’ concrete wall and plaster. As indicated above,
admittance is quantified in the same unit as a U-value. It is also used to calculate
a thermal response factor. 5.4(1) The point here is that although the inside of
the construction, and therefore its internal admittance, is unchanged, the
response factor for the entire construction is altered by the new additions.
Admittance now becomes relevant interstitially, due to warm air circulating in
the wall to and from the roof collectors, nearly doubling the area of surface that
is of thermal relevance.
The thicker, multilayer construction at Göteborg, compared with that of the
Gleneagles Community Centre, suggests a slower response. From a cold start,
the heat-up time will be longer. On the other hand, the advantage is that the wall
functions as a larger thermal store, ironing out excessive fluctuation in
temperature over the daily cycle. The solar-heated ducts lining the far side of the
no-fines wall will enhance the storage effect for a large proportion of the opaque
wall surface and admittance is relevant for twice as much of the wall’s thickness
over the affected area. Since it is now being heated from two directions, the
thermal response of the wall will be more rapid, with the insulation inhibiting
conducted loss outwards.

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5.4 Thermal admittance, response and Not only that, the higher the temperature of the solar heated air from the
damping roof, the more likely it is that the wall will heat up to the extent that heat will now
flow into the interior, rather than simply slow down the rate of loss from it. On a
5.4(1) Admittance may be regarded as dynamic heat
flux, concerned only with the first 75mm or so of a sunny day in winter, the south-facing brick skin could heat up, although not to
bounding surface, and is termed a Y-value. A thermal as high a temperature as the inner leaf. But overall, compared to the equivalent
response factor is defined in terms of the ratio of the profile without the solar enhanced ducts, the profile of temperature from inside
Y-value to the U-value, each multiplied by the area of to outside is significantly changed on a sunny day. In other words, the daily
a surface in question, and moderated by the addition period for heat to be steadily lost from the inside to the outside will be
of heat loss by ventilation. Before the Göteborg considerably shorter than without the solar contribution. The related aspect of
retrofit, this ratio for the solid, 30cm-thick, no-fines thermal damping 5.4(2) will also be beneficially affected.
wall may have been in the order of 1.5. After the Given that the construction now has two heavy layers plus the insulation, it
addition of insulation, it would have been significantly
is not likely in winter that much solar energy absorbed by the new skin of brick
greater – at least double the original ratio. By
will directly reach the interior. Rather, the benefit is due to the rapid capture of
contrast, the admittance to transmittance ratio for a
solar energy indirectly via the roof and transportation to short-term storage. This
slim construction, such as a 10cm sealed insulated
means that free energy collected during a cold day can usefully address the
panel, will tend towards 1.0, with a rapid response.
demand in the evening and overnight, the time lag through the no-fines
5.4(2) ‘Damping factor’ is the ratio of the daily range estimated to be over nine hours. During a hot day in summer, the solar heat from
in temperature on the inside surface of the wall
the roof is discarded and the cavity in the wall will remain relatively cool. The
relative to that outside. Because ambient conditions
time lag for solar heat to travel through the entire wall will be considerable,
fluctuate more than those inside, this ratio is less
probably as much as 15 hours. The heating effect through south-facing windows
than 1.0, but the lighter and/or thinner a construction
will of course be much more rapid, although slowed to some extent by the
is, the closer to 1.0 it becomes – for example,
an uninsulated corrugated metal roof lined with thermal mass inside. The delay due to the combined effect of wall and windows
plasterboard. In the Göteborg case, the inner surface should help to avoid overheating. The inside will now read the ambient
of the solar enhanced storage wall will have a temperature with its maximum occurring close to the coolest part of the night,
smaller range in temperature than if there had been and its minimum close to the warmest part of the day. This concept, which takes
a normal cavity. Therefore the damping ratio will be into account the dynamic effect of thermal mass over a daily cycle, may be
lower – say of the order of 0.2. plotted graphically as the ‘equivalent outside temperature’ and used to
5.4(3) The theoretical ‘equivalent outside temperature’ determine the cooling load. 5.4(3)
(Te°), compared with the measured temperature Returning to conditions in winter, another way of looking at the wall is that
outside (T°), have equal respective averages, but the its effective U-value will lower, even to the extent of becoming a negative value,
Te° amplitude is less than that of T°. The greater the when it is able to donate heat to the interior. Had the solar air collector been
thermal damping, the flatter will be the theoretical mounted vertically on the wall, the zone immediately behind the transparent
Te° curve. Not only does this signify thermal stability, cover would become very warm in sunny conditions. As with the actual
it is also likely to decrease the cooling load. Allowing installation at Göteborg, the internal storage wall would then have heated up
for the unavoidable heating effect of direct solar and after a certain time lag. Now the daytime profile from outside to inside would be
incidental gains, it is likely that the respective graphs
nearly all ‘downhill’. Put another way, the entire construction would give heat to
of the internal ‘base temperature’ and the ‘equivalent
the interior.
outside temperature’ will be reasonably close,
This was essentially the system adopted by architect Gustav Hillman for a
almost throughout the daily cycle. In other words, the
magnitude of any cooling load is likely to be minimal
new block of flats in Berlin, developed within IEA Task VIII project ‘Passive and
and readily dealt with by opening windows or shading. Hybrid Solar Energy Buildings’ and also dating from the late 1980s (Schreck et
al, 1987). Vertical solar air collectors took warm air on an internal closed loop
through hollow concrete floors and walls. In this case the system is designed to

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complement passive sunspaces, where exchanges of energy are open and 5.5 TI saving – Freiburg compared to
subject to interaction with the occupants (Chapter 4). Glasgow
5.5(1) Freiburg’s ‘solar house’ has 64m2 TI, 15cm
solid solar masonry walls
thick and backed by a storage wall of 24cm lime-
A competing technology, for optimizing the dynamic thermal performance of sand blocks. The information provided during a visit
external walls over daily cycles, is that of transparent insulation (TI). The TI walls was that this is estimated to save approximately
for the ‘solar house’ in Freiburg (Chapter 2) and the Strathclyde student 100kWh/m2 wall annually, or a total of 6400kWh
residences (Chapter 4) are useful case studies in this regard. However, it is not (Porteous, 1999). If this is expressed per unit of
that easy to compare weekly data published for Strathclyde with annual values floor area as elsewhere, the value is approximately
of some 44kWh/m2 given for Freiburg. 5.5(1) The difference in the solar supply 44kWh/m2 (145m2 heated floor area). At Strathclyde,
may vary significantly from year to year, let alone from Glasgow to Freiburg. the thickness of the TI is reduced to 10cm, while
There are also differences in ambient temperature, velocity of wind and the storage wall of dense concrete blocks is 15cm
thick (Twidell and Johnstone, 1993). On a sunny
specification of the complete building envelope that will influence the length of
day in February 1992, the inner surface of the wall
the heating season.
varied between just over 23°C and 29°C, while
Although a broad-brush comparison is tempting, apparently indicating
the temperature of the air in the room remained
quite similar values, 5.5(2) it needs to be remembered that respective floor
fairly steady at 22°C. The average weekly thermal
areas are relatively arbitrary. If we are to rationally compare respective contribution of the wall for two monitored weeks that
performances, it is much safer to compare values per unit area of TI. In this case February, which was published in the report to the
127kWh/m2 is estimated for Strathclyde from November to April. 5.5(3) This is EU, worked out at 5.4kWh/m2 TI or 1.76kWh/m2 floor
considerably more than the approximate value of 100kWh/m2 given for the solar area of each bed-sit. The difference in temperature
house in Freiburg. However, there is a logical explanation. Given its superior between inside and outside averaged more than 18K.
external envelope compared with Strathclyde, the solar house should have a It was also reported that there had been a negative
shorter heating season, with fewer good solar months. The convex surface is an effective U-value for every month of the year,
advantage within the shorter time frame, but once a heating load has been averaging over monthly intervals.

displaced, energy gained via the TI is not useful. 5.5(2) Predicted average solar radiation for Glasgow
It is also of interest that in the Glasgow demonstration, it was found that on a south-facing vertical surface in February is
slightly more heat was gained than was lost through the TI wall over a heating close to its average from November to April (Page
season. It was estimated that the effective U-value was minus 0.08W/m2K and Lebens, 1986). If the measured February value
(Johnstone and Grant, 1994). The length of the heating season is again critical for Glasgow is multiplied up for these six months,
to such a value. If the season shortens, the average incident radiation will drop, the total is quite close to that of the 44kWh/m2
estimated for Freiburg. Whether coincidentally or
and the effective U-value will increase. Since the length of the heating season is
not, there is a degree of comfort that such apparent
also largely determined by the occupants’ demand for heat and window-
compatibility exists for the technique: 1.76kWh/
opening habits, one has to treat claims regarding the effective U-value and the
m2 floor x 26 weeks x 0.90625 = 41.5kWh/m2.
amount of useful solar heat transmitted with some caution. Since the project (Predicted incident solar radiation on a south-facing
manager, his wife and young toddler occupied the solar house at Freiburg vertical surface: November–April mean = 0.90625
during monitoring, some of the issues attributed to unpredictable behaviour February 1992 mean.)
could be discounted. One might also feel justified in being a bit sceptical about
5.5(3) 5.4kWh/m2 wall x 26 weeks x 0.90625 =
round figures like 100kWh/m2. But, having established that the value claimed for
127kWh/m2.
Strathclyde is 27 per cent higher and identified why this should be so, the
scepticism is blunted. Freiburg’s figure seems to reflect a more energy-efficient
project, where the quantitative opportunities for exploiting free solar energy are
correspondingly reduced.

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5.6 Impact of TI on length of heating In a sense this highlights the complexities of the ‘north is best’ assertion
season: Freiburg compared to Glasgow aired in Chapter 1. Freiburg is approximately eight degrees of latitude further
south than Glasgow. But it is in a continental location, where temperatures in
5.6(1) The length of a heating season depends on
the period of time that the internal base temperature winter will be several degrees lower than its marine-influenced TI counterpart.
is higher than the ambient temperature. The base Thus one would expect the heating demand in Freiburg to be greater than
temperature (and hence the length of the heating Glasgow. When it comes to solar supply, Freiburg also has a significant edge on
season) will reduce as the U-value and/or rate of Glasgow. From November until April its global radiation on a horizontal plane is
ventilation reduces – i.e. becomes more energy- approximately 50 per cent greater. However, the designers have stepped in to
efficient. At Freiburg, the cold U-value for the opaque lower the energy load as near to zero as possible in the German case, thereby
northern wall is 0.16W/m2K; the cold U-value of the lowering the potential for one of the techniques that is itself critical to achieving
TI wall is higher at 0.51W/m2K without the blinds and that goal. One can assume that the TI wall has shortened the heating season by
0.40W/m2K with blinds (Wiggington and Harris, 2002,,
more than an opaque alternative. 5.6(1) Therefore, in estimating the effective
pp143–148). The values given by Wiggington and
length of the heating season, it would be helpful to know how many days would
Harris correspond with 10cm TI and 30cm sand-lime
be added if the TI wall were replaced by opaque insulation.
brickwork. These compare with 15cm and 24cm, the
Unlike the Freiburg solar house, where virtually every aspect is experimental,
thicknesses noted during a visit in 1999. If the latter
figures are correct, U-values would fall to 0.42 and the Strathclyde demonstration was financially constrained by a conventional
0.36, respectively assuming a conductivity of 0.61W/mK budget, other than for the specifically untried features such as the TI. This is
for brick and 0.09W/mK for TI (the second value based reflected in ambitions for energy efficiency, in turn affecting the length of the
on a U-value of 0.79W/m2K for a 10cm thickness, and heating season. Again, theoretical substitution of TI with the opaque
capillary diameter of 1.7mm) (Wittwer, 1988). specification 5.6(2) legitimately allows extra days relative to the TI performance.
However, the more erratic actions of students, compared to the Freiburg
5.6(2) In the case at Strathclyde, the cold U-value for the
TI wall without the blind drawn up is given as 0.60W/ situation, are able to lengthen the period of apparent demand. Even though this
m2K, and 0.48W/m2K with the blind up. This compares chapter is exploring passive architectural aims, the limits of these can be
with an estimated value of 0.22W/m2K for the opaque distorted by perversity of use. A resultant longer period of demand gives the
construction. The 0.60W/m2K U-value in Strathclyde’s impression of better performance than should be the case, because it includes
report to the EU also corresponds with a conductivity of more favourable solar weather, particularly in spring.
0.09W/mK for the TI (10cm polycarbonate capillary). Setting aside the unanticipated intervention of students, the concept of the
5.6(3) It was established that staining at Strathclyde TI mass wall was not undermined. Even black staining 5.6(3) on the
was attributable to diesel particulates suspended polycarbonate ‘honeycomb’ did not overturn the storage function of the wall,
in the air, the site being quite close to a busy road. with its average negative effective U-value. The only caveat is that the results
The fenestration covering the TI was not airtight and are skewed by the length of heating season assumed in the analysis of
the five-storey height of the cavity behind the glass, measured data. Regardless of such fine-tuning, the principle of the TI wall has
coupled with the manner in which the TI was attached, been proved for a northerly location with rather wet winters. It is then interesting
caused a ‘bellows effect’. Although the open-ended to compare this technique with a glazed mass wall, which does not have the
TI structure is intended to inhibit any convective benefit of the insulation.
cross-flow, it appears that air did tend to get sucked
The experimental Irish Trombe-Michel wall at Carlow in Ireland is an
partially into the small capillary voids. This occurred
example. The storage wall consisted of 20cm dense concrete blocks, plastered
in patches distributed in a random manner over the
internally and painted black externally with ‘permaroof’, which proved less
entire TI surface. The apparent randomness and nature
of contamination caused more post-contract surprise
resistant to solar bleaching than expected. The time lag between the respective
than its presence, which was predicted pre-contract: maximum temperatures on the outside and inside faces of the wall was almost
‘… here electrostatic properties affecting adhesion of exactly four hours, and there was a further period of about two hours between
dirt/dust may be a critical factor.’ (Porteous, 1988) maximum solar irradiance and the maximum temperature on the outer black

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surface. This meant that when the ambient temperature peaked at three in the
afternoon, the inside surface did not reach its maximum until seven in the
evening. On a sunny day in April the wall had a strong steadying effect on the
internal temperatures over a whole day (O’Farrell and Lynskey, 1984). The
influence of direct solar gain was clearly dominant in terms of when the
maximum was reached, while the minimum followed that of the wall. This was
because the profile of air temperature indoors on a sunny day is always strongly
influenced by the direct solar irradiation through windows, with the delayed
effect of heat transmitted through the wall less immediately apparent. On a dull,
cool day the temperature of the air indoors and that of the wall tend to be quite
close, because there is very little gain through windows and the wall will be
losing any heat left over from a previous sunnier day. However, in the example
given here, as windows were kept closed during monitoring, the rooms did
overheat somewhat on sunny days, reaching almost 30°C with the ambient
maximum 10K lower in spring. The difference between respective minima on
such a day was considerably greater than this value, with rooms staying above
20°C while the ambient temperature plunged to less than 5°C.
Nevertheless, assuming relatively warm temperatures could be tolerated or
moderated, the short-term thermal storage could last overnight after a sunny
day. Had the house been occupied, some of the stored heat would have been
lost to ventilation. But this would have been countered by useful incidental heat
gains. Overall it is safe to say, that in sunny spring weather, the house could
function without auxiliary heating since there was none employed during
monitoring, and neither were there any incidental gains from occupancy. It was
a different story on a cold overcast day during the same month. The internal
face of the wall reached only two or three degrees above ambient, and was very
close to the recorded temperatures of air in the rooms. This left a differential in
terms of comfort ranging from about eight to ten degrees over the entire daily
cycle. With a cold U-value of 1.8W/m2K for the Trombe-Michel wall, a high
heating load was inevitable during any prolonged overcast periods during
winter. Without much of a solar charge during the day, the wall would simply
lose heat rapidly – say ten times as fast as a modern insulated wall.
Transparent insulation therefore presents itself as the perfect solution.
Provided that overheating can be effectively tackled, we can reap all the
advantages of the short-term thermal storage while not suffering from
excessively high cold U-values. A possibility, which lies between the simple Irish
Trombe-Michel wall and the TI walls of Strathclyde and elsewhere, is that of
Christopher Taylor Court in Birmingham. The construction is exactly the same
as the Irish one apart from the glazing being vertical and closer to the wall, the
outer surface of which is covered in ‘Maxorb’. This is a relatively costly material,
which selectively absorbs a very high proportion of incoming shortwave solar
radiation, but emits a correspondingly small amount of energy outwards in long

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5.7 Influence of selective coating on wave. 5.7(1) The effect of this selectivity is both to increase the amount of
mass wall solar heat stored within the wall and to reduce the amount that is lost outwards
from it. The net result is an effective U-value close to zero. 5.7(2) It is not as
5.7(1) Maxorb is generally assumed to absorb in the
range 0.95–0.99 or 95–99 per cent, while it only efficient as the TI, but it still outperforms typical traditionally insulated
emits in the range 0.08–0.11 or 8–11 per cent. construction. It is also a construction that would transfer well to regions with a
more favourable ratio of solar supply to demand – for example, a mountainous
5.7(2) By increasing the thermal resistance of the air
part of southern Europe or the USA.
gap behind the glass from about 0.18m2K/W in the
One should remember that the time lag of four hours is advantageous
case of Carlow to about 0.40m2K/W with ‘Maxorb’,
the cold U-value will improve to about 1.3W/m2K.
relative to the maximum demand for heat in the domestic sector. The inner
This is still very high relative to modern standards surface will reach its maximum temperature at around seven in the evening and
for normal opaque walls; but, according to the continue to deliver heat for some hours after that. The other advantage is that
monitoring, the break-even point for a zero effective the higher radiant temperature of the surface, compared with a normal wall,
U-value is a mean solar irradiance of approximately should mean comfort is attainable at lower air temperatures. Any tactic that
80W/m2 (Yannas, 1994). The predicted mean daily reduces radiant loss from occupants, whether a Roman hypocaust or a 20th
value for Birmingham, incident on the absorber and century ‘muracaust’ as in the case of Göteborg, will enable fresh thermal
averaged over all weather conditions from November comfort as well as displacing auxiliary heating. In turn, it has been shown in the
to April, is 53W/m2 (Page and Lebens, 1986). This previous chapter that such freshness tends to be accompanied by lower rates
corresponds to an effective U-value of 0.08W/m2K. In
of ventilation. It should become a win–win–win scenario. However, as reported
other words it is 0.16W/m2K higher than the negative
in connection with the project in Birmingham, expectations are frequently not
value estimated for the solar residences in Glasgow.
met. Thermostats were not set down and loads for space heating were much
higher than expected. It would appear that more sophisticated thermostatic
controls are required, such as ones that recognize the heat stored in the wall as
well as the temperature of its surface and respond accordingly.

thermal mass and timber construction

In general one can say that adequate thermal capacitance is important for any
building with a regular occupancy cycle. For commercial or institutional
buildings with a large quantity of incidental gains from lighting, equipment and
appliances, high thermal storage will tend to bring profiles of internal ‘base
temperature’ reasonably close to those of ‘equivalent outside temperature’
profiles (see 5.4(3)). Thus cooling loads can be minimized. There are few
building types where thermal storage is not advantageous. The ability to make
buildings, especially housing, more immune to intermittent opening of windows
in winter has already been flagged. It is therefore frustrating that the building
industry, in many of the climatic zones of interest here, has opted for light
prefabricated construction. However, there are significant differences from
country to country. Much of the housing in Germany and Austria uses
prefabricated timber components with an increasing application of solid, as
opposed to framed, floors and walls. ‘Stacked plank’ is one such technique,
which will provide a considerable amount of thermal mass, as well as the ability
to absorb and transmit water vapour. Because timber has a larger specific heat
capacity than dense concrete, the difference in respective thermal capacities is
less than one might imagine. 5.8(1)

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Austria is also host to some intriguing solar experiments with timber walls. 5.8 Timber versus concrete and an
A novel light construction used by architect Walter Unterrainer for a house in innovative Austrian solar wall
Bregenz is somewhat analogous with the Freiburg TI wall. 5.8(2) The aim is to
5.8(1) If we compare a solid timber floor with that of
keep the surface of the stacked cardboard and the adjacent capillary air cavities dense concrete, in each case 15cm thick and with
warm during daytime, again with the result of lowering the effective U-value. an area of 75m2, the respective masses differ by
According to Unterrainer, the effective value often reaches zero or less. 5.8(3) a factor of 4.0 (the mass of timber at 530kg/m3 x
In winter the effectiveness of the system is helped by snow cover, which 11.25m3 = less than 6000kg, compared to 2100kg/
significantly increases the amount of reflected solar heat transmitted through m3 x 11.25m3 = close to 24,000kg). But comparing
the glass cover and absorbed by the cardboard honeycomb. Unterrainer is respective thermal capacitances, the factor reduces
dubious about how well the technique would transfer to regions with much to 2.4. (Specific heat capacity of softwood at 1.38J/
cloudier winters, such as Scotland. But there is little doubt that it would work in kgK x 5962.5kg = 8228kJ/K compared to specific
heat capacity of dense concrete at 0.84J/kgK x
other mountainous areas to the south.
23,625kg = 19,845kJ/K; 19,845 ÷ 8228 = 2.4.)
composite construction 5.8(2) Unterrainer’s construction from outside to
Prefabrication of such components in Austria is of a very high standard, and this inside is: 7mm translucent wired glass; 40mm air
factor is undoubtedly an important part of its effectiveness. In any case, there is space; 160mm corrugated cardboard, configured in
no reason why a construction that is predominantly of prefabricated or site- a similar manner to capillary TI (capillaries at right
fabricated timber, should not incorporate heavier masonry components as well. angles to glass); two layers of 40mm solid timber;
vapour control layer; 40mm cork between timber
The work of Brian MacKay-Lyons in Nova Scotia exploits a high standard of
battens; 18mm cement-bonded wood chipboard. The
carefully detailed Canadian timber construction, but not necessarily with quite
main difference compared with the Freiburg TI wall
the precision of Unterrainer. Roughness is often deliberately contrasted with a
is of course that the cardboard is opaque and solar
smooth and exact material. He is also not reticent to use concrete as part of his penetration of the material is estimated to be of the
palette. A common formula for his houses is the use of a timber superstructure, order of 12mm.
often reinforced or stabilized where required by steel, together with polished
5.8(3) Unterrainer provided technical information in
concrete floors incorporating warm-water heating coils. It is the same
a lecture at the Mackintosh School of Architecture,
construction technique adopted by many American passive solar houses in the
Glasgow on the 21st January 2004, confirming cold
1940s, and although the issue of purchased heat displacing some of the solar
U-value of the construction of 0.20W/m2K and mean
heat is still there, such floors do make very economic short-term solar stores. It effective U-value of approximately 0.13W/m2K.
is also interesting just how much some clients empathize with the system. For
example, in the Howard house in West Pennant, Vivian Howard recognizes that
the primary living accommodation on the ground floor and mezzanine benefits
hugely from solar gain compared with the children’s rooms on the lower ground
floor – but without overheating and without any shading devices (Figure 5.18a).
The heavy floors, coupled with opening windows at low and high level, and the
maritime location, are sufficient to maintain comfortably low temperatures in
warm and sunny weather. She also does not mind that the original concept of a
timber floor, returning slightly up the walls as a reference to the inside of
traditional clinker boats, was abandoned in favour of the polished concrete.
Cost was an issue as well as thermal performance.
In another MacKay-Lyons dwelling know as Coastal House No. 22, located
close to the mouth of the historic LaHave river estuary (LaHave, meaning the
haven, was the name given to the estuary by the French explorer Samuel de
Chaplain in 1604), the owners find comfort with the thermostat set to about

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18°C. They are completely committed to the design and construction, and
appreciate the value of relatively high radiant warmth complementing relatively
cool air (Figure5.18b). Such understanding of, and enthusiasm for, material
physics seems to be inseparable from a corresponding passion for the aesthetic
moves made by MacKay-Lyons. It is a stunningly skilful and beautiful
composition, which is rendered in an equally moving landscape.

cladding, colour and other storage media

In many of the projects by MacKay-Lyons, the use of external timber cladding,
whether in the form of shingles or boarding, can have a beneficial impact on the
dynamic performance of the lightweight enclosing walls. Here, the ability to heat
quickly in conditions of intermittent direct sunlight, or cloudier diffuse conditions,
will help to keep the average temperature of the external surface, as well as any
trapped layer of air behind it, relatively high during daytime. Thus it will tend to
lower the mean effective U-value in a way similar to the Unterrainer wall. For
favourably oriented surfaces, the darker the colour, the more beneficial it will be,
even though the majority of the thermal work is done by the hidden insulation.
In regional terms, Nova Scotia is host to many varieties and grades of timber. In
coastal areas, the shingles were traditionally immersed in a mix of cod liver oil
and red ochre to prolong their life. The resultant dark red colour should absorb
about 70 per cent of the sun’s heat. However, even western red cedar or other
timber such as larch, which weather to a silvery grey and normally require no
further preservative, will absorb a reasonable amount. Such simple vernacular
techniques fall within the modern terminology of rain-screens. However, they
are more than that, since they can also contribute positively to thermal
performance. In presenting a case for ‘folk-tech’ principles of building, MacKay-
Lyons makes a telling natural analogy: ‘Shingles act like feathers of a duck,
repelling moisture while responding to the wet-dry and freeze-thaw cycle like a
living skin.’ (MacKay-Lyons, 1996).
The same principle with respect to colour (if not to feathers) applies to
masonry walls such as those of the Nordström project in Göteborg, although
increasing thermal movement with greater darkness of colour will require careful
use of control joints. Experiments carried out at Napier University in Edinburgh
in order to ascertain the influence of dark relative to light have indicated a
significant difference in older buildings, especially those with solid walls. 5.9(1)
It has been estimated that for a whole building, the colour of the external walls
can alter the annual heating load by as much as 20 per cent. A black wall, with
5.18a Main living space of Howard House, West a transparent cover, will save even more. 5.9(2) It follows that, although the
Pennant, with polished concrete floor
stock of buildings such as housing with solid walls is reducing, the effect on the
5.18b Living space of guest wing, Coastal House
22, with polished concrete floor external skin of a modern, well-insulated, multi-layer wall would still be valuable.
In scientific terms, a white surface behaves selectively in that it absorbs
shortwave radiation poorly, yet emits longer wave radiation well. The darker the
colour, the greater the tendency to equalize absorption and emission.

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PASSIVE CONTROL

Once inside the external envelope and after initial insolation of materials in 5.9 Colour, mass and phase-change
direct view of the sun, colour ceases to be relevant. Materials may be light in materials
colour without affecting long-wave radiant exchanges, but they may also be light
5.9(1) A solid 220mm brick wall (U-value = 2.3W/
in terms of their mass, which will inhibit thermal storage. An alternative to a dense m2K), facing south in Scotland, has an annual heat
solid material, such as concrete, is a much less dense phase-change material. loss of about 150kWh/m2 if painted white and with
5.9(3) These can be placed to receive as much benefit as possible from passive an indoor temperature averaging around 18°C. The
solar gain, and the colour of the contained material is again relevant relative to same wall painted black will have a heat loss of only
initial short-wave radiant gain. Even a limited heat-store will help to reduce loss of about 70kWh/m2 due to the additional absorptance
solar gains by early evening. Also, where there is a ‘direct gain’ passive solar of solar gain, saving over 50 per cent. The effective
strategy, and the heating season is shortened by high standards of insulation, too U-value of the wall is reduced to approximately
much thermal mass can be a handicap. There will not be enough heat transmitted 1.0W/m2K.

from the sun to charge it. This inevitably depends to a significant extent on the 5.9(2) Measurements in Edinburgh (MacGregor,
detailed glazing specification as well as sizes, orientations and tilts, and would be 1979), comparing a white 15cm thick concrete wall
the case whatever the solar availability in winter. with a black one with a glass cover, gave a saving of
25kWh/m2 in late autumn.
Optimizing heat and light balance through glazing
5.9(3) Phase-change materials such as Glauber
The development of advanced glazing products is essential to a review of modern salts were introduced to the solar community in
solar architecture, particularly in relation to optimizing the balance of transmitted the 1950s. They can be integrated with internal
heat and light. This is a very specialized area, and one that is quite widely components like tiles, colour then being initially
published elsewhere (Jesch, 1987, 1988, 1989; Compagno, 1995, pp57–75 and important. Heat is absorbed and stored at the first
77–120; Daniels, 1997, pp135–162). On the other hand it is also an area where the change of state when heated by the sun; and then
penetration of the market has been slower than the scientific and technical the stored heat is released as it cools in the evening.
advances. The specification of expensive products must go hand in hand with The advantages are compactness, similar to water
life-cycle costing, one of the long-term benefits being that the products have no compared to solid masonry, and the relatively large
amount of energy stored within a relatively low mass.
moving parts. However, the potential drawback is lack of flexibility. For example,
However, although interest is currently reviving,
basic reflective or heat-absorbing glass may help to reduce cooling loads, but
economics, longevity and stability were probably the
that means the opportunity for useful solar gain in winter is also reduced. The
issues that have resulted in relatively low uptake of
coatings and tints of early types of such glazing also significantly compromised this technology.
views out of buildings, as well as the external appearance of the façades. Hence
there has been a lot of research and development associated with clearer ‘variable
transmission glazing’. The essential tactic is to reject solar heat gain during some
parts of the year, whilst accepting it at others. Parallel to this, there has been
considerable progress made with related products, including transparent
insulation or TI (see also Chapters 2 and 4), where the emphasis is on maximizing
radiant gain and minimizing conducted loss. These are sometimes associated
solely with glazing, when not unduly reducing incoming light is a factor, and
sometimes integrated with opaque surfaces.

mirror-optics and other progress in variable transmission

One line of development with variable transmission was that of ‘mirror-optics’
(Köster, 1988, 1989) (Figure 5.19a). Bespoke mirror-optics or glass prisms
located in the cavity of double-glazing can take account of any solar geometry.
These devices then have two functions. The first is to admit and deflect solar

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

heat gain on to suitable surfaces within a space. Köster calls this ‘optical energy
transport’. The second is to optimize diffusion and spread of daylight within the
space. Köster calls this ‘automatic optical daylight modulation’. In the closing
lines of his paper to the 3rd International Workshop ‘Transparent Insulation
Technology’ held in Freiburg in 1989 he is eloquently enthusiastic about the
future for his mirror-optics:

Do less and accomplish more – do nothing and accomplish everything.

The promise of solar-architecture becomes true: a passive building
completely in harmony with the outer climate – no computer and no
tracking, just using the sun itself as software control – an architecture
in harmony with nature!

The statement has echoes of at least two famous architects, the ‘less is more’
of Ludwig Mies van der Rohe, and ‘harmony with nature’ cannot fail to evoke
Frank Lloyd Wright. In any case, Köster seems to have mounted a good sales
pitch. His technique quickly became commercialized in Germany as ‘Ökasolar’.
Architects Eble and Sambeth used ‘Ökasolar’ for part of the fenestration in the
atrium of Frankfurt’s ‘Ökohuis’, 1992 (Figure 5.19b). The practice of Percy
Thomas also used it in the UK for a comprehensive secondary school at
Swanlea in London, 1993.
Since the German example is associated with the voluntary sector and the
British one with cost-conscious public sector, this kind of application is
encouraging. However, in these particular buildings, the opportunity to displace
electricity for lighting is limited since the glazing is not used in the windows of
workspaces. The role is mainly one of heat balance, capturing useful gain in
winter and reducing overheating in summer. The argument for this material as
opposed to normal glass plus blinds or adjustable louvres, is just as Köster
made it – no moving parts.
A related development by Lichtplanung Christian Bartenbach was used in a
seminal environmental building. This is the Brundtland Centre in Toftlund,
Denmark, by KHR Architects in association with Esbensen Consulting
Engineers, which was built between 1992 and 1994 at 55.11°N latitude
(Wiggington and Harris, 2002, pp103–108) (Figure 5.20). Here a fixed interstitial
array of specular louvred blades is used in the upper section of double-glazing
to divert light onto a highly reflective ceiling. The middle section at eye level
contains inverted venetian blinds, which can be adjusted by a central control
system. They too can throw light onto the ceiling, while also allowing visual
contact with the outside to be maintained. A specially designed linear
asymmetric fluorescent light fitting is located along the line of the transom at the
bottom of the middle section. Following in the footsteps of Alvar Aalto, the idea
is that artificial light is in harmony with natural light, while using surfaces of the
building as reflectors. But we should not forget that where there is light, there is
also heat. Therefore both the blinds and the reflectors of the luminaires

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PASSIVE CONTROL

5.19a Köster’s mirror-optics – typical sections

5.19b ‘Ökasolar’ used at Ökohuis, Frankfurt –

visually less intrusive than venetian blinds

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

constitute part of the energy balance. A bottom section, corresponding to

seated eye level, has a further interstitial venetian blind, but this time the
occupants can manually adjust the tilt of the blades. In terms of the thermal
balance, it is the middle and lower layers that provide for short-term variable
transmission of solar heat as well as light, by moving the blades of the blinds
according to the weather and time of day. By contrast, the fixed upper blades
allow the amount of solar radiation that enters the rooms to vary with season.
More will be reflected out in summer than in winter. Also, when adjustable blinds
are closed overnight, the U-value will improve significantly, say from 25 to 35
per cent, depending on the emissivity of the blades.
Other rather simpler variants of Köster’s mirror-optics and Bartenbach’s
specular blades are prismatic louvres and laser-cut panels or LCPs (Brandi,
2004). The former can be designed for variable transmission of solar heat,
reflecting mainly in summer and transmitting more in winter. They are also
devices to diffuse light. The latter is generally more geared to inward deflection
and diffusion of both heat and light. Prismatic louvres usually have a flat upper
surface and prismatic lower surface, which is practical in terms of accumulation
of dirt. However, prismatic glass for variable transmission can also be
incorporated vertically within multiple glazing systems, where dirt is not a
5.20 Detail of south façade of Brundtland Centre
in Toftlund with glazing hierarchy, noting the concern, while the incisions of LCPs in flat Perspex sheets are inherently easier
twin array of PV panels between floors to keep clean and are also commonly incorporated within glazing cavities.
When used independently from the glazing, there may be an option for fixed or
movable prismatic louvres or LCPs.
A more sophisticated device that can also be used to achieve variable
transmission of solar heat is the holographic diffractive film or HDF (Daniels,
1997, pp143–147). This was applied to external solar tracking louvres mounted
over the roof of a building at the Stuttgart International Garden Exhibition, 1993.
The design was developed by architect Manfred Hegger in association with two
scientists from the Polytechnic University of Cologne. (Professor Hegger is
partner in the practice Hegger, Hegger-Luhnen and Schleiff who were also
architects for the Academie Mont Cenis in Herne, in association with Jourda
and Perraudin, which is discussed in Chapter 2.) In essence, the HDFs accept
low-angle winter irradiation but reject solar gain at other times. The louvres were
effectively double-glazed components, with the holographic grid within an outer
glazing sandwich focusing light on to silkscreen strips mounted on the inner
surface of the inner glass. These reflected the heat back out through the upper
glass. It was also possible to mount photovoltaic cells on the silkscreen strips,
and this was done in one of the arrays.
Possibly the ultimate concept for smart or intelligent glazing is the
‘polyvalent wall’ proposed by Mike Davis of the Richard Rogers Partnership
London (Daniels, 1997, pp160–161). However, such concepts are still some way
from the regular marketplace. Hutchins reports that much more pragmatic

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innovation, such as electro-chromatic, variable-transmission glass, has difficulty 5.10 Light-grid: vital statistics for solar
in moving rapidly from successful research, development and demonstration versus light transmission
into the commercial world (Porteous, 2000). The fundamental objective with The total solar transmission factor of the light-grid is
such glass is again to be able to block solar heat in warm weather, but without given as only 0.2 or 20 per cent, while the direct light
unduly reducing daylight. This can be achieved with coatings, such as transmission varies from 5 to 65 per cent and the
amorphous tungsten oxide, applied in much the same way as a standard low- diffuse light transmission varies between 5 to 22 per
emissivity coating. While the latter works entirely passively to enhance the cent. The shading factor also varies through quite a
greenhouse effect in winter, the former will provide a reversible colour change large range from 0.75 to 0.20.
when a low-voltage current is applied, and with transmission of light reduced by
as little as 5 per cent. Other particle coatings can give ‘angular selectivity’
designed to maximize passive gain in winter, but reject it in summer; and this
has only a slight effect on outward visibility as the inward radiation angles differ
from the outward viewing angles. An alternative method of electrically altering
transparency is by means of a liquid crystal interlayer within a glass laminate.
However, in this case an electrical current is required to achieve transparency.
Further options are thermo-chromatic layers such as vanadium dioxide. As the
temperature increases, this coating proceeds to a metallic state causing infrared
reflectivity. Yet another development is self-adjusting photo-chromatic glass
where the transmission decreases automatically in response to ultraviolet and
shortwave visible light. This does, however, have the disadvantage of darkening
and consequently heating the glass. Hutchins believes that electro-chromatic
coatings and those with angular selectivity are the most promising.

alternative integrated innovations

Returning to the strategic objective of regulating solar heat and dispersing light,
the light-grid developed by Lichtplanung Christian Bartenbach and Siemens AG
is placed interstitially within double-glazing in the same way as mirror-optics.
The renowned solar architect from Munich, Thomas Herzog used it, for example,
in 1993 in the roof of the Congress and Exhibition Hall in Linz, Austria. It is not
visually transparent and its primary aim is not to give variable transmission, but
rather to reflect direct solar radiation and to diffuse light. Thus it is more akin to
an interstitial venetian blind, except the blades are not adjustable. It might also
be regarded as a refined integrated brise-soleil (Daniels, 1997, p151). 5.10 It is
designed for specific geographical locations, orientations and tilts in such a way
that the goal of excluding direct sunlight is achieved throughout the year. It
consists of ‘specially shaped plastic louvres coated with highly reflective pure
aluminium; the louvres are arranged in a regular grid pattern to create light
shafts sat next to each other in tight rows.’ (Compagno, 1995, pp72–73)
An innovative transparent glazing system, which tackled increased thermal
comfort in winter, particularly for north-facing windows, was that of Visi Heat,
marketed for a relatively short period in the late 1980s and 1990s by Solaglas
Ltd. The product was initially developed in Finland, arising from the need to
maintain vision for trawlers in Arctic seas. A low-voltage current is applied to an

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

invisible low-emissivity coating on the glass. In the commercialized Visi Heat

double-glazing, the inner pane was heated slightly higher than the adjacent air,
thus enhancing the mean radiant temperature within a room as well as avoiding
uncomfortable downdraughts. Moreover, the selective nature of the coating was
such that it was claimed that only about 15 per cent of the heat generated in the
glass would be lost to the outside (Porteous, 1989). This was used in at least
one Scottish case study, a courtyard house in Dollar, a few miles to the north of
the Forth Estuary, for the parents of architect Andrew Whalley (Figure 5.21). The
design solution, on a fairly restricted site, demanded a significant proportion of
northerly glazing – hence the decision to use heated glass. However, although
the technology was not overly demanding, the tariff structure applied to non-
storage electrical systems in Scotland does not particularly favour this
technique. Whether for this reason or due to general lack of interest, Solaglas
withdrew this product after a relatively short period.
Such an example highlights the complexities of uptake. We are moving into
a time when the control of the supply of electricity relative to its demand will be
much more sophisticated, as well as responsive to the vagaries of multiple
renewable generation and storage sources. This could completely alter the
future economic climate for products such as Visi Heat. Similarly, if a fiscal
structure was introduced that significantly penalized commercial organizations
and large public institutions for lack of energy efficiency, the necessary boost
might be given to advanced glazing. This would of course favour climatic areas
with relatively high heating loads in winter, as well as the possibility of cooling
loads in summer.
Whatever new economic incentives may emerge, it is still incumbent on
architects and other specialist designers to devise systems that are innovative

5.21 ‘Visi Heat’ (clear) and ‘Thermascrene’

(translucent) glazing by Solaglas at Whalley
house, under construction, June 1989 – note
electric cable at extreme top of photograph

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PASSIVE CONTROL

and effective, without being overly complex or vulnerable. In Chapter 2, mention

was made of a 19th century patent application for what was effectively an
intelligent wall. The chemistry was not difficult. A potassium solution got darker
as it got hotter. Instantaneous direct solar gain would thus have been delayed,
whilst the fluid would give up part of its stored heat to the interior during the
evening. On the other hand in cold weather, the transmitted thermal losses
would have been very high, and there were practical issues around containment.
Over 110 years later, a house at Ebnat-Kappel in Switzerland by Dietrich
Schwarz (Schittich, 2002) attempts to address these issues. Small paraffin-filled
plastic containers (rather like green glass blocks) provide a thermo-chromatic,
phase-change storage wall. This sits behind triple glazing, the central glazing
element being a variable-transmission prismatic sheet. The entire thickness is
105mm and the system is purely passive, with no electricity involved and a low
level of technology. It should cost a lot less and be more reliable than an
electronically programmed polyvalent wall. On the other hand, it will of course
still cost a lot more than an opaque alternative or a simpler screening device
without the thermal storage capability.

external screens – competition for advanced glazing?

In tandem with work on advanced glazing, there has been marked progress
refining basic fixed louvres, designed to be located outside windows. Since the
early days of the static brise-soleil promoted by Le Corbusier, there have been
innumerable variations in terms of both dimensions and materials. Furthermore,
there is a tendency for some architects to apply these as a shallow cliché to
over-glazed buildings, with dubious functionality relative to orientation.
Reference was made to this ubiquity (some might also consider an iniquity) in
Chapter 2. The practical challenge is to cut out unwanted direct sunshine and
heat at different times of the day and year, while at the same time having a
minimal impact on daylight. A new product, designed to be fixed outside
glazing, has been christened KoolShade (Williams, 2004a). It consists of woven
bronze micro-louvres (1.27mm wide, 0.18mm thick and set about 1.33mm apart
at a nominal angle of 30° to the horizontal). Although they do not have the
variable optical attributes of Ökasolar, heat gain is estimated to be only 14 per
cent of incident irradiation. The close-set structure blocks virtually all direct
sunlight for different orientations and times of year, while transmission of
daylight significantly outperforms that for opaque venetian blinds. Since it also
baffles wind and rain, it has a potential to moderate natural ventilation through
inward opening or sliding windows.
The other benefit of KoolShade, as for Ökasolar, is that the interruption to
visibility is relatively slight compared with competing movable devices, or other
fixed ones. The effect is different in each case. Some visual distortion is
inevitable with the transparent louvres of Ökasolar, while the KoolShade
operates as a veil, with vision dependent on a brighter source of light on one

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

side of the screen or veil than the other. The well-known Danish architects,
Henning Larsen, used a perforated veil of stainless steel panels on the westerly
façade of a relatively small vertical extension to the headquarters of Berlingske
Tidene or BT, one of Copenhagen’s newspapers (Figure 5.22). Since this
occupies a corner site and there is a completely transparent façade to the north,
the issue of blocking daylight is not as acute as the need to prevent glare and
overheating during the afternoon, as well as damping down noise from the busy
street to the west. Occupants can also still see out through the unscreened

5.22 Berlingske Tidene extension in Copenhagen

at night

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PASSIVE CONTROL

glass at night, whilst to the person on the street, the new corner appeared as a 5.11 Transparent insulation variants
potent showcase, the visual editing of the perforated panels evocative of
5.11(1) The U-value of a glazing unit, where
newspapers. Peter Davey, as editor of The Architectural Review, describes the capillary TI replaces a normal air gap of 20mm
screen as ‘both veil and carapace’ and refers to ‘shadow play’ on to the screen is approximately 2.4W/m2K. Any advantage
at night (Davey, 1995). compared with a fairly routine specification for
transparent double-glazing is limited to its diffusing
transparent insulation characteristic. However, if the thickness of the TI is
Such external screens, which may be considered accessories affecting the increased to 75mm, the U-value drops significantly to
balance of heat and light through windows, were, by definition, not included in just below 1.0W/m2K.
the series of TI Workshops in the late 1980s. Not only is the materiality 5.11(2) A selective coating permits high transmission of
intrinsically opaque if not the product, but also the thermal resistance is shortwave radiation, but inhibits loss in long-wave, as in
negligible. While they can insulate buildings against overheating, the term low-emissivity glass. It is visually completely transparent.
‘insulation’ in TI implies an ability to inhibit heat loss as well as permit useful
5.11(3) LBL window: a third pane is inserted
gains – at times and places, and in buildings, when they can displace demand
symmetrically into a normal double-glazed unit with
for energy. Thus the TI workshops included all forms of high performance a 20mm gap, resulting in triple-glazing with two
glazing as well as many variants of TI as used in the solar house in Freiburg and 8mm krypton-filled gaps, and the two inner sheets of
the Strathclyde student residence. For example, there is a sister product of glass having low-emissivity coatings. The estimated
Ökasolar called Ökalux, which is simply a sandwich of acrylic TI, with the U-value is 0.7W/m2K.
capillary structure at right angles between two sheets of glass. If the glass is
5.11(4) Other TI materials: acrylic foam has a
clear, there may be limited visual transparency, depending on the position of
conductivity value of the order of 0.04W/mK
occupants relative to the glazing. However, an extra layer of a material such as (Jbach, 1987) One acrylic foam is Imacryl foam, a
fibreglass may be introduced deliberately to give a greater level of opacity. foamed acrylic sheet material (PMMA) consisting
There are other similar commercial products such as Ultrawarm Thermascrene of irregularly gas-filled bubbles. Aerogel (a highly
by Solaglas, which do this. Kalwall (see 5.11(5)) does much the same by porous material consisting either of silica, alumina,
varying the density of its fibreglass fill. However, for all of these, the capability to zirconia, stannic or tungsten oxides, or mixtures of
diffuse incoming solar radiation and light is not the same as varying transmission these oxides) has a conductivity of about half that
with changing solar geometry. – 0.02W/mK at ambient air pressure, or as low as
The ability of such materials to limit loss of heat overnight or during cold 0.01W/mK if evacuated (Caps et al, 1987; Kistler,
1942). The conductivity also varies with temperature
and sunless days is inevitably sensitive to their thickness. 5.11(1) If 75–100mm
and it is reported that measurements, using a hot-
is specified, there is tough competition from transparent, energy-efficient
wire method, found values approximating to 0.01W/
glazing, especially if the aim is not to diffuse daylight. A fully transparent
mK at 20°C and 0.02W/mK at 50°C (Hanna, 1994;
retrofitted glazing system employed in Switzerland (Pinna/Schwarzenbach/
Nilsson et al, 1983).
Süsstrunk Architekten, 1989) achieved an average U-value, including the frame,
as low as 0.6W/m2K. Two layers of selectively coated polyester foils 5.11(2)
were inserted between outer and inner float glass set 90mm apart. In this case,
the depth of the frame has practical and economic consequences for opening
windows, which were included to provide occupants with the means of
supplementing low rates of ventilation by mechanical displacement. However,
slimmer alternatives developed at much the same time, such as the ‘LBL’ three-
pane krypton window 5.11(3), have a very similar performance (Fricke, 1989).
If diffusing systems are acceptable, there are alternative TI materials with
significantly lower rates of conductivity than capillary polycarbonate. 5.11(4) In
the case of aerogel, there is a long history of development dating back to the

167
SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

5.11(5) Normal Kalwall panels provide a large range early 1930s (Caps et al, 1987; Kistler, 1931). By the late 1980s, work was
of U-values for a single thickness. This is achieved by ongoing with regard to thermo-chromatic gels, which enhance scattering or
varying the density of the translucent fibreglass filling. diffusion once a certain critical temperature is reached (Beck, Link and Fricke,
U-values for thermally broken panels vary from 2.57 1989). However, one practical problem with aerogel has been associated with
down to 0.56W/m2K. This implies conductivity values
the difficulty in achieving long-term chemical stability. For example, monolithic
for the fibreglass of about 0.4W/mK down to below
silica aerogel is vulnerable to attack by water. Another problem has been the
0.05W/mK. A U-value of 0.28W/m2K for the equivalent
slumping over time of the gel, whether between the stiff bounding layers of
70mm panel filled with Nanogel implies its conductivity
is 0.02W/mK. This is estimated to provide 13 per
glass or alternatives such as glass-reinforced polyester.
cent light transmission. That this product is now to be Experiments in the late 1980s to encapsulate a layer between two sheets of
marketed (panels are presently sized at a maximum of glass, while maintaining the efficacy of the seals and avoiding excessive thermal
1.2m wide by 3.6m high) indicates a confidence that bridging, highlighted the issues needing to be tackled before such a product
aerogel technology has moved beyond vulnerability to could be sold (Jensen, 1989). Nevertheless, in the long-term the prospects looked
moisture and slumping. promising. Today, the Cabot Corporation in Boston has produced Nanogel. Pores
of 20 nanometres give a product that is claimed to be 99.9 per cent air and 0.1 per
cent silica dioxide by volume (Williams, 2004b). It would also appear that Nanogel
is going to be available as an alternative to the special white fibreglass in the
Kalwall panels. 5.11(5) The combined product is to be known as Kalwall +
Nanogel, having a remarkably low U-value of less than 0.3W/m2K.
However, while single static products such as Nanogel might be held up as
epitomizing the energy-efficient balance of heat gain and light, there will always
be a competing desire for greater flexibility… the kind of flexibility that implies
moving parts.

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PASSIVE CONTROL

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Chapter 6 Machine Control

The term machine is used here to embrace active systems with moving parts,
where controls may take full advantage of electronic technology, but may still
vary from automatic to manual. Inevitably, some of the issues around ‘machine
control’ have already come up, for example, in relation to intervention by users.
Indeed, there is a distinct mirroring of aspects covered in Chapter 4. Here
however, as with the previous chapter, the emphasis is directed more strongly
towards the intentions of the designers, and in particular where the performance
of the system appears to be subject to dilemmas, limitations or shortcomings.
This slant, with technology sometimes in the dock together with dubious
decisions made by professionals, has again been subdivided into three main
topics: movable controls attached to glazing, solar air collectors, and issues
associated with interactive control and management.

Diffusing, shading and opening – glazing controls

Movable devices to control sunlight, sky glare and solar heat gain appear to
have obvious advantages compared with fixed ones. However, there are
numerous pitfalls. Both shading and opening devices complement the
preceding section on completely passive optimization of transparent and
translucent envelopes. Again, the responsiveness of control systems can be
critical, especially when there are rapidly changing climatic characteristics over
the course of a day. The balance between wind, rain and sunshine may be
difficult to reconcile. Controls may compete, and be too finely or too coarsely
tuned, with negative consequences in either case. Similarly there are pros and
cons for external, interstitial and internal systems.

wear and tear

Firstly, there is the matter of longevity and robustness. This is more readily
overcome for mechanisms to open windows, or other adjustable ventilators,
than it is for diffusing or shading components, especially when these are located
externally. Wind, rain, sunshine and biodiversity will all take their toll on the
shading material itself, as well as the mechanism for moving it. The external
blinds used on sections of the glass roof of the Burrell Museum in Glasgow,

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

designed by architect Barry Gasson, testify to the ravages of nature and,

reportedly, did not function for long after completion (Figure 6.1). The relatively
shallow slope over the restaurant and cafeteria would have been an additional
factor relative to the build-up of dirt on the fabric. Even where external blinds
have been used vertically or at a much steeper pitch, and in a less windy
context, they will remain vulnerable.
An example is the array for the long west-facing glazed arcade of the
research and development building in the Rheinelbe Science Park at
Gelsenkirchen, Germany (51.6°N), completed by architects Kiessler + Partner in
the mid-1990s, with the involvement of both the Fraunhofer Institut and
Ingenieurburo Trumpp. Setting aside the advisability of constructing a tilted
west-facing wall of glass in the first place, it seems ironic that the seemingly
uncomplicated solution of external shading appears to be more at risk than the
daunting task of lifting large sections of the façade upwards (Figure 6.2). Both
are evidently specified to limit solar overheating, and both are powered, as this
demand for cooling occurs, by solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays on the roof. Thus,
having provided the problem of excessive passive solar gain at the hottest part
of the day, Kiessler has apparently neatly solved it with active solar measures.
However, while both the small electric motors for moving the blinds, and the
much larger ones for moving the glass, are safely protected inside, the blinds
and their rollers and guides remain outside as a recurring item for maintenance
and replacement.
This in turn raises the question as to whether the environmental solution to
the given problem was over-egged. Given the area of the openings, evaporative
6.1 External shading mechanisms, Burrell cooling of incoming air by an artificial lake, and the height between inlets and
Museum, Glasgow – these only operated for outlets together with the active assistance from fans at high level, one could
a short period relative to the life of the have expected the entire cooling load to be met by ventilation. After all, the
building (photographed November 2004)
highly glazed living space of the Howard house by Brian Mackay-Lyons (Chapter
5) had no means of shading and the clients found that it never became
unbearably warm. In the much larger concourse by Kiessler, localized shading
inside is also possible by means of planting or parasols.
In another European project, blinds posed the question of necessity as well
as operation. This is the student residence at Strathclyde University in Glasgow,
already discussed relative to adaptive opportunity and thermal mass. The
reflective blinds, which were pulled up to shield five storeys between the outer
glass and the TI, frequently jammed. Part of the problem was that they were
initially programmed to pull up if there was too much radiation as well as too
little radiation. This meant a minimum of two operations daily, but possibly
much more on intermittently sunny and cloudy days. Even so, it is likely that the
problem of jamming indicated either poor quality of the lifting mechanism or
poor supervision of the installation. To make matters worse, the slope of the site
meant that ‘cherry-picking’ plant could not gain access. It has been necessary

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MACHINE CONTROL

6.2 View looking north past west façade of R &

D building in the Rheinelbe Science Park

to laboriously erect scaffolding in order to free stuck blinds. This enables fixed
panes of glass to be removed and replaced. To resolve this onerous burden of
maintenance, far less frequent movement of blinds was enforced, moving only
twice annually – up in summer and down in winter. Having significantly
coarsened the strategy for avoidance of overheating, as well as that of
conserving heat, it is then fair to challenge their necessity. 6.1 Leslie Jesch: a solar champion
Indeed a much smaller European demonstration project, with TI retrofitted
Dr Jesch edited the TI workshop proceedings
over south and east walls at the home of Dr Leslie Jesch 6.1 in Birmingham,
referenced in the previous chapter. He also launched
UK, relied on opening windows to avoid overheating. Although not the answer
and edited Sun at Work in Great Britain, which later
given by predictive modelling at Strathclyde, it is probable that opening became Sun at Work In Europe, running successfully
windows together with passive stack ventilation would have avoided for many years; not to mention editing Sun World and
overheating. This then leaves the issue of conserving heat more effectively than initiating the establishment of ISES Europe, the first
with the TI on its own. Pre-contract, it would have been interesting to compare large regional component of the International Solar
the performance of the blind with a static option, such as a low-emissivity Energy Society.

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

coating on the inside of the glass along with a selective coating on the outer
face of the storage wall. Without exploring the maths or modelling in depth, it is
certain to be a marginal difference.

optimizing control
The first matter of longevity and robustness is inextricably linked to the second
one of control. If it is automatic, how finely set should be the switches? Does
there need to be more than one environmental parameter to activate switches?
If so, will they compete? Should there be a manual override? If so, who should
be able to use it? These are all questions that could well arise relative to the
adjustment of blinds, louvres, windows and other ventilators. The last returns us
forcibly to the issue of adaptive control addressed in Chapter 4. As a reminder
of this, but with a further case study, a new block of classrooms for a junior
school in Glasgow by architects Elder and Cannon (Figure 6.3), illustrates the
risks of leaving power in the hands of teachers. The architectural aim was to use
daylight to displace electricity for lighting, and natural ventilation to displace
electricity for fans. It has a south-facing façade and, where adjustable external
diffusing glass louvres do not shield windows, there are interstitial venetian
blinds. Therefore, four critical controls are available to the teachers – lights,
6.3 South façade of junior school in Glasgow,
showing glass louvres and glazing with
windows, louvres and venetian blinds. The first are nearly always on in all
integral venetian blinds – note pupils’ work classrooms; the second are seldom opened in any classroom; the third are
attached to glass occasionally adjusted; and the fourth almost never move from the fully closed
position in any of the classrooms. The reason behind the last and least expected
inaction is that the teachers find the windows to be useful extra wall space for
displaying the work of pupils. With the blinds open, there would be too much
‘glare contrast’ to see the work. Overall, it is a remarkably similar story to that
raised in Chapter 4 with regard to the solar school in Fife. Teachers require
control, but do not tend to use it as designers hope.
Another institutional building in Glasgow, the main administrative
headquarters of the Strathclyde Police Traffic Division, has adopted the same
aims, but a different solution, to a south-facing façade. Smith McEwan
Architects also wanted to displace electricity for artificial lighting and ventilation.
In this case, machine control has been purposefully minimized, but is
nevertheless an essential component. In order to passively avoid excessive
solar gain, the façade has been tilted outwards by 7.5°. This means that the
critical angle of incidence of about 50° (see Chapters 1 and 2) will be exceeded
for a reasonable amount of time around the centre of the day in the warmest
part of summer. Green-tinted ‘anti-sun’ was also specified for the external pane
of glass, and manually operated solar blinds were provided internally. The
design of the façade, including the proportion of transparent to opaque surface,
was assisted by the LT method (Steemers and Baker, 1994). However, the
concept of allowing occupants to fine-tune light by means of the blinds, and
ventilation by opening windows, has been compromised by the detailed

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MACHINE CONTROL

specification. The blinds are lowered and raised by means of a fixed handle
attached to their rigid spars, which means that they cannot go higher than an
average human reach. This reduces the amount of available daylight. There are
also no effective friction-stays on opening windows to enable fine-tuning of
natural ventilation. As a consequence, especially in windy conditions, there is a
disincentive to open up. The allocation of a desk fan to every workstation would
appear to confirm a tendency to seek comfort by agitating the air already inside
the space, rather than introducing fresh air. Thus the intention of achieving
satisfactory environmental control, including cross-ventilation, by very limited
use of automation has not been realized. While a basic building management
system satisfactorily operates high-level windows at each side of a central
atrium, reliance on the common sense of occupants to open windows along the
perimeter has proved shaky. Moreover, the artificial lights are also manually
operated, and the occupants appear to be switching these on, regardless of the
adequacy of daylight.
Returning to the more mechanized building in Gelsenkirchen, the system
for both blinds and windows in the arcade or concourse is automated, but
security staff have access to a manual override. Thus it is possible to have the
sliding ‘portcullis’ windows open with the blinds remaining up on a warm day.
The awnings on the south-facing edges of offices and laboratories are also
beyond the control of individual occupants. As the sun moves in and out of
formations of cloud, the awnings move up and down. In other words the
parameters for control are so finely tuned that they can be visually aggravating.
Perhaps to combat such irritation from the central control, the occupants all
have vertical adjustable blinds within their offices, as well as the ability to open
French doors and opaque ventilation panels. (Baird, 2001). However, while the
latter two are practical, and the ventilation panel wisely includes an insect mesh,
vertical blinds of the type used have a tendency to deaden any space
aesthetically, as well as to significantly reduce daylight. The lesson so far from
Gelsenkirchen, as well as from Glasgow, is that it is not easy to achieve an
appropriate balance between central electronic management and local
intervention by users.
For another building, Rijkswaterstaat at Ijmuiden, the Dutch headquarters
for looking after the North Sea Canal, the climate is strongly influenced by the
maritime location at 52.5°N. Designed by architects Atelier Z and completed in
1999, a different approach from that at Gelsenkirchen has been taken regarding
control of external blinds for open-plan workspaces. In the middle of a sunny
day in August, the external blinds remained down for a considerable period after
the sun had left a particular façade. The consequence of this was that
automatically dimmed fluorescent fittings were not operating at such a low level
of illumination as they should have been. The blinds effectively ‘robbed Peter to
pay Paul’. Some of the electrical load associated with cooling may have been

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saved, but at the cost of additional lighting. Also, although each fluorescent
fitting measured the level of light on desk-tops, the dimming could not turn
them completely off, no matter how bright the natural light. There is a manual
switch, but it turns all the lights off, thus defeating the aim of individual control.
Although such a system avoids periodic start-up surges over a working day, it
results in a visually and psychologically unsatisfactory situation. It gives a dull
lustre to the interior, while the outside looks sparklingly inviting and, having
made people more environmentally aware, it must be frustrating that the lights
should remain on when not required.
The same building seemed to have a switching dilemma when it came to
opening and closing windows in the atrium (Figure 6.4), which functions as a
concourse for entry, reception and circulation between the two main parts of the
working accommodation. It is partially shaded by PV cells set into the glass
roof, while façades are not shaded. Openable windows further regulate the
temperature and thermal comfort. These are located close to the bottom and
top of the atrium and are opened by a thermostat once a preset temperature is
reached, but may also be closed by an anemometer, according to the velocity
of the wind. Therefore, there can be competition between the microclimatic
parameters, especially on a sunny and windy day. If the thermostat has initial
6.4 Atrium of Rijkswaterstaat – windows closed
with weather sunny but windy priority over the anemometer, one can imagine that the expectation would be
that once excessively warm air has been exhausted, the wishes of both controls
would coincide. However, the issue of time lag between respective automated
instructions is again relevant. During a relatively brief visit in such weather, the
atrium varied from pleasantly fresh, with windows open, to rather too warm, with
them closed. In the latter condition, the space was a great deal warmer than the
adjacent working spaces with their mechanical control. It is also worth remarking
that the atrium is bounded on the two sides adjacent to the offices by two
massive rammed earth walls, as well as having a heavy floor. The nature of
admittance and response (Chapter 5) means that only a part of the thickness of
the walls is relevant in terms of modifying swings in temperature inside the
atrium, while the whole thickness helps to regulate time-lag and damping
between the atrium and offices. Overall, as a transitory space, this aspect does
not seem critical. Rather, it is worth noting that, had a similar system been
applied to natural ventilation of the working areas, the impact of overheating
would have been considerably more serious.
Rijkswaterstaat’s atrium is relatively small in area. Therefore the prospect of
supporting a glass roof with integral PV as fixed partial shading is not too
challenging. In tandem with the control of ventilation, this canopy has a useful
role in the avoidance of overheating. In a very large atrium, where the spans are
considerably greater, the issues are different. The weight of such a roof is a
serious concern, and, without resorting to very elaborate ventilating measures,
shading will be more central to thermal control.

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A good example is the new roof over the internal court of Kingsdale School 6.2 The chemistry of ETFE
in Dulwich, south London, at about 51.5°N (Figure 6.5). Here De Rijke Marsh
ETFE is ethylene-tetrafluoroethylene, the basic
Morgan Architects have taken ETFE 6.2 technology on an interesting ingredients being ethylene (C2H4), a colourless
adventure with the help of services consultant Fulcrum and commercial firm inflammable gas, and fluorine, a non-metallic
Vector Special Projects (VSP). The dimensions are approximately 85.5m by chemical element in the same group as the
37.5m, covering some 3200m2. VSP developed a technique so that triple layer halogens, which occurs normally as an inflammable
cushions can respond to changing levels of sunlight. In other words it is a and toxic gas.
‘variable transmission’ version of standard ETFE (Littlefield, 2002), which relies
on some active assistance. Littlefield describes it thus:

The system works by fixing an internal layer into the cushion, which can
be moved up and down pneumatically; by printing graphics on both the
outer and internal layers, the amount of daylight admitted can be
adjusted by controlling the distance between the overlapping patterns…
The new lightweight structure will be capable of blocking out 50–95 per
cent of sunlight.

Littlefield also mentions work by VSP’s main competitor, the aptly named
Skyspan, to chemically coat a film of aluminium on to one of the layers of the
cushion. This is moving away from variable transmission and also to a more
passive solution, although the help of a machine is of course still required to
keep the cushions pressurized.
However, such techniques need to be treated with some caution. During a
visit on a sunny afternoon, one day after the equinox in September, it was noted
that the canopy produced quite an overcast effect – rather as if rain were
imminent, belying the real weather. This is not surprising, given that at least half
the direct sunlight is obstructed, while virtually full shade is attainable. It
suggests that applications might be more suited to spaces such as lecture
theatres, where this range would be useful, and presumably the technique could
be adapted to a different range – say 35–80 per cent sunlight transmission. At
the time of the visit to Kingsdale School, the level of shading induced by the
new canopy was automatically controlled, while artificial lights were manually
operated. Whatever percentage of daylight was transmitted, large overhead
lights within the space were switched on, as was the lighting in bounding
spaces. On the other hand, the space had certainly not overheated due to solar
gain. The environment within the atrium seemed comfortable, as well as fresh.
It was explained that the lighting inside the atrium was to facilitate cleaning, and
that it was also desired to have the school brightly lit for an impending visit by
parents just after school hours. This raises issues of operation and competing
priorities for utility, comfort and energy efficiency. A thermal advantage may
simultaneously incur an electrical handicap, a theme to be developed further in 6.5 ETFE canopy at Kingsdale School – note
the final part of this chapter in relation to other case studies. artificial lights inside while outside is sunlit

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shading with heat as a useful by-product

Remaining with innovative variable shading control for transparent roofs, but
bringing the scale right back to that of a domestic conservatory, two earlier
experimental projects at Napier University in Edinburgh are notable for
attempting simultaneously to shade and to divert the incident solar energy to
heating water. The principle is to solve a problem without having to dump
potentially useful free energy.
The first is titled ‘fluid shades’. A fluid, with dark coloured particles in
suspension is pumped through a translucent double-skin panel, which is located
under the roof of the sunspace. The particles absorb solar radiation and the
circulating fluid transfers the heat to a thermal store. Depending on the dimensions
of the roof, this could be used either for space heating or for domestic hot water.
The concentration of the suspended particles, and thus the absorptivity and
transmissivity of the panel, may be varied to provide variable shading.
The second system is called ‘fin shades’. Several rows of ‘pipe and fin’ or
‘clip fin’ absorber strips, based on solar water heating technology, are located
under the glass roof. The fins may be rotated to provide shading and collect
solar heat, without severely diminishing the amount of daylight entering the
space. Also the low-emissivity surface of the fins inhibits downward transfer of
heat during the day and upward radiant loss at night. Water is circulated by a
pump through the fins and again transfers heat to a thermal store.

shading with heat as a useless by-product

The ability of any shading fins or louvres to function as a solar absorber may
lead to unintended problems. Staying in Scotland, the new Wolfson Medical
School Building for the University of Glasgow (55.9°N) provides a controversial
example of a fully transparent, double-skin façade. This project, designed by
Reiach and Hall Architects and completed in 2002, takes the topic of ‘diffusing,
shading and opening’ into a third area of concern. Here the solution applied to
the design and detailed specification, coupled with that applied to control,
defies any environmentally conscious rationale – all the more surprising
because, in terms of ‘machine control’, there is only one movable component.
This is a venetian blind, which is constructed of cedar slats and located between
the fixed outer skin of unframed glass and the fixed inner screen of framed
glass. Its function is indeed to shade and diffuse daylight entering the area lying
immediately behind, known as the ‘study landscape’. More explicitly this is the
zone for ‘information technology’ or IT plus a library, with banks of computers
aligned at right angles to the windows and bookshelves located further back.
Because the façade is curved from southeast to due south, it is important to
prevent direct sunlight from shining on to monitors (although the position of
books and computers could have been reversed).
As one might expect for a building of this nature, the cedar blind is
controlled electronically by a building management system (BMS). When fully

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down, which is where it has inexplicably been for almost all of its life to date, the
slats appear to have three positions – almost fully closed, open at about 30° to
the horizontal and fully open (horizontal). The artificial lighting is similar to that
described for Rijkswaterstaat at Ijmuiden. When the slats are closed, it is quite
dark and gloomy in the ‘study landscape’ and lights appear to be fully on. When
they are set at 30°, the space is somewhat lighter, but the lights are still on,
although potentially dimmed. When they are horizontal, there is enough light to
see monitors, but the adequacy of daylight for reading could be contentious,
depending on weather, time of day and proximity to the window. At any rate,
even though parts of the screen of cedar slats may be at different settings
according to their position on the curve, the lights are never off; and no matter
how dull and uniformly overcast the sky is, the blinds remain down.
It is legitimate to ask ‘why have a fully glazed wall if it cannot displace
electricity for lighting, let alone provide a decent view?’ Moreover, since
students may enter the ‘study landscape’ having first experienced a gloriously
day-lit triangular atrium (Figure 6.6a), the subdued combination of artificial and
natural light comes as a depressing anticlimax (Figure 6.6b), especially when
associated with permanently closed windows and air conditioning. This then
touches on the need for, and function of, the outer skin of glass. The missed
opportunity is for the inner screen to open without disturbance from traffic
noise. Providing that there were adjustable and adequately sized vents at the 6.6a The structural glass roof over the atrium of
the Wolfson Building
top, inlets at the bottom and free passage for air at each floor level, the void 6.6b The inside of the ‘study landscape’ with
between the two skins could function as a ‘solar chimney’. cedar-slatted blinds occluding daylight

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6.3 Examples of earth cooling Not only could this have exhausted air from inside by natural thermo-
circulation, but it would have also helped to prevent the façade from overheating
Examples of such passive earth cooling coupled to a
mechanical system of distribution vary significantly in hot weather. In this last regard, one may note that dynamic modelling has
in latitude and climate (from continental to maritime). shown that a double-skin façade will inherently tend to overheat more than a
One is the exhibition building by Fielden, Clegg, single-skin one (Kondratenko, 2003). Nevertheless, the advantage of having an
Bradley Architects at the Doncaster Earth Centre in outer fixed skin lies with the opportunity for reducing both ventilating and
northern England (53.5°N). Another is the nocturnal heating costs. For example, in summer, if fresh air had been led into the atrium
air supply to the atrium of the PV factory in Freiburg through an underground labyrinth of ducts 6.3 and provided with a route into
by architects Rolf & Hotz (48°N). The technique has the ‘study landscape’, the system for ventilation would have needed minimal
also been used at a domestic level – the Solar House active assistance. Furthermore, in winter, the air exhausted from the top of the
in Freiburg and the ‘Ecobuild’ experimental houses
solar chimney could have been passed through a heat exchanger to reduce the
at the Dutch government’s ECN Research Centre in
energy required to heat incoming fresh air. In her theoretical study for a similar
Petten on the northwest coast of Holland (52.8°N)
double-skin façade, Kondratenko has shown that the combination of recovered
are examples.
heat together with the solar-preheating effect will substantially reduce demand
for space heating in winter.
Unfortunately none of this has happened. Not only is the inner skin fixed
apart from service access at each end, but also there is no means of controlling
the upward passage of air between the two skins. There are fixed slots at top
and bottom, as well as at each floor level, where toughened glass sheets enable
maintenance. This means that the flow of air within the void will be seriously
interrupted on its journey to the top, while the cedar slats function as a solar
absorber. Indeed, the sunnier the weather, the more the tilt of the slats will
increase the area for absorptance in radiant view of the sun. Also, their hue has
of course darkened noticeably over the two years since the building was first
occupied. The façade is effectively a solar air collector, but cannot be usefully
used in cold weather, nor can the hot air rapidly escape in warm weather.
Instead it increases the burden for the air conditioning. Thus the only practical
function, which can be attributed to the outer glazing, is that it protects the
cedar slats from the harshest aspects of the local climate – wind and rain. Had
there been an alternative specification of an efficient solar venetian blind, or any
of several completely passive diffusing and reflecting options of the kind
described in the previous chapter, worthwhile displacement of artificial lighting
could have been achieved.

selective versus exclusive modes

The commentary on the above case study may seem harsh. But it does serve to
emphasize the risks associated with cliché and inappropriate use of material in
a particular context. In doing so, it flags a need for a more environmentally
sympathetic and holistic approach to mixed or selective mode heating,
ventilating and lighting systems (passive/active ‘selective’ compared to
‘exclusive’ control as used by Hawkes – Chapter 4). If architects are better
briefed on the essential principles and concepts, they will be in a more
persuasive position. Full air conditioning in the exclusive mode may be easy to

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design and control, but it is an energy guzzler and seldom enjoyed by occupants.
Specialist consultants must take this on board and challenge their own
traditionally tight certainties. The Wolfson Building also highlights the fact that a
sophisticated BMS is only as good as the parameters that humans give it. The
computing truism ‘rubbish in, rubbish out’ holds good. The prohibition of blinds
being open in overcast conditions could only be justified if the movements are
too frequent, as with the science building in Gelsenkirchen. Then the result may
be irritating, and even counterproductive in terms of motorized energy required.
But such an argument should be weighed against the potential benefits of the
initial decision to fully glaze. The cedar ‘veil’ is too extreme to be functional.
Looking through glass darkly is not uplifting.
More positively, the critique has shown that relatively small adjustments to
the design and specification could have made a substantial improvement to
performance. A double-skin façade, which inadvertently and negatively
functions as a solar air collector, provides a cue for turning this technique to
advantage. More generally it indicates a potential role for solar energy in mixed-
mode systems of ventilation. Indeed, the more we insulate and the more
energy-efficient we make glazing, the more pressing becomes the need to
tackle ventilation. We are back at the ‘quality versus quantity tensions’ of
Chapter 3, but now from the perspective of the detailed design and performance
of systems.

Harvesting hot air – integrated collectors

Moving air seems to have more appeal to architects than other fluids such as
water or an antifreeze solution. It is more within the domain of constructional
integration, with not so much necessarily devolved to the expertise of
specialist consultants. Using solar energy to heat air, as well as to move it, is
possible through a fairly large range of temperatures. In terms of the initial
collection, the cool or low end of this spectrum involves spaces that may
nevertheless be occupied. These are normally unheated, or heated to a lower
level than the main accommodation, and include the whole panoply of small
and large sunspaces. A lift of 5–10K above ambient can make a significant
difference to the demand for energy in adjacent heated spaces. Because of
the relatively low level of temperature, the saving in energy is principally
confined to preheating air for ventilation coupled with an enhanced buffering
effect. More complex issues of ‘machine control’ applied to larger sunspaces
are left to the final part of this chapter, while Chapter 4 covered this quite fully
for the domestic sector, posing the question ‘do conservatories conserve?’.
The emphasis at that stage of the discourse was on the scope that users had
to affect the efficiency of the system. Here, it is the aims of the architectural
team that are to come under closer scrutiny.
At the high end of solar-induced hikes in temperature, a transparent air
collector has no other use, apart from possibly forming part of the outer skin of

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6.4 George Löf’s breathing solar air a building. Designers may more easily predict its performance. It is solely
collector in Colorado intended to raise the temperature of air as high as possible using the free energy
of the sun. Hence, it has a transparent cover and dark absorber of some kind in
In the mid-1940s, after a gap of just over 60 years
since the 19th century wall-mounted solar air the same way as a flat-plate collector, which uses a liquid as the medium for
collectors of Professor Edward Morse in Salem, transferring energy. The objective may still be to lower energy loss by ventilation,
Massachusetts, Professor George Löf fitted a but other options are also available. Heat may be transferred to the fabric of the
transpired (breathing) solar air collector of some building, or to the hot water system, or become an integral part of a warm-air
43m2 on to the southern slope of his own house in heating system.
Boulder, Colorado. The cover was a double layer of
glass, while the absorber was overlapping sheets of early development and general principles of solar air collectors
glass, each successive layer covering two-thirds of Solar air collectors, as opposed to sunspaces, have a respectable history of
the one below. The bottom sheet was fully painted over 120 years. Having said that, and acknowledging the work of mid-20th
black, and thereafter the top third, so that the sun’s
Century pioneers such as George Löf 6.4 in America (Butti and Perlin, 1980),
view was of a fully black absorber. Air from the room
their more common usage did not gain momentum until the 1980s. Importantly,
below was ducted into the bottom of the collector
the technique in its various guises is viable for cool, cloudy climates. The low
above the overlapping plates, and out at the top
thermal mass of the collector itself assists in this regard. Transparent solar air
below the plates. Thus ‘upward flowing air passes
between plates, picking up heat stored in them and collectors of different types have now been extensively tested in various parts
becoming very hot’. On a sunny day Löf estimated of northern Europe, including Scotland. Indeed, there has not been a single
that air entering at about 21°C would leave at North Sun conference, since its inauguration in 1984, which has not included
about 82°C, a lift of over 60K. The heated air was reportage of dedicated solar air collectors. In the 1990s a parallel effort took
then connected to his gas-fired warm air heating hold with opaque solar air collectors, the lift in temperature fulfilling a preheating
system, and was estimated to save 25 per cent in objective similar to sunspaces. This section confines itself to the scope for
the first winter of operation. To further improve its using glazed and unglazed solar air collectors to conserve energy, as well as to
performance he added an insulated thermal store improve the quality of air and reduce the risk of condensation and mould.
of 6 tons of crushed rock. This was estimated to
Having established that the term ‘solar air collector’ does not include
increase the solar contribution to about 33 per cent.
spaces designed for human occupation, it is nevertheless still reasonable to
The main problem with the system seemed to be
regard a sunspace at 27–30°C as being in the mode of a collector. The warmer
that some of the absorber plates cracked due to heat
upper part certainly provides a favourable site for an array of air collectors, for
stress. It may be noted that its continental location at
40°N made this ideal territory for solar heating, with example, as in the project at Paxton Court in Sheffield by Cedric Green (Chapter
cold and sunny winters. 4). The temperature of air entering the bottom of the collectors has a head start,
and can therefore be readily boosted to charge a short-term thermal store.
Although most people can tolerate up to 30°C indoors for short periods,
temperatures within a glazed solar air collector can rise as high as 80 or 100°C.
Not only is this untenable for human occupancy, but it is also necessary to
check the melting point of some insulating materials, as well as to detail for
thermal expansion.
Low thermal capacitance is important within air collectors. This is quite
different from a sunspace, where the most important attribute for users is as an
amenity, and capacitance is needed to avoid overheating as well as extending the
period of comfort. In a collector the aim is for solar radiation to be absorbed but
not stored. The layer of air close to the absorber becomes quickly warmed, and
the more tangling air has with the absorber the better. To avoid much of this heat
being lost outwards, the air is transported rapidly away. It may either be taken

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directly into a usable part of a building or into a medium for thermal storage, and 6.5 Simple solar air collectors in Stornoway
sometimes both. The effectiveness of the collector will depend initially on the
The collector is part ‘black attic’, with 42° tilted
nature of the outer cover, the absorber and the control mechanism for moving the glazing, and part vertical. Each has a single-glazed
air, and thereafter on the design of any heat exchangers and stores. transparent cover, an air space and the black mineral
wool absorber. The total area of each collector is
development of glazed solar air collectors in Scotland
14.4m2 and the rock store is 6.4m3, giving a volume
Given that there are so many examples of solar air collectors, especially in to area ratio of 0.45. Taking monthly mean averages
northern parts of Europe, there is some value in focusing on research, of solar radiation, the rock store was estimated to
development and demonstration in one climatic region. Two air collectors in take 4–14 hours to charge up. Typical mean monthly
Scotland were introduced earlier (Chapter 4), because they had been lifts in temperature within it would be just over 4K in
compromised to an extent by the actions of users. These are now considered in December and January, going up to 10K in March
and 12K in May (Saluja, Porteous and Holling, 1987).
terms of their unhampered performance in a wider Scottish context.
Air collectors serving the 22 flats at Stile Park in Stornoway (58.2°N) were
not monitored. However, there were predictive calculations, which of course
assumed that the occupants would make use of the adjustable vents provided.
The specification for the entire system was kept as simple as possible. 6.5 The
single-glazed collectors are lined with slabs of mineral wool, which are spray-
painted black. Air is ducted from the top of the attic to the top of the short-term
thermal store, and returns to the eaves of the attic from the bottom of the store.
The store comprises clean stones. These are contained in an insulated concrete
box below the first half-landing of the access stairs, and are treated with a
benign chemical to prevent any fungal growth. Stub ducts deliver air from the
store to the living spaces.
It was calculated that the omission of the rock store would add 10 per cent
to the electrical heating load of a typical first floor, gable-end flat (Porteous,
1983). Although this corresponds to a drop of 22 per cent in the solar
contribution, the first value is the important one in terms of fuel consumption
and one has to ask what such a percentage means in units of energy. In this
case it is just over 250kWh annually or about 5kWh weekly per flat, which is
marginal relative to the cost of the provision. On the other hand, useful lessons
were learnt. Setting aside the issue of transference of noise and odour between
dwellings, which was serious, the physics of the set-up did work. In the absence
of continuous measurements, spot-readings indicated that the collector
performed as expected.
The next Scottish project to be completed was also relatively far north, but
close to the sunnier east coast. It is a set of five houses for Ross and Cromarty
District Council in the small market town of Dingwall at 57.6°N. They are sited
adjacent to near-identical ones, which are heated by natural gas. Architect David
Somerville initiated the idea of solar air collectors for both space and water
heating in 1989, and the houses were occupied, including by him, in the autumn
of 1990. An Irish company, ETI, marketed the system under the trade name
‘Trisol’. (This collector is now marketed by another company, NuAire, as part of a
smaller system to enhance the supply of pre-warmed air for ventilation, with an

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option for solar water heating, but without the large thermal store and heat pump.)
‘Trisol’ signified three components: the collector, which covers approximately half
of the south-facing surface of the roof; an energy processing unit with brine store;
and the heat pump. The latter two elements are both located in the attic. The
absorber in the collector is officially a trade secret, but appears to be a loose non-
metallic equivalent of steel wool (Figure 6.7), which fills the cavity between glazed
cover and backing insulation and offers an appropriate amount of resistance to
the upward flow of air.
6.7 Close-up of the solar absorber in the ‘Trisol’ In sunny weather, warm air can be supplied directly from collector into the
system used at Dingwall dwelling. Once it has reached a satisfactory level of comfort, spare heat can then
go into the store, where an indirect coil heats domestic hot water in a standard
cylinder with an electric immersion heater as back-up. On an overcast day, air
from the top of the collector is routed through the cold (evaporator) side of the
heat pump, cool air returning to the bottom of the collector. Air from the dwelling
is at the same time passed through the hot (condenser) side of the heat pump,
returning to the dwelling at 30°C or more. To deal with very cold and overcast
days in winter, a 6kW electric auxiliary electric heater was fitted. However, due to
the speed of delivery, this led to uncomfortable stratification of temperature.
Somerville describes how the situation was resolved (Somerville, 1992):

Following discussions with the electricity supply company a 6kW immersion

heater was installed in the hot water cylinder within the house.
In winter conditions this delivered heat by indirect circuit to the heat store
in the roof space thus reversing the summer time heat transfer.

The utility company also agreed to an economic ‘total control tariff’, which
acknowledges the storage characteristic of the system.
There were other teething problems associated with the electronic
controller. Initially it was very sensitive to surges or spikes in the supply,
apparently caused by a nearby dairy. The controller then gave incorrect
instructions to the occupants and also burnt out several heat pumps. However,
the manufacturer was able to suppress the effect of the spikes on the
microprocessor, and the problem was solved. Given the variables introduced by
occupants, it was not really possible to compare the performance of the ‘Trisol’
dwellings with their gas-heated neighbours (whose tariff per kWh of delivered
heat was lower than that of the ‘total control’). It had also been decided to
insulate the solar houses to a somewhat better standard than the traditional
ones, introducing yet another difference.
Monitoring of the air collectors on the roofs of the Easthall demonstration
project in Glasgow at 55.9°N in 1992 provided yet more useful information, as
well as further problems to be overcome (Porteous and Ho, 1994). Since the aim
here was primarily to preheat water for domestic use, the efficiency of the air-to-
6.8 A roof-integrated solar air collector at water heat exchanger is important. It was also decided to use a perforated
Easthall, aligned with the glazed-in balcony aluminium absorber, which was anodized black (Figure 6.8). Air is breathed

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through the metal (thus termed ‘transpired-plate’), providing a similar dynamic 6.6 Breathing solar air collectors in
effect on the flow of air to that of the ‘Trisol’ collector. The initially installed heat Easthall
exchangers were radiators for standard ‘Transit’ vans, since laboratory tests
6.6(1) The access stairwell is part of the thermal
had shown that these mass-produced components were very efficient. Before loop. Its pre-warmed air is ducted at eaves level to
this decision, there had been consideration of bubbling air directly through the enter the collector below the aluminium absorber. It
preheat tank, but the idea was discarded to avoid any risk of supporting the is then drawn through the perforations, leaves the
legionella pneumophila bacterium. Lifts in temperature vary significantly, collector via a manifold at the top, passes through
depending on the time interval examined and the juxtaposition of key climatic the air-to-water heat exchanger and is ducted
parameters. 6.6(1) back to the foot of the stairwell. Water from the
Even though the ‘Transit’ radiators worked as expected, and there was a heat exchanger is taken to a preheat tank, which
large drop in temperature either side of them, there was enough warmth left in feeds individual hot water cylinders in a set of six
flats. On a single day in October 1992, the lift in
the air to use it usefully to refresh and warm the stairwell. 6.6(2) Here, the
temperature between the cold feed and the top of
existing heavy construction of the bounding walls and stairs function as thermal
the preheat tank peaked at 12K and averaged 6.7K.
storage, which helps to maintain a fairly steady level of warmth. The overall
Taken over the whole week including that day, the
performance seemed quite satisfactory. Then it was noticed that the heat
average lift more than halved to 3.3K. The equivalent
exchangers were made of aluminium and would not make very good neighbours lifts, subtracting the temperature of the cold feed
to the copper plumbing! All were subsequently replaced with bespoke copper from that measured at the inlet from the collector
units, but these proved rather less efficient. Nevertheless, what was lost to the to the heat exchanger, were respectively 28.0K
water was gained to the stairwell. An advantage of this was, that on a bright and (with the temperature leaving the collector reaching
cold day, the thresholds to the flats are noticeably warm. It gives the occupants 40.5°C), 14.6K and 8.5K. Earlier that year, in May,
something tangible to associate with their solar panels, as opposed to their hot the temperature at the outlet from the collector had
water, which can only be taken on trust. Another problem was achieving a reached 73°C, but at that time an unsealed section
satisfactory seal to the collectors and ducting. The former were constructed on of ducting had resulted in a large drop before air
entered the heat exchanger – almost 30K. The
site and constituted part of the weatherproof envelope, but the process would
preheating of water was thus compromised until the
have been better had the components been prefabricated in the controlled
problem was rectified. The other lift in temperature
environment of a factory.
of note is that between the inlet and outlet of the
The transpired-plate collectors at Easthall may be compared to those
collector. In May this averaged 26.5K over one day,
designed for the earlier retrofit of the flats in Göteborg (see also Chapters 2 and with a high of 42.5K, and an average for a whole
5). There are two key differences. Firstly, the air does not pass through the week of 20K. In the week in October the lower
Göteborg absorber. Secondly, its absorber is corrugated rather than flat. This equivalent values were 10.5K, 23K and 5.5K. Thus
provides a greater area of surface with air passing through the trapezoidal voids the collector was shown to work well, as was the
between the metal and the insulation below it. The respective characteristics preheating system.
would tend to cancel each other in terms of performance. In other words, a
6.6(2) On the day in October which yielded nearly
better specification in each case would have been for a perforated and 7K to the preheat tank, the average temperature of
corrugated absorber. At any rate we know that the Swedish collector worked the air leaving the heat exchanger was just below
well enough to have a significant impact on the temperature of the original ‘no- 20°C, which helped to bring the temperature in the
fines’ concrete wall. At much the same time Methilhill Primary School in Fife (see stairwell up to over 16°C. This was more than 9K
also Chapter 4) included a ‘black attic’ collector, which was very similar to that above that outside.
employed for the flats in Stornoway. A visit in 1993 elicited that the air collector,
which is dedicated as a reservoir of preheated air for mechanically ventilating
the internally located main hall, works well. Temperatures are regularly in the
range 50–60°C and the collector contributes to overall energy efficiency, which
is 25 per cent less than the norm.

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6.7 Unglazed air collectors: details of tests development of unglazed solar air collectors in Scotland

6.7(1) The area of the test rig in Edinburgh was Prior to an involvement with the solar air collectors at Easthall, Napier University
2.3m2 set at a 45° tilt, and absorptance of slates had undertaken initial experimental work with respect to unglazed, transpiring
approximately 0.85. More than six months of systems (MacGregor, 1992). Results from a small test rig at Napier were very
measurements indicated a collector efficiency encouraging. 6.7(1) Slim synthetic slates were fixed to a perforated board. A
varying from about 30 to 60 per cent, according plenum formed behind the board with a variable speed fan located at the
to increasing ‘mass flow rate’ of air (kg/sm2). For a highest point drew ambient air up through the slates, through the perforations,
period of one month (27th April to 25th May 1989) and finally back out via a length of flexible ducting. This is exactly the same
this corresponded to a daily output from 0.75 to
principle described in 6.4 above for Löf’s experimental absorber, except with
3.00kWh/m2 for incident solar radiation within
a different material and without the glass cover.
a range of 1.25–6.50kWh/m2. Some scatter in
This initial experiment led to measuring a larger slated area on a real house,
measurements was assumed to be due to variable
flow of wind over the slates.
where plywood behind the rafters formed a multi-channel plenum, and gaps
between butt-jointed boarding directly below the slates 6.7(2) substituted for
6.7(2) The area measured was 4.7m2. The boarding,
the previous perforations. In this case the pre-warmed air was delivered into a
called ‘sarking’ in Scotland, was not in this case
north-facing bedroom via an old chimney. A differential thermostat switched a
covered in roofing felt. Later ‘solar slate’ roofs had to
60W centrifugal fan on and off, with one sensor located immediately under the
penetrate felt at exit points.
slates and the other in the bedroom. The efficiency was initially disappointingly
6.7(3) The initial efficiency was calculated to be low. However, after attempting to seal the plenum more thoroughly, as well as
approximately 10 per cent, but after adjustments the redesigning the manifold at the top of the plenum to give more uniform flow, it
figure increased to 21 per cent.
more than doubled. 6.7(3) This is still well below the performance of the
6.7(4) One household spent £130 on electricity preliminary test. Although the pitch of the roof was similar at 40° and the
over 27 days in January 1996, equivalent to some orientation close to due south, the slates were much thicker and more uneven
1,800kWh. in quality. Also, it seems likely that the cracks between the boards provided
6.7(5) Four sections of flexible plastic pipe, 60cm more resistance to flow than the previous drilled holes. Together with problems
long and 2.5cm in diameter, are inserted into the of achieving a satisfactory seal within the plenum, this combination of factors
space between the steel sheet and membrane. had considerable impact. One also has to bear in mind the absence of roofing
These are connected to a manifold, a plastic pipe of felt below the absorber, since the presence of such a material would have
15cm diameter. A depression is created by an 80W further inhibited flow of outside air into the plenum. Nevertheless, at this stage,
fan, which induces a flow of about 40l/s. The fan the technique was thought to hold promise, two key advantages being invisibility
either operates by time clock (say from 8.00am to and low cost.
6.00pm) or by thermostatic switching based on the
The next significant step regarding ‘solar slates’ was embedded within a
temperature of the steel roof sheet.
research project with the title ‘Breathing Sunshine into Scottish Housing’
6.7(6) The area of influence was found to be small (MacGregor, Taylor and Currie, 1996). Napier University was commissioned to
at 2.8m2. On a sunny spring day in March 1996, undertake this work by Scottish Homes, a public sector housing quango. It
with a solar intensity of 900W/m2, efficiency was involved comparative monitoring of ten dwellings in Edinburgh that had a track
estimated to be 47 per cent – within the range of the record of condensation and mould attributed to innate thermal inefficiency.
original test at Napier. Delivery temperature peaked
6.7(4) Four of the houses had a variant of the system described above and
at 35°C, equivalent to harvesting about 1200W
three were fitted with a proprietary ‘Drimaster’ system of ventilation by the
from the ambient air. The temperature in the hallway
company NuAire Ltd. Three others functioned as control houses. Dating from
increased by about 10K, from 12°C at 9.00am to
the late 1940s, the homes used a construction devised by the British Iron and
22°C at 2.30pm, and dropped to 17–18°C during
the evening. Steel Federation. In particular, the roof is unusual compared with traditional
Scottish methods. The outer skin has a low pitch of 25° and comprises steel

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sheeting, now lined internally with a plastic membrane. Insulation has been 6.7(7) At the time of a visit in the spring of 2000,
added to the underside of this in order to enhance its role as a solar air collector. the ambient temperature in the afternoon dropped
Bearing in mind the position of the steel and plastic on the ‘cold’ side of the to 7°C and sunshine was intermittent. The fan came
insulation, it is important that the loft space is well ventilated. Otherwise, the on during this time due to a sudden burst of sun.
The temperature at the outlet to the space measured
collector would also function as a condenser, especially at night.
24°C. The lift of 17K was impressive, suggesting that
The means of extracting warm air from under the steel, to be delivered into
concrete roofing tiles contributed stored solar heat.
the upstairs part of the hallway, is relatively simple. 6.7(5) The area of influence
of the collector on the steel roofing was determined through the use of thermal
imaging. In good weather, the performance proved to be very satisfactory.
6.7(6) However on overcast days, the performance was understandably less
impressive. It was comparable with that of the ‘Drimaster’ system, which simply
draws air into the house from the loft. The respective controls proved somewhat
controversial. The fans in the solar houses were restricted either by time or
thermostat, in particular to prevent them running overnight. Even then, it was
apparent that residents did not welcome cool draughts. NuAire, on the other
hand, believes that 24-hour operation is essential to combat condensation. In
fact, both the solar and the ‘Drimaster’ groups observed an improvement in
terms of condensation, whilst the control group experienced problems with
surface condensation on windows and the return of mould in bathrooms, as well
as mildewed clothing and musty smells.
NuAire now market the ‘solar slates’ concept as ‘Drimaster Ecosmart’. This
provides the option of air through a plenum below rafters, as in the first two
experiments by Napier University, air from the top of the attic, or cooler air
through the eaves on the least sunny side of dwellings. The system may also be
adapted to include sunspaces as an alternative to the plenum, as described for
the houses at Ballantrae (Chapter 4). An option with a glazed air collector is
another more costly variant. It has greater solar potential, but is not invisible.
Even though the 24-hour operation remains a debatable decision, it is a step
forward that such techniques are now commercially available.
As such systems begin to be replicated, more experimental work on
opaque, transpired solar air collectors has been demonstrated, this time in the
village of Duns in the Scottish Borders (MacGregor, 2001). Four PV cells were
carefully matched to a 10W direct current fan, the objective being that the fan
will only operate when there is enough solar energy to activate it. This draws air
from an indeterminate area of roof below the tiles via a single outlet. The air then
passes through a short length of flexible ducting and is delivered into a utility
space. This was a retrofit to existing dwellings owned by Berwickshire Housing
Association, and the space to which pre-warmed air is now delivered was
previously vulnerable to mould. Lifts in temperature of up to 20K are predicted,
6.7(7) with an annual energy saving of around 1,500kWh. Given the capital
cost of approximately £500 per dwelling and negligible running costs, it seems
to be a sound investment.

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6.8 Airing windows – details of PASSYS tests small window-integrated options

6.8(1) PASSYS test cells were distributed to several In parallel with this work on developing opaque air collectors for tilted roof
European countries in the 1980s to enable a single surfaces, there has been progress on vertical ‘window integrated solar air
standard for testing different solar components in collectors’ or WISACs. An experimental rig was initially attached to a west-
different climates. facing window at the Mackintosh School of Architecture (Porteous, Ho and
6.8(2) WISACs: In mild and sunny weather, lifts Kilmartin, 1994). Then a more elaborate full-size mock-up was installed facing
reduced to around 25K, while on cool days with due south on a PASSYS 6.8(1) test cell at the Building Research Establishment’s
sunny intervals, lifts were between 35 and 40K. On Scottish Laboratory in East Kilbride, just outside Glasgow (Figure 6.9) (Porteous
cold and dull days, the lifts were much more modest and Baker, 1997). Essentially the aim is to enhance controlled trickle ventilation
at about 4K, while on mild overcast days they could into rooms using glazed collectors. The flow of air in the tests was actively
be as little as 1.5K. Even on a very sunny day, the controlled and the transpiring absorber was a non-metallic fabric. In sunny
daily average is naturally significantly reduced – to weather, quite substantial instantaneous lifts of 50–60K were measured on
approximately 6.5K. Nevertheless, this represents collectors of 1.3m height, but again dropped significantly over longer periods
a daily gain of 1.6kWh/m2, and in the most
and in other conditions. 6.8(2) It was estimated that over a heating season, the
unfavourable condition, there was a small positive
daily input would average just below 1.0kWh/m2, or about 250kWh/m2 from
gain. During the night, the collector would recover
September through to May. It was also found that, similar to the unglazed
some heat being lost from the interior, provided a
collectors, increasing the rate of flow increased efficiency. These findings
positive flow from outside to inside was ensured.
complemented other work at East Kilbride testing ‘supply air windows’ (Baker
6.8(3) Supply Air Windows: This technique was and McEvoy, 1999). Fresh air is introduced through a slot at the bottom of a
apparently first tried in the 1940s and then researched
single outer sheet of glass, entering the test cell at the top of the inner double-
in Finland in the 1970s and 1980s. Bart Jan van den
glazing. 6.8(3)
Brink also used it, for example, in Holland in his house
in Almere (see Chapter 2), although he reversed the further work on absorbers and dynamic insulation
glazing order with the double layer to the outside.
The first series of tests at the Scottish Laboratory
During much the same period, other experimental work in Scotland compared
of the Building Research Establishment (BRE) were the respective performances of selective and non-selective absorbers with
carried out without the mechanical control of a fan. small glazed and unglazed vertical, transpired-plate collectors (MacGregor and
The phenomenon of ‘flow reversal’ was observed on Kennedy, 1994). It was found that the selective coating of ‘Maxorb’ foil had only
particularly sunny days. a marginal influence, whilst the addition of the transparent cover, in this case
twin-wall polycarbonate, roughly doubled the efficiency. A few years later,
further tests were carried out on other full-scale mock-ups attached to a
PASSYS cell at East Kilbride. These measured the performance of a ‘dynamically
insulated’ wall, but this could equally be termed ‘unglazed transpired solar air
collector’. Again, a series of measurements were made with the flow of air
controlled by a variable-speed fan (Baker, Porteous and Sharpe, 2001). 6.9(1)
Results were encouraging. The effective U-value came close to zero, while there
was also a useful preheating effect. This raised the temperature by 12 to 15K
depending on the rate of airflow, although it was recognized that part of this was
due to the exchange of heat behind the plasterboard, as well as within the
insulation. An extension of this work explored the potential for wind assisted
‘passive stack ventilation’, augmented by a small PV array (Baker, Porteous and
Sharpe, 2002). 6.9(2) However, due to several factors the performance of the
wall did not match the results of the earlier test. A final successful phase was
then undertaken (Baker, Porteous and Kondratenko, 2003). 6.9(3)

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large-scale, multi-faceted proposal

A bold Scottish proposal, which involves retrofitting with both glazed and
unglazed transpired air collectors has unfortunately not yet been realized. This
is the Solar Towers in Glasgow or STinG project (see Chapter 2). Here a large
multi-storey opaque transpired collector, with a glazed accelerator at the top,
was intended to move air up seven storeys, across a roof and down seven
storeys (Sharpe, Porteous and MacGregor, 1998). The project would also have
served as an excellent demonstration for smaller window integrated solar air
collectors. It is frustrating that such ambitious projects can fall by the wayside,
perhaps due to technical caution, perhaps due to financial constraint, and
perhaps simply due to lack of effort and will by the owner of the building or
buildings in question. Viewed objectively, it is evident that solar-warmed air can
play a multi-faceted role in cool climates. Even though the units of energy
contributed may, in terms of cost and benefit, sometimes appear to be too close
to call, there can be other important spin-offs, albeit harder to quantify.

Fuelling competition – interactive control and management

‘Fuelling competition’ may be read in at least two ways. One distinct meaning
alludes to the competition between solar displacement of fuels for space
heating, commonly gas or oil, and that for lighting and appliances, which, other
than for cooking, is mainly electricity. Although natural gas and oil may be used
to generate electricity, they can be used much more efficiently to heat buildings
directly. Thus, when expressed in units of ‘primary energy’ (which include the
energy used in production and distribution), they significantly outperform
inefficiently generated electricity. The caveats to this are that some areas may
not be served by mains gas, and for both liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 6.10 6.9 Mock-up of window integrated solar air
and oil, energy for transport will reduce overall efficiency. Methods adopted to collectors on PASSYS test cell, with detail of
save energy may be flawed, and actually add to consumption. Some devices, fabric absorber and air inlet slot
such as heat exchangers, save oil or gas, but add in electricity (Chapter 3).
Absence of a passive provision can result in heavy use of electricity. For
example, lack of suitable provision for passively drying clothes inside and
outside dwellings places reliance on tumble dryers, which are usually subject to
the most expensive tariffs. However, such conveniences may be deemed
essential for users. Although incidental gains from lights and equipment may
displace solar gains, the design of buildings can help by reducing the need for
artificial lighting and locating appliances in spaces that face north. There may
be dilemmas with regard to continuous versus intermittent operational cycles.
Instruments to regulate one component such as the façade, with the aim of
saving thermal energy, may or may not work as intended, and will always have
a consequent influence on related servicing systems, usually involving electrical
loads. There is a complex interdependency of all moving components in a
building, which relates broadly to the functionality and appropriateness of

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

6.9 Airing walls: details of PASSYS tests electronic instructions. Even if every aspect of ‘machine control’ is optimized,
there remains an issue of how well it is geared to the passive criteria and how
6.9(1) Air was initially drawn in through joints and
voids at the foot of corrugated steel cladding. It well it is managed over time. The issue of spaces, designed to be passively
then had to pass through 17.5cm-thick cellulose heated, being compromised by active heating is serious for all sunspaces. But
insulation, contained by fairly fine-mesh netting, there is a scaling factor in that larger spaces such as atria affect competing fuels
and into a slim void behind the internal lining of more consequentially than smaller ones such as domestic conservatories
plasterboard. It was finally collected into a manifold (Chapter 4).
at the top of the wall and delivered via a flow meter. Leading on from this, a second, and less hard-edged, implied meaning of
6.9(2) A nine-cell polycrystalline-Si module powered ‘fuelling competition’ is that between passive and active solutions, with a
a small DC fan. It was found that both the diameter tendency for architects to champion the former while their service consultants
of the stack (5cm) and the fan (from a hair drier) lean to the latter. It might be conjectured, for example, that the nature of
were somewhat undersized. Also, the PV and fan mechanical components and performance data may not be very appealing for
impeded the flow of air, as did the flow meter at the architects. They also might be prejudiced against the appearance of glazed
entry point. collectors, and they might lose interest in the technical refinements of unglazed
6.9(3) This test increased the diameter of the 3m- ones, even though they do not present an aesthetic threat or challenge. It is the
high exhaust pipe to 10cm and fitted a back-draught same ‘out of sight, out of mind’ issue as with any servicing system. Pursuing
device to the distribution manifold. Results indicated this further, an adjunct to the active side of passive–active tension could be the
viability, providing 0.6 air changes per hour and an competition between different technical options available for using a single fuel.
estimated saving of 32 per cent over a period of 24 In an area where electricity seems to be the simplest choice for all purposes, an
days, mainly in February. A perforated inner lining (as electric boiler could compete with a heat pump on the basis of reliability or life-
for an acoustic ceiling) was also tested in lieu of the cycle cost. Again, such decisions would seem to move more into the domain of
plasterboard and found to give satisfactory results. the specialist consultant. It is of course essential to recognize and devolve
A 25W fan and 12-cell monocrystalline array was
influence to the refined knowledge and skill of individuals within teams. Nobody
modelled as a remote system (so as not to impede
would argue with that assertion. But teamwork can be greatly synergized when
air flow at the top of the stack). It was found to be
understanding and respect for different areas of expertise is unreservedly
adequate to compensate for warm and calm periods,
when wind pressure and thermal buoyancy might
mutual. The techno-experts must opt into aesthetic ambitions, and architects
struggle to give an adequate rate of ventilation. must opt into engineering realities. Unfortunately such reciprocity is still
relatively rare, even in multi-disciplinary architectural offices.

6.10 LPG family lessons from a solar primary school

Liquefied petroleum gas is the liquid form of butane, An alternative or a supplementary method of tackling this issue is to link up with
propane or pentane, produced by the distillation of academic institutions, especially schools of architecture with a track record of
petroleum during oil refining. The product used for energy modelling. A case study from the mid-1980s is that of Netley Abbey
heating and cooking is generally known as ‘propane’ Infants’ School in Hampshire. The partnership between Hampshire County
in North America, as opposed to LPG in the UK. Architect’s Department and the Martin Centre in Cambridge 6.11 was essential
to the process of design. Close to the south coast of England at 50.9°N, the
6.11 Netley Abbey design team project continues the theme of air as a dominant part of the environmental
strategy and has lessons for ‘fuelling competition’ as defined above.
The project architect, under Sir Colin Stansfield-
The timetabled structure of schooldays and standard size of classes means
Smith as Hampshire County Architect, was Dennis
Goodwin. Nick Baker of the Martin Centre was that there are known quantities of incidental thermal gains. Problems of
consultant for the passive solar design and Fuller and environmental control relative to two Scottish schools have already been brought
Partners provided building services engineering. up. Both of these operate in selective mode with a mix of automatic and manual
controls. This was again the strategy adopted at Netley. Here the majority of the

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classrooms face northwest, with a relatively narrow series of bays aligned at right
angles to a one-sided circulation arcade facing southeast. In other words, these
classrooms do not have to cope with significant solar heat on top of that from the
pupils. This means that, theoretically, both sources of free energy can be usefully
exploited in cold weather. The two exceptions, a music room and one classroom
that both face southeast, are passively protected from direct sunlight by means of
overhanging roofs and projecting flank walls.
The circulation space is deliberately designed as a linear sunspace (Figure
6.10), with both tilted and vertical glazing. Not only does this make it a cheerful
breakout adjunct to the classrooms, but also it forms the source of fresh air
supplied to them in winter. Air from outside initially enters the sunspace through
adjustable glass louvres and rises to small air-handling units combined with gas
boilers. These are discretely located on a high-level mezzanine, which covers
the thresholds to teaching bays, as well as activity bases within the bays and
toilets. The boilers boost the temperature as required, and the air is delivered
through relatively short lengths of duct at the same level and centred on each
bay. An outer sleeve to the ducts allows them to double as conduits for
extracting used air and also to host low energy fluorescent light fittings.
In cold weather, the two main thermal donors to the entry corridor are the
sun and the heated spaces. The air-handling units will also pick up some heat 6.10 View within linear sunspace at Netley Abbey
from lights, although the aim is that it should be as naturally lit as possible. Infants’ School

Having delivered the air, most should then circulate back to the starting point,
either through a tilted set of louvres above the class-bases or through a ceiling
vent to the service mezzanine. Thus the freshness of the supply is very
dependent on the amount of new air entering via the external louvres. A
controller is intended to allow the teachers to adjust the proportion of fresh air
(Department for Education, 1994):

An objective of the design was to give the users control over their
environment. Classroom temperature is controlled by a knob marked
‘warmer/cooler’ and mechanical ventilation is achieved by a button
marked ‘fresh air’, which switches from a full recirculation mode to a mix
of preheated fresh air and recirculated air, which reverts to recirculation
after a time delay of about 30 minutes.

In reality, the knob relies on ‘warmer’ and ‘cooler’ symbols, while the button is
not marked ‘fresh air’, simply relying on its green colour for identification. In
rather warmer weather, say in spring and autumn, the aim was to increase the
proportion of new air, with used air leaving by natural thermo-circulation via
automatic ridge-vents. In summer, with the air-handling units switched off, the
idea was that cool fresh air would enter via the northwest façade, and leave via
the same vents along with air in the corridor.
However, air has a tendency not to perform as anticipated, especially when
several control variables are available. To eliminate one of these, heated air returning

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

6.12 Details of monitoring at Netley in an uncontrolled fashion from classroom to the entry buffer, closers were fitted to
intervening doors. However, it is thought that the teachers did not operate their
6.12(1) Overall, the values Yannas gives for 1986–
1987 (Yannas, 1994) do not quite correspond with ‘fresh air’ button frequently enough. It was reported that the quality of the air in
those given by Hawkes (1988), who adds an extra winter was poor, with rates of ventilation only achieving one quarter of the required
for the kitchen. Yannas reports that in 1986–1987 standard of 30m3 per person hourly. A response to perceived stuffiness was to
(noted as the first of three years of monitoring), gas open external windows or doors, rather than operate the mechanical system; and,
for space heating accounted for 70kWh/m2 (delivered perversely, some teachers used the mechanical system in summer, thereby
energy); total energy consumption, including hot supplying excessively warm air into classrooms (Yannas, 1994).
water, lighting and appliances was 97kWh/m2, a There are slight variations in reports of the school’s performance 6.12(1),
primary energy equivalent of 150kWh/m2. Hawkes but there is no doubt that electricity for lighting and appliances was a significant
gives 1986–1997 as the second year of monitoring
part of the load. One reason for overuse of artificial lighting related to a design
after a year of teething problems in 1985–1986. The
decision. Although secondary daylight reaches the southeast end of the
problems were ‘traced to malfunctions in the control
classrooms from the glazed corridor and the service mezzanine, the fenestration
systems which were rectified in the summer of
on the northwest side includes an opaque panel, which accommodates the
1986.’ The values Hawkes gives for 1986–1987 are
91kWh/m2 for delivered energy and 143kWh/m2 for blackboard. Glare from the surrounding windows makes this difficult to see
primary energy. When the energy consumed in the without the constant aid of electric lights, and additional roof windows were
kitchen is added, this rises to 108kWh/m2. Yannas subsequently fitted to augment daylight from above.
reported that electricity for lighting and appliances In general, although the monitored temperature within the buffer corridor
‘accounted for some 50 per cent of the total primary was much as expected 6.12(2) (Yannas, 1994) and shading was introduced to
energy consumption, CO2 emission and fuel cost.’ limit overheating in summer, teachers complained that it was too cold in winter.
6.12(2) The buffer averaged 8K higher than ambient To address this complaint, supplementary heating units were eventually added
at times when heating was required and was above in both classrooms and the glazed arcade. In spite of its laudable aspirations, it
10°C for 94 per cent of the occupied hours and would seem that the mixed, passive–active, selective mode of operation is quite
above 15°C for 50 per cent of the time. daunting. Nevertheless, during an ISES tour on a sunny afternoon in the summer
of 1988, the perceived atmosphere in teaching areas was pleasantly fresh, and
that in the sunspaces perfectly tolerable. Both teachers and students seemed
to be content with their lot, or, at least, did not wish to complain to the visitors.
As a post-script, entering the school, one passes by an internal atrium. This
space, now converted into a heated library, was intended as a passive thermal
regulator to the main hall, and also provided a more substantial indoor–outdoor
activity space than that of the solar corridor. Although teachers had apparently
been irked that the latter is too narrow for extended use, one has also to bear in
mind that users often want ‘icing on their cake’. On the other hand, it is also
evident from a recent study that, despite the changes made in response to
complaints by the teachers, control of the internal environment remains
problematic (Keren, 2005). Compared with opening a window or door, there is
no explicit and immediate connection between pushing a button or turning a
knob and achieving a desired environmental change.

tutorials at a university campus

Moving from primary to higher education, the Jubilee Campus at the University
of Nottingham in the East Midlands of England (just below 53°N) is a notable
example of large atria associated with workspaces and an innovative means of

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mechanical ventilation (Figure 6.11). Designed by architect Michael Hopkins

and Partners with Ove Arup and Partners as structural and service engineers,
there was again a specialist academic consultative role, this time with the in-
house School of the Built Environment at the university. Although it was more
specifically in connection with a large array of glass-integrated PV cells on the
roofs of atria, a principal end-use for the electricity generated is to run the
ventilating fans. Therefore the academic interest extended to ventilation, which
is claimed to be ‘super efficient’ (Hicks and Riffat, 2001; Berry and Thornton,
2002). The basic idea is to minimize the drop in pressure across the system by
pushing large volumes of air at low velocity. 6.13(1) Thermal wheels located at
the top of stair towers recover heat from outgoing used air 6.13(2) and supply
floor voids in working spaces via large vertical ducts flanking the threshold to
the stairwell. A small boiler tops up the temperature in winter as required, while
indirect evaporative cooling is used in hot weather. 6.13(3) Used air is thus
displaced from below, entering through low-pressure floor diffusers. It then
leaves offices via a manifold located at the top of partitions, feeding into central
corridors that are in turn connected back to the stairwell. One problem with this
system is, of course, that the fans are still required during the winter, when solar
collection is low. In summer, on the other hand, doors are quite often left open, 6.11 Inside atrium at Jubilee Campus looking east
which would tend to interfere with the intended flow. Rooms also overlook the towards service stack
atria and windows may also open on to them. Air then joins the main exhaust at
high level, moved by a combination of thermal buoyancy and cross-ventilation,
and slightly assisted by large conical rotating cowls with attached wind vanes.
There are retractable awnings to shade windows in rooms facing outwards
along the westerly edge of blocks, as well as a deliberate effort to minimize loss
of daylight. For example, the PV arrays are kept well back from the fenestration
to workspaces, windows amounting to more than half the area of the façades.
Artificial lighting is designed to be very efficient with automatic dimming geared
to natural light levels and occupancy sensors. The U-values are significantly
lower than was required by building regulations at that time. 6.13(4)
However, the achieved energy load in the monitored year was 88 per cent
higher than predicted (Hicks and Riffat, 2001). 6.13(5) The consumption for
lighting and appliances accounted for nearly a quarter of this at about 20kWh/
m2. If it is assumed that the prediction for lighting was fairly accurate, a
conclusion might reasonably be that computers are largely responsible for this
addition. Alternatively, the excessive use of internal blinds could result in a
much higher lighting load. It is also understood that the automatic sensors were
not popular and that desktop fans are used to increase air movement. Whatever
the reasons for the electrical increase, there is still over 50kWh/m2 to be
explained. This leads to an examination of why heating loads should have been
significantly higher than anticipated.
A minor factor may have been the timing of the monitoring before the
buildings had completely dried out. The campus was occupied in late 1999.

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

6.13 Details of monitoring at Jubilee Monitoring for a year commenced six months later with the results reported in
Campus the spring of 2001. Concrete floor slabs are deliberately exposed to assist in
damping swings in temperature. Driving out their initially embedded moisture
6.13(1) The pressure drop is estimated to be 280–
340 pascals (or Newtons per square metre), less will inevitably add to winter heating loads. Then, if higher rates of ventilation
than a quarter of what is deemed to be normal. during winter caused temperatures in the atrium to be lower than expected, the
heating demand in adjacent rooms would increase. What is thought to be a
6.13(2) Each wheel is 2.4m diameter, 40cm deep,
more authoritative explanation is that the management of a particular servicing
weighs 0.58 tonnes, and has a surface area of
arrangement reduced the effectiveness of heat recovery. The doors at the foot
2300m2. The pressure loss across the wheel is
of the service tower were frequently left open to allow goods in and out. 6.13(6)
estimated to be 60 pascals and low velocities
through it provide an exchange efficiency of 84 per This meant that the outgoing air through the thermal wheel would have been
cent (Berry and Thornton, 2002). cooler than predicted. In addition, the rooms may have been heated to higher
levels than modelled pre-contract. Assuming that some combination of these
6.13(3) As the air passes back through the plant
four possible explanations was responsible, it needs to be borne in mind that
tower (above the stairs at the end of each atrium) on
the extra heating implies fewer units of primary energy than extra lighting and
the way out, it passes through an evaporative cooler
and then through a heat exchange wheel. Heat is
appliances. However, the electrical load will be offset in this case, since part of
thus removed from the incoming air via the wheel. it is met by renewable energy.
Having said that, another disappointment was the performance of the PV
6.13(4) U-values (W/m2K) are 0.29 for external walls,
arrays. 6.13(7) The low pitch and less than ideal westerly orientation are likely
0.22 for flat roofs; 0.39 for the ground floor and 2.4
to have been factors here, given the large amount of reflection that will occur
for windows, respectively compared with elemental
once the angle of incidence goes beyond 50 degrees. Moreover, the cells
maximums of 0.45, 0.45, 0.45 and 3.3.
steadily reduce in efficiency with increasing temperature, and their surface was
6.13(5) The predicted target for energy loads was reported as being frequently rather hot. Finally, the air handling towers, with
83.6kWh/m2, but the achieved level in the monitored
their prominent conical cowls and the cleaning gantry, which is necessary at
year 157kWh/m2. Of that, the figure of 33kWh/m2 for
such a low pitch (Figure 6.12), will provide a certain amount of shading in
lighting and appliances is two and a half times the
mornings. This can knock out ‘strings’ of cells for a period, whilst the
predicted 13.1kWh/m2.
malfunctioning of inverters (converting from direct to alternating current) may
6.13(6) John Berry of Ove Arup and Partners, as have had further negative influence.
well as Special Professor in Building Technology, On the credit side, as with the primary school at Netley, the overall
University of Nottingham, related this scenario in email
architectural ambience is laudable, and happy occupants may constitute an
correspondence of 13th September 2004. He is co-
economic benefit that is at least as great as energy savings that could otherwise
author of papers describing the project in some depth
have been made. According to a major new study, the initial findings of which
(Taylor and Berry, 2000; Berry and Thornton, 2002).
were announced at the RIBA Conference in Dublin in 2004 (Arnold, 2004), ‘there
6.13(7) BP Saturn monocrystalline PV arrays was a clear link between high productivity and good air, light and acoustic
generated around 76.5kWh/m2 cell area
quality.’ The quality of air and light in particular will tend to be higher in atria than
(approximately 30 per cent less than predicted) during
in more confined adjacent working spaces. Therefore it is no surprise that such
the monitored year reported (Hicks and Riffatt, 2001).
spaces attract activities related to both work and leisure. During a visit to the
Jubilee Campus at the end of April, one atrium was being used as an attractive
semi-outdoor setting for a group tutorial, while part of another is now
permanently used as a cafeteria. This may be regarded as a beneficial by-
product of the design. However, such benefits also entail risks for the
consumption of fuel. Although the atria were designed to be completely
unheated other than by the sun and by adjacent workspaces, the introduction
of tables and chairs has resulted in the use of patio-type gas heaters.

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risks of partially heating buffer spaces

In a similar building in Trondheim in Norway, at 63.3°N, the popularity of such
airy sunlit spaces ultimately signalled a more significant penalty. Per Knudsen
headed a design team that linked a series of naturally ventilated atria to existing
buildings on the campus of the Norwegian Institute of Technology. Three were
on an east–west axis so that the original blocks of accommodation looked north
and south into them. The fourth was on a north–south axis and connected a
teaching block to the west with two new lecture theatres, which filled in an
existing courtyard, to the east. Thus the external perimeter of the existing
campus was dramatically reduced, but the buffered accommodation now had
to be mechanically ventilated. Given the harsh winters and the intended use as
transitory meeting places, it was initially thought that the atria should be heated
up to a minimum of 15°C, while offices had a design temperature of 20°C that
could be easily met by small radiators (SINTEF, 1989). All the pre-contract
predictions of energy savings were based on these assumptions. 6.14(1) To
achieve 15°C in the atria, radiant panels were fitted to a fairly narrow horizontal
section at the apex of symmetrically pitched double-glazed roofs (Figure 6.13),
while convectors were fitted to glass walls to prevent down-draughts.
The strategy also allowed the atria to house services such as the ventilating
ducts required for the heated spaces. However, these are sited above windows and
result in some diminution of natural light to the offices. Thus a system to control the 6.12 Conical cowls and cleaning gantry at east
thermal environment penalizes the lighting one. Although it might be argued that end of atrium at Jubilee Campus
much of Norway’s electricity is generated by renewable hydropower, which serves 6.13 Looking west down an atrium at the
both artificial ventilation and lighting, it is difficult to condone a principle of one Technical University Campus, with radiant
facility putting an extra burden on another. However, this is a relatively minor matter heating at apex of roof

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6.14 Monitoring and predictions at compared with the consequence of a change in thermal management policy within
Trondheim the atria. In order to make them comfortable for teaching, it was subsequently
decided to heat these spaces to much the same level as the offices. This means
6.14(1) The annual space heating load for the
chosen glazing specification double, low-emissivity that instead of the atria functioning as solar enhanced edge-insulation to a large
for roof and gable walls, single for internal façades proportion of the footprint, we now have a single, deep-plan, thermal environment,
– was predicted to be 114kWh/m2, a reduction where both overheating and a demand for heat may occur simultaneously in certain
of about 20 per cent compared with the existing weather. For instance, upper south-facing offices could overheat on a sunny day in
situation. Measured values for five months of the winter, while the floor of the atrium is shaded and requires heat to boost it to
first heating season (i.e. an incomplete season) gave comfort level for seated learning. An effort was then made to predict the
somewhat lower values as one might expect – consequence of raising the mean minimum temperature within such atria,
97kWh/m2 for the offices only and 78kWh/m2 for the essentially by using a simple ratio as an indicator (Thyholt et al, 1998). 6.14(2)
offices and atria combined. An autumn or spring bias
may be inferred from this data – if a ratio of 4:1 in free heat to buffers and related energy-efficiency measures
terms of floor area is assumed, the load for heating
A method of providing more free heat to atria or sunspaces is to site them on
the atria up to 15°C would have been very small at
top of other heated spaces. One example of a large atrium of this kind is that of
around 2kWh/m2 … (97 x 0.8) + (2 x 0.2) = 78.
a new building for ECN, the Dutch Government’s research centre in Petten, on
6.14(2) Thyholt used a G value, the ratio of heat loss the northwest coast of the Netherlands at 52.8°N. It is code-named No. 42 and
from the atria to the outside (ΣUoAoW/K) to that from designed by Tjerk Reijenga of BEAR Architecten, the same architect as for De
the primary heated spaces to the atria (ΣUiAiW/K).
Kleine Aarde in Boxtel (Chapter 5). Essentially the floor and most of two walls
She found that this needed to be as low as 0.2 in
are bounded by regular accommodation. The decision was taken to single-
order that an atrium could be heated up to 20°C for
glaze the atrium and to incorporate PV cells in the roof to provide partial
a reasonable amount of energy (in a 50–100kWh/m2
range). She examined real buildings with atria, where
shading. However, this raises another fuelling dilemma, as the cells will curtail
the G values ranged from almost 10 for an attached the amount of daylight available for offices. Having visited the building on a
atrium down to 0.85 and 0.64 for linear and ‘core’ sunny afternoon in summer, it was noted that the entire floor-plate of the upper
(internal) atria. Although there is a linear relationship level of offices was adequately illuminated without artificial lighting. However,
for G values over 1.0, with the temperature to which this was simply a qualitative observation, because the floor was unoccupied at
the atrium could be economically heated dropping that time. The occupied floor below told a different story. It must have received
steadily, the graph steps up below G values of 1.0, only slightly lower levels of daylight, but had all of its artificial lights switched on.
and particularly below 0.2. From the information This may have been partly associated with varying use of venetian blinds to
provided (SINTEF, 1989) it appears that a typical combat glare, but the issue remains – artificial lighting is being used when it
atrium at Trondheim could have a G value as low as
would appear to be unnecessary and the underlying cause and subsequent
0.5. Even so, to heat up to 20°C was well outside the
effect is not being adequately addressed.
range assumed to be acceptable. Thyholt also stated
The adjacent 1960s building, designated No. 31, connects with the atrium
that ‘some buildings with glazed atria have reported
energy use in the 500kWh/m2 range’!
only at its western end, and so is not strongly influenced by it. It has nevertheless
been retrofitted in order to address cooling loads and glare. Its south façade has
been fitted with an array of opaque PV shading lamellas. 6.15 Although their
performance is being closely monitored, including aspects such as the build-up
of dirt in the marine location, there appear to be no plans to assess the impact
of the new brise-soleil on occupants. Even though there had been an expectation
that the lamellas might to some extent act as light shelves, they will also block
out daylight. Consequently the effect on the use of artificial lighting is likely to be
complex. The same focus on the performance of the PV arrays had also
obscured the fact that the windows of Building 42’s atrium were closed on a

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MACHINE CONTROL

sunny afternoon. This might have been due either to a control malfunction, or to 6.15 PV performance at Petten
wind sensors competing with those for temperature as at Rijkswaterstaat in
Each PV lamella is 3.0m long by 0.84m wide, set
Ijmuiden. The essential matter is that this kind of situation will increase the load at about 37° tilt and using Siemens polycrystalline
on the mechanical system for cooling. Again, the programme of monitoring is cells. In spite of ventilation holes in the underside,
not yet holistic enough to evaluate such glitches. cells tend to overheat – 35K above ambient at
A theoretical project in Glasgow (Chapter 2) was envisaged as an exemplar 1000W/m2 irradiance, with efficiencies dropping
for solar retrofit of a large institutional building, building-integrated photovoltaics by about 0.4 per cent per degree of overheat. One
(BIPV) playing a large part in this case (Kondratenko, 2003). As at the Technical row of lamellas in line with occupants’ vision above
University at Trondheim, it was proposed to fill in existing spaces between sill level is manually adjustable, but at the time of
buildings, but in this case there was the added advantage of a base of deep- a visit in 2003, the building was still empty. There
is an additional polycrystalline PV canopy forming
plan accommodation similar to the new building No. 42 at Petten. Courtyards
a cornice at roof level. The area of the lamellas and
located above this podium had the potential for conversion into attractive atria.
canopy is approximately 440m2, and this generated
In one case the host accommodation would lose heat to the atrium through five
22,276kWh in 2002: 50.6kWh/m2 of PV. There is a
surfaces, and four in the other, where the courtyard opened up to the south.
further 260m2 of BP Solar frameless monocrystalline
However, the main thrust of this work concerned double-skin façades – over- modules on the roof itself, with a shallow convex tilt
cladding the existing south façades with a new BIPV glass wall. This immediately to the south. This collected 29,271kWh in 2002, or
solves one problem. It enables windows to open without subjecting occupants 112.6kWh/m2 of PV. The total collected was 8 per
to excessive noise from traffic. It also enables the original façade to be cent less than predicted, but, over and above the
economically insulated. However, as noted above in relation to the Wolfson problems of dirt and overheating, nearly one third
Medical School Building for the University of Glasgow, it will cause more of the roof inverters and more than one third of the
overheating than had the extra skin not been there. Therefore, a simple lamella inverters failed at least once.
mechanical ventilation system was proposed, with some cooling capability
provided by ground water. In summer this would supply air into the central
corridors and thence into rooms, which it could then leave via windows into the
new ‘solar chimney’ and be exhausted to the environment at the top. Thus
thermal buoyancy in the ‘chimney’ would augment the mechanical process,
while occupants are part of the control system. In other words it is a selective
mode of control, which solves two other critical problems. Both the corridors
and the rooms presently suffer from stagnation and poor air quality. In winter,
the supply of air at the top of the solar chimney would be connected to the same
dispersed air-handling units, this time supplying warm air to the offices via the
corridors, where a significant part of the warming is attributable to the double-
skin system. 6.16(1)
This leaves one potentially problematic question. Can relatively simple and
economic means compensate for the loss in daylight due to the presence of the
new skin? The answer is yes. A reflective maintenance grid at sill level and a
slightly reshaped and reflective suspended ceiling was predicted to give
marginally superior distribution of daylight than at present. Not only does the
multi-tasking approach dramatically improve the thermal environment, with
impressive attendant savings in energy, it does it without increasing electrical
demand, which it then offsets by generating electricity on site. 6.16(2)
Reducing the scale and focusing back on atria located above heated
accommodation, there are two domestic case studies where the seasonal

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6.16 PV predictions in Glasgow balance of thermal donations works well. One functions as a winter garden for
a group of dwellings for the elderly. This is located in the small town of Kilwinning
6.16(1) During the modelling process, Kondratenko
evaluated the PV cell thermal contribution in contrast to the west of Glasgow, and was designed by architect Roan Rutherford while
to second and third thermal considerations – that working for the Irvine New Town Development Corporation. There is a communal
transmitted through the clear parts of the glass and that heating system, with the boiler house opportunistically sited in a basement
lost from the offices to the ‘solar chimney’. She found below the winter garden. Its flue also functions as a structural pivot for the
that the last was significant and the second would have space (Figure 6.14). When the demand for heat in the dwellings is at its highest,
been greater had the PV not been there at all. Although the incidental gains donated from the boilers to the winter garden are at their
the thermal difference between a solar chimney with PV greatest. Periods with little or no demand for heat correspond to the sun playing
and one without is marginal, her work dispels the myth a strong passive role, the boilers often being on stand-by.
that hybrid electrical-thermal PV systems owe a great
A very similar project in this regard is the single Norwegian dwelling in
deal to the capture of heat generated by the cells. Most
Stokkan, Trondheim, at 63.3°N (Jacobsen et al, 1992) (Figure 6.15a, b). Here a
hybrid BIPV applications are attached to heated spaces,
generous double-height atrium or winter garden is located above a basement
so that heat recovery from them tends to dominate
plant-room containing a heat pump and thermal store. The sunspace buffers the
in cold weather. She found that the saving on a fairly
typical day in January was likely to exceed 1.0kWh/m2 south face of all the living accommodation, while it is also partly protected to the
of floor area. Omission of the cells, to leave a fully south by a single-storey garage. One might query the specification of an electric
transparent second skin, would result in a very minor heat pump, but in this case it exploits the atrium as its ambient source, with a
increase in saving of approximately 0.02kWh/m2. bypass directly to the outside for warmer weather. It is integrated with the
system for mechanical ventilation and heat recovery, and supplies low-
6.16(2) It was predicted that the double-skin façade
temperature radiant floor coils as well as domestic hot water. The bathrooms
would generate about 73kWh/m2 of PV area annually.
This rather low value for monocrystalline PV confirms proved to be a slight complication in terms of energy efficiency. The exhaust air
that a vertical surface is not ideal. A saving of nearly from the heat pump passes through these spaces and tends to overheat them.
11kWh/m2 floor area annually was also estimated if BIPV Nevertheless, there is a good partnership between the passive solar contribution
opportunities were realized over the entire complex. and fortuitous gains from the heating system, the latter falling off naturally as the
former increase. Other incidental gains, for example, appliances in the kitchen,
are located towards the north of the plan and so do not compete with the
atrium.

heat pumps versus boilers

Another project that uses heat pumps in association with a thermal store is that
for new housing in Shettleston in the east end of Glasgow by architect John
Gilbert in association with engineering services consultant Enconsult (Figure 6.16)
(Gilbert, 1999). In this instance any heat escaping from the store is of benefit to a
generously glazed access stairwell, in effect, a triple-height atrium. In contrast to
the store, also charged by an array of flat-plate solar collectors, 6.17(1) the two
pumps are compact, each weighing only 7kg. These exploit an unusual post-
industrial ambient source – water at about 12 or 15°C lying at the bottom of a
disused coalmine 130m below the site. At the time of a visit, which coincided with
the autumnal equinox during the first year of occupation in 1999, the subterranean
resource was yet to kick in. The active solar panels were able to meet the
domestic hot water needs, while passive solar gains and high levels of insulation
6.14 Winter garden located on top of boiler house were keeping autumnal space heating loads at bay. Once again a specialist
at Kilwinning servicing system is of benefit to a purely architectural one. Because this is an

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MACHINE CONTROL

electric heating system in a city where natural gas is the dominant fuel, the utility 6.17 Shettleston housing, Glasgow:
company was motivated to allow a special tariff 6.17(2), and to sponsor the thermal storage
capital cost of both the solar panels and ‘solar slate’ ventilating systems (as
6.17(1) A 10,000 litre thermal store has a small
described in ‘harvesting hot air’ earlier in this chapter) to four of the dwellings. footprint on plan, housed in a two-storey high
Two years later, on the east side of Scotland in the county of Fife (slightly further stack. A Scottish company, AES (Appropriate Energy
north than Glasgow at 56.1°N), the same architect used the same consultant and Systems), manufactured the 32m2 collectors, while
very much the same heating technique. This was the solar retrofit of 1960s housing another Scottish firm, Solar Energy Systems, carried
in Lumphinnans near Cowdenbeath, a locale resonant with industrial political out the installation. Therefore, the energy embodied
history and known as ‘Little Moscow’. The site is approached via Gagarin Way, in transport for a specialized component was
named after the first Russian cosmonaut. Again a defunct coalmine was a useful relatively low.
ambient source for heat pumps. Here the ground water had a temperature 6.17(2) The thermostats in individual hot water
averaging around 14.5°C at a depth of 170m, while the thermal store and twin heat cylinders are set at 45°C, 10K lower than the
pumps are located in former stores within a stairwell. 6.18(1) supply from the heat pumps to the main store. If the
In this case passive sunspaces are independent of the thermal stores. residents want it hotter, they must use an electric
These are slightly extended recessed balconies (similar to those used in the immersion heater. However, this is on a special
Easthall solar demonstration project), angled out from the façade to increase ‘Economy 2000’ tariff.
solar capture and enlarge usable space (Figure 6.17). They are single-glazed
using a Danish system called ‘Vitrol’. Frameless tempered sheets of glass may

6.15 Solar house at Stokkan: a) cross section

showing mechanical servicing; b) double-
height winter garden above plant room

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6.16 The combined geothermal heat pump and

solar system for Shettleston

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6.17 Solar-geothermal retrofit at Lumphinnans:

a) schematic; b) sunspaces

be opened singly, as normal casement windows. Alternatively, by employing a 6.18 Lumphinnans housing, Fife: thermal
folding-sliding mechanism, the sunspaces may be opened up to the extent of storage and performance
becoming open balconies once again. The simple engineered sophistication of
6.18(1) The capacity of 1500 litres is much smaller
this ironmongery perhaps pushes it into the realm of ‘machine control’ even than that used at Shettleston partly due to its higher
though it is operated entirely by minimal human energy. Most importantly, it is temperature of 55°C and partly due to the high
part of an integrated strategy, which allows small heat pumps to operate in thermal storage mass of the dwellings with cavity
tandem with compact thermal storage, to give a commendably low value for brickwork insulated externally with 70mm of CFC-
energy consumption 6.18(2) – predicted to be less than 40kWh/m2. In an area free polystyrene.
where miners used to receive free coal, and so did not have to worry about lack
6.18(2) In 2001, the ‘economy 2000’ tariff was
of thermal comfort or hot water, the 21st century energy solution in a post-coal approximately 4.2p/kWh, and the predicted
era of high local unemployment seems socially appropriate and compensatory. annual fuel bill for heating and hot water using the
A particular attraction of heat pumps is that they can operate in fairly dynamic simulation programme ESPr was around
isolated situations, where the supply of alternative fuels can be problematic. £105, representing 2500kWh. The coefficient of
They are also relatively flexible when it comes to available ambient sources. An performance (COP) of the heat pumps was estimated
example is the one used to heat the 205m2 Murphy house designed by Bo to be up to 4.5, and the pumps have hermetically
Helliwell and Kim Smith on Gambier Island in British Columbia at 49.5°N sealed compressors with R22 fluid, the least
(outdoor room described in Chapter 3). Technically, this is described in the same damaging of the CFCs.

way as those used at Lumphinnans and Shettleston in Scotland. Its geothermal

heat pump, instead of water from old coalmines, simply uses the sea with some

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

6.19 Background to Helliwell + Smith’s 600m of plastic pipe held in a wire cube anchored at a depth of 18m. This works
home and studio in conjunction with low-temperature heating coils embedded in a screed below
the floor, as well as a mechanical system of ventilating and adjusting thermal
Barry Downs worked for the architect Fred
Hollinsworth at an early stage in his career. comfort, which uses an air-to-air heat exchanger. This plant is housed below
Hollinsworth was renowned as a pioneering West bedrooms in a small basement, which respects a dip in the natural level of the
Coast modernist of the ‘First Vancouver School’ , of ground at the west end of the building.
the same mould as Arthur Erickson, and apparently Helliwell and Smith are pragmatic with respect to heating systems in
inspired by a visit to Vancouver by Richard Neutra. particular situations. Their own house and studio since 1998 in West Vancouver
Downs won an award for the house in West Vancouver is a refurbishment of, and extension to, a 1960s house by Barry Downs. 6.19
in the 1960s, and its recent refurbishment and studio It is in a suburban location and the original oil-fired boiler serving a warm-air
extension by Helliwell + Smith, Blue Sky Architecture heating system has been replaced by one fuelled by natural gas. However, the
has now also been recognized in this way.
registers to deliver warm air in the ceilings of the lower floor of bedrooms did not
provide adequate comfort. Therefore, a limited amount of electric under-floor
heating has been added.
In coastal locations where electricity is the only readily available fuel for
heating, a small electric boiler may be more practical than a heat pump. The sea
may be too far away, the ground may be solid rock, and salt-laden air may not
be a very suitable source in terms of maintenance and longevity. Brian MacKay-
Lyons took this decision for several on-grid seaboard houses in Nova Scotia,
the boilers supplying warm-water coils embedded in polished concrete slabs.
Alternatively, there may be no mains supply of electricity. Faced with this
situation in the remote interior, he designed the Gibson-Livingston house, 1990,
with a combination of flat-plate collectors, a PV array and a back-up propane
generator. He has also used a heat pump for his own new office in Halifax,
where this proved a pragmatic choice.
A visit to a passive solar community school on the island of Benbecula in
Scotland’s Outer Hebrides in 1993 reinforces the point about vulnerability of
heat pumps on particular sites. Two large air-to-water units were relegated to an
auxiliary, rather than a leading, role. This was partly due to them not standing up
well to the onslaught of salty air, and partly to the fall in oil prices at that time.
Oil-fired boilers, originally intended as a back-up facility, met 60 per cent of the
thermal load. Another machine, a 60kW ‘Wind Harvester’, was intended to
contribute significantly to the electrical demand, but had also been prone to
teething problems – after several years most of these problems (including
power cuts due to gales and seabirds) seemed to have been resolved, with over
500kWh being generated daily. Also, the energy management system had
recently addressed peaks in demand such as better control of light to save
80kW when the cooking load was highest.
An alternative strategy for heat pumps is to use them in conjunction with an
active solar system. This was the method used to resolve the expensive heating
shortfall in the ambitious project by Bart Jan van den Brink to accommodate a
seasonal thermal store within a single dwelling (Chapter 2). Electricity was the

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MACHINE CONTROL

only available top-up fuel and the demand for it proved to be considerable. In 6.20 Proposed floating dwellings in the
1999 the original ‘pump dry’ system was modified to one with anti-freeze in the Netherlands: quantitative detail
collector, heat exchangers and a heat pump. This means that a much smaller
A two-storey dwelling sits atop a partially submerged
amount of electricity can now raise the temperature of the thermal store to the basement. This has 70m3 or 80 tonnes of ballast.
required level in winter. Thereafter, the original water-to-air heat exchangers The floor between the main floor and upper floor is
supply adequate warm-air heating to the interior. It is also noteworthy that this also of concrete to increase thermal mass within the
was not van den Brink’s last attempt to utilize long-term thermal storage with an dwelling, and is heated by low-temperature water
active solar system for one dwelling. His millennium house sited in the ecological coils. There is 35m2 flat-plate collector and 40m2 PV,
village of EVA Lanxmeer in Culemborg also has such a store, this time with 40cm estimated to supply 2000kWh annually.
of insulation. However, this again loses its heat too rapidly. Van den Brink now
considers short-term storage of a few days to be a more pragmatic approach. In
a recent project for floating dwellings 6.20, he is using vertical thermal solar
collectors for space and water heating together with storage in ice and a heat
pump. He also proposes integrating PV with the roof and collecting rainwater.

small-scale CHP and heat exchangers

The message here is that advanced technology still has to respect specific local
conditions. Having devoted some considerable space to heat pumps, the
progress with small-scale combined heat and power (CHP) systems should not
be ignored, particularly in terms of their ability to burn renewable, or other freely
available, fuels. While the example of the ‘Wohnen & Arbeiten’ solar housing in
the Vauban district of Freiburg (Chapter 4) burns natural gas, the solar PV
factory in Freiburg by Rolf and Hotz (Chapter 5) has adopted rapeseed oil as a
solar alternative. Plenty of this crop is grown by local farmers. The Akademie
Mont-Cenis in Herne-Sodingen, Germany (Chapter 2) also uses a CHP system
to meet the balance of thermal and electrical loads. In this case the physical
heritage of a former coalmine is again key. Firedamp gas (mainly methane) fuels
the CHP plant, its pressure fortuitously being higher when atmospheric pressure
is down. Thus in overcast weather, when the output from the building’s PV
arrays is low, the methane should be able to meet the shortfall.
Apart from lighting, one of the main end-uses for electricity in this campus
is to power mechanical heat recovery units for the buildings within the main
glass envelope. Air-to-air heat exchangers have come up in several preceding
chapters as well as this one, the objective being to recover as much heat as
possible from outgoing air. When taking ambient air from the upper part of an
atrium, the possibility exists that the ‘fresh’ supply might be warmer than
desired inside individual buildings. In this case the exchange would be reversed
and the possibility of overheating could occur. For that reason it is necessary to
have some alternative method of admitting cooler ambient air, or to have
another way to cool the incoming air. A reversible heat pump would be one
method of achieving this. However, during very cold weather, taking the fresh air
from an already pre-warmed ambient source has a distinct advantage. It may
not be necessary to heat the air up any further before delivering it.

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

6.21 Task XIII apartments, Amstelveen: For example, Theo Bosch’s solar dwellings at Deventer in the Netherlands
performance detail and comparison (Chapter 4) have roof-mounted heat exchangers with an associated coil from
the boiler in order to be able to top up the already pre-warmed incoming air to
6.21(1) U-values are less than 0.2W/m2K for all
opaque surfaces and 0.7 for windows. a comfortable level. By contrast the International Energy Agency (IEA) Task XIII
‘Advanced Solar Low Energy Buildings’ solar apartment block in Amstelveen,
6.21(2) The value of 12kWh/m2 given for space
just south of Amsterdam (Figure 6.18), follows the example of the Akademie
heating may be compared with the final heating
Mont-Cenis with heat exchangers sited within a generous atrium. Atelier Z
deficit of about 13kWh/m2, having deducted
designed this scheme with the mechanical engineering department of Delft
18kWh/m2 for heat recovery, measured at the co-
Technical University as part of the architectural team. Here, although U-values
housing project in the Vauban district of Freiburg
(Chapter 4). are commendably efficient 6.21(1), the very low predictions of space heating
are, as in other projects, reliant on heat recovery 6.21(2) and negligible opening
of windows during the heating season (ed. Hastings, 1995). External shading
blinds are also programmed to come down when internal temperatures go
above 22°C, although there is a manual override as well.

wider questions
Stepping back from the detail of energy-efficiency, there are wider questions to
ask. For instance, is the provision of a large atrium as at Amstelveen sustainable
for housing, even allowing for the generous subsidy the building received? The
areas of individual flats seem generous at about 90m2 for three persons. Is this
too generous? To put this in perspective, this is 35 per cent greater than the
heated area of the Easthall solar flats in Glasgow. Is this area too frugal? Is
Amstelveen’s frontage width of 8.6m viable in terms of land use and the

6.18 General view of south façade of Task XIII

solar apartment block in Amstelveen

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MACHINE CONTROL

attendant length of infrastructural services? On the other hand, having decided

to afford this space, with all the extra building cost and embedded energy this
entails, the gain in social amenity is surely valuable, and the added volume will
allow rates of ventilation to be correspondingly lower. Such questions invite a
range of opinion, which steers solar buildings and components into the more
amorphous arena of ‘sustainability’ and green architecture.

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

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Chapter 7 Green Solar Future

The reason for contemplating a green or eco-sensitive solar future lies with the
inexorable growth of environmental concerns on a global scale. While acid rain
may have been tackled to some extent, depletion of tropical rain forests
continues apace, fluctuating holes in the ozone layer remain worrying and,
according to US government scientists, global warming has recently ‘jumped
abruptly’ (Lean, 2004). 7.1(1) It has been reported that even the White House,
in the run up to a presidential election, has now ‘conceded that emissions of
carbon dioxide and other heat-trapping gases are the only likely explanation for
global warming’ (Younge, 2004). Unfortunately, while Russia has now signed up
to the Kyoto protocol of 1997 after a gap of seven years (Walsh, 2004), the USA
has not, having rejected the protocol in 2001. Even if the primary Kyoto target
7.1(2) is met, many would argue that the impact will not be nearly sufficient.
The change to patterns of weather is also now being taken seriously by UK
government studies, with stricter building standards in the offing based on
carbon-emission tests (Gates, 2004). 7.1(3) However, dissidents again argue
that the impact of this will be negligible. In 2004, the chairperson of Shell, Lord
Oxburgh, has publicly stated that burning oil and gas threatens the planet, but
sees CO2 sequestration below ground or seabed as the solution rather than
reliance on renewable energy (Leggett, 2004). Leggett goes on to remind us that
Tony Blair acknowledges that solar energy alone can meet the energy demand
of the world. But we should not assume that Blair has suddenly become a solar
champion. The entire context of this assertion is not given. It may be possible,
but that does not mean that he would recommend it. Sir David King, scientific
adviser to the UK government, also stresses the urgency of tackling climate
change and asserts that Blair sees it as a priority for the UK (King, 2004).
However, although King states that CO2 is higher than at any time for at least the
last 740,000 years and is explicit about the need to move towards a low carbon
economy, he is vague about the means he would recommend to achieve it. The
reality appears to be that the UK supports the strategy of Lord Oxburgh, despite
strong opposition from environmental organizations such as Greenpeace
(Carrell, 2004). Another reality is that the British Prime Minister has approved a
recalculation upwards of the amount of CO2 that can be emitted by industry and

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7.1 Global warming: Mauna Loa, Keeling power plants in the UK (Milner, 2004). The announcement of this laid the ground
curve, Vostok ice core, Kyoto etc. for an admission that the UK target of 20 per cent reduction in CO2 by 2010
compared with 1990 levels is now reduced by 6 per cent (Radford, 2004).
7.1(1) Measurements by US government scientists
report that the increase in CO2 during 2003 was Without delving further into his or any other leading politician’s position on solar
the highest yet, marking a three-year surge. energy as a part of the solution, there are certainly governmental, scientific and
Measurements on top of Hawai’s Mauna Loa industrial sceptics with respect to the seriousness of changes to all
summit (approximately 3500m) in March 2004 environmental phenomena, but particularly global warming.
showed CO2 had reached 379ppm (parts per
million), as opposed to 376 in 2003, 373 in 2002 Conflicting views on global warming and environmental sustainability
and 371 in 2001. These are three of the four There are those who do not accept that human activities, as opposed to natural
largest increases on record, the other being in phenomena, are principally responsible for any significant alteration to the
1998. The increase up to 379ppm is 64 per cent upper atmosphere, and those who accept the evidence that this is the case, but
above the average over the last decade. This is not
do not think it is of serious concern. In the first case, most doubters accept that
strictly an abrupt jump. Rather it is the inexorably
human activities result in emissions of gases, which contribute to the greenhouse
increasing, although up until recently very shallow,
effect. They just do not believe or do not want to think, say, for economic
exponential gradient known as the Keeling curve
reasons, that the artificial impacts on the biosphere are, or have been proved to
(Christianson, 1999), derived from the Mauna Loa
data. Depressingly, the more recent extension of be, more influential than variable volcanic and solar forces. This is important
the curve confirms that action taken by all countries because it means that, for this type of sceptic, there is still a case for being more
since the 1980s to reduce emissions of greenhouse energy-efficient and reducing the output of CO2 and other greenhouse gases –
gases has made no global impact. In the case of to err on the side of caution.
the USA, it is now estimated that buildings account Then the second category of sceptic includes those who accept that the
for two-thirds of the electricity demand annually, rise in temperature in recent centuries, and the present highest level of CO2 for
three-quarters of which is generated through the over 400,000 years, is primarily due to human intervention. But they point out
combustion of fossil fuels (Olgyay and Herdt, 2004). that this does not correspond with the highest average temperatures over
The highest previous levels of CO2, estimated from
recent millennia (Guldberg and Sammonds, 2001). CO2 and temperature can
the Vostok ice core from Antarctica, were just
move in opposite directions over historical periods of a few thousand years. In
below 300ppm 130,000 and 320,000 years ago,
the much longer term of over several hundred millennia, it is also evident that in
and circa 280ppm 230,000 and 410,000 years
some 40 per cent of strong surges in insolation, associated maxima of CO2
ago (Guldberg and Sammonds, 2001). The latest
Antarctic core (3270m) will extend this knowledge follow by as much as twenty millennia. In other words it would appear that in
by a further half million years (Brown, 2005). these ancient incidences (230,000–400,000 years ago), the climate was slowly
driving up CO2, rather than the other way round. Furthermore, many of the
7.1(2) A fundamental target of the Kyoto accord is
second type of sceptic are suspicious that either the modelled forecasts of rise
that 55 countries, responsible for 55 per cent of
in temperature, or the consequences of this, and sometimes both, are
greenhouse gas emissions, reduce these by 5.2
per cent compared with 1990 levels by 2012. For
incompetent or inaccurate, with a bias to doom-laden exaggeration.
countries such as the UK, the enforceable target is Bjørn Lomborg belongs to this tendency, and repeatedly argues that money
CO2 down by 12.5 per cent from 1990–2012. could be more fruitfully spent on improving social conditions. However, an
environmentalist, Tom Burke, rejects Lomborg’s posture as being founded
7.1(3) The new Part L to building regulations in
neither on science nor scepticism, but asserts that it is simply nonsense (Burke,
England and Wales aims to improve energy efficiency
2004). Again, the principle of erring on the side of caution should mean that
by at least 25 per cent; but unless such standards
are applied retrospectively, the rate of renewal
people such as Lomborg should at least not oppose a green solar future. Why
of building stock means that the impact of such should there not be reductions in the production of greenhouse gases as well as
changes will be felt very slowly. other socio-economic reforms at a global level? Thus, in theory, the only active
opposition to positive green action should come from people who are militantly

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against effective, long-term eco-husbandry, rather than those who have doubts
about the damage to the status quo of the biosphere.

dimensions of sustainable architecture

The issue of global warming has now become bound in with the terms
‘sustainability’ and ‘sustainable development’. These have become so politically
charged, so widely used, so ambiguous and so loosely applied, it is necessary to
give a definition here within the context of solar architecture, especially since both
are now established as architectural currency. Unfortunately, the semantics are
open to interpretation and manipulation by sectors with widely differing political
objectives, including neo-liberals who have no difficulty in finding a gloss for the
worst kinds of global exploitation. However, taking the alternative, benign, socio-
environmental stance, it is generally accepted that both terms are relative, rather
than absolute. It is also accepted by most people that they involve enabling the
healthy and thriving continuity of life on Earth. In short, they signify providing
positively for posterity. It is also generally recognized that such an interpretation
embraces a process with three main overlapping dimensions. One might continue
with the alliteration and call these people, place and prosperity. These correspond
respectively to the terms social organization, environmental resources and
economic growth of the World Commission on Environment and Development
(led by Gro Harlem Brundtland), when defining sustainable development and also 7.1 The concept of three overlapping dimensions
acknowledging that there are limits imposed by technology at any given time of sustainability – people, place and
prosperity – per William Heath Robinson.
(World Commission on Environment and Development, 1987).
Unsurprisingly, either semantic set, wittily illustrated in Figure 7.1 compared
with the usual interlocked schematic bubbles of text, carries a significant caveat
if it is to signify sustainability People must adopt a responsible and ecologically
ethical stance to place and prosperity. Human ecology has to respect and work
with all living organisms and their environments, and not allow narrower facets
of prosperity or economics to undermine this fundamental aim. There is nothing
wrong with the concept of anthropogenic ecosystems, provided some
pragmatic guidelines are observed. For eco-altruism to prevail, there must be
some regulation. One can draw analogies to the abuse of human rights such as
slavery, or torture and imprisonment without legal representation. There has to
be accountability. Unfortunately there is a long history of significant gaps
between what is needed and what is delivered. This is where politics intervene,
and why definitions of sustainability tend to be politically loose in their language.
However, the adage of ‘where there is a will, there is a way’ seems apposite
here. One can think of countries that have remarkable records of achievement,
despite overwhelming obstacles strewn in the path of their sustainability. For
instance, Cuba’s record in relation to education, health and green agriculture is
exemplary, the last born out of necessity in the post-USSR era.
Quite rightly, this book has widely and deeply excavated the interaction
between people and buildings in their context, particularly the means of

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controlling their internal environment and embracing both physical and

psychological responses. Using the term people also implies an interaction with
technology as an integral part of culture. The tensions that exist between people
as the creators, as opposed to the users, of the built environment have been
acknowledged in the structure of successive chapters. Place is also central and
embraces natural resources, topography, ecology and climate. However, all of
these terms are constrained in this book by the word ‘cool’ in the title. Prosperity
implies economic limits, including an awareness of cost over the life of buildings.
But it also contains a wider sense of thriving or feeling good in a particular
setting, which implies enhancement over time rather than just maintaining a less
than satisfactory equilibrium.

solar-green, green-solar interface

One can then reasonably argue that green or environmental architecture is the
product of the parameters of an ethically driven process of sustainability and
that solar architecture belongs in such a classification – that is, all solar buildings
should by definition also be green buildings. This is where matters become
more slippery. As we have seen with regard to passive design, an initial decision
in terms of glazing quantity, orientation and tilt may result in relatively expensive
or complex solutions to mitigate overheating and glare. Alternatively, the reverse
may occur. The rate of heat loss may be excessive, but still with too much glare
at times. In relation to active solutions, there is a considerable degree of
scepticism about aspects of pollution, payback and so on. It is easier to claim
that all green buildings are to some extent solar buildings. If placing and sizing
of windows relative to the cyclical movement of the sun has not been
considered, then one can argue that the building is not green, regardless of all
other concomitant eco-sensitive characteristics. The same argument holds for
energy-efficiency and, by and large, the case studies in this book show that
energy-efficient buildings and solar-efficient buildings are in partnership, not in
competition. Therefore, green buildings must first and foremost be energy-
efficient, solar buildings. That does not necessarily include or exclude active
solar components, the use of which should be free from irrational prejudice by
environmental architects.
A recent international symposium held in Scotland 7.2(1) tackled disputed
territory for both solar PV and active thermal systems. Bart Jan van den Brink’s
story of initially pushing practical boundaries somewhat too far in an attempt to
bring the solar supply in summer and the demand for heat in winter closer
together, leading eventually to a more pragmatic position, reminds us that green
buildings in the developed world rely to some extent on sophisticated
technology. Since the developing world may lack expensive infrastructure while
also reasonably aspiring to a similar level of modern convenience, active solar
technology deserves to be considered. This includes both PV and thermal
arrays, and similar climatic environments to those explored here may be found

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in poorer countries. For example, southern Chile is weak in terms of both food 7.2 Active thermal and electrical systems:
power and industrial power, while cold oceanic currents and topology moderate barriers challenged
the climate over a large range in latitude. However, it was stated at the outset
7.2(1) Active Solar Myth Busting Symposium, 29th
that particular case studies would be drawn from northern parts of Europe and January 2004, Dundee, organized by the Scottish
North America, including countries with a surplus of energy like Canada and Ecological Design Association, Scottish Solar Energy
Norway. The enemy of solar or any renewable, clean energy is cheap and often Group and Dundee Sun City.
‘dirty’ energy from other sources, and neither of these two countries is exempt
7.2(2) A good example is the Waterkwartier scheme in
in spite of their hydroelectric power. The incentives to generate and save energy
Amersfoort (Chapter 2). Here, not only is the tariff the
based on principles of altruistic ecology are still vulnerable to the competing
same whether buying or selling electricity generated
laissez-faire of economic greed. Even in countries where positive fiscal by the PV arrays, but also 20 per cent of the selling
structures are in place to promulgate renewable generation of electricity in value goes to the occupants. The utility company
tandem with energy-efficient buildings 7.2(2), there remains a tangible degree retains ownership of the installation and carries out
of public reluctance, cynicism, scepticism and ignorance. any necessary repairs, including to the roofs.
For instance, one commonly held myth is that PV can never generate
7.2(3) Figures were given at Active Solar Myth
enough to pay its cost back economically, and uses more energy in its Busting Symposium by Tim Bruton, who was
manufacture than it generates over its life. In response, we have the current then BP’s Executive Director for Crystalline Solar
figure of six or seven years payback in the UK (corresponding to about three Technology. Additional environmental impact costs
years in southern Europe) and recycling lifting the electrical generation per cell in ¤/kWh are 0.41 for PV and 0.34 for gas. They are
into a range of five to ten times the energy used to make it. 7.2(3) Another also 0.99 for hard coal and 0.73 for lignite.
contention is that PV is more damaging to the environment than other
7.2(4) Prof. Nicola Pearsall, Director of the
technologies. Although its ‘additional environmental impact costs’ are currently Northumbria Photovoltaics Applications Centre at the
estimated to be about 20 per cent more than for electricity generated by gas in School of Engineering and Technology, University of
EU countries, we have to remember that using gas in this way has a downside. Northumbria, addressed many such issues at Active
It means using up a diminishing fossil fuel nearly twice as fast as if it were used Solar Myth Busting Symposium under the heading
to heat buildings directly. Also the cost of PV is mitigated by it doubling as a ‘Photovoltaics in Practice’. She also included useful
cladding or shading component, and it gives off no emissions and no noise guides to size PV arrays in the UK: one kWp (kilowatt
during operation. 7.2(4) The pro-PV lobby could go on. Active solar thermal peak output in clear sky conditions) = 10m2 modules
technology can be similarly defended, particularly since it normally displaces at (depending on type of PV, orientation, tilt etc.); and a
UK expectation is an annual output of 750–800kWh/
least part of some other less benign mechanical installation, usually with a non-
kWp (75–80kWh/m2 PV area).
renewable fuel. Active systems should also be inherently easier to control than
passive ones, even though various case studies have demonstrated the scope
for interrelated complexities to cause glitches.

eco-footprint, ambitions and constraints

An emerging mechanism for evaluating sustainability in general, and the
sustainability of buildings in particular, is that of eco-footprint. For example this
may be defined as the area of forest needed to produce a certain quantity of
timber for a building, and the additional area of forest to absorb CO2 produced
by burning fossil fuel in that building. 7.3(1) Although it is recognized that this
is not an exact science, there have been recent efforts to embed earlier work by
Wackernagel and Rees (1996) in a method for green building assessment
(Olgyay and Herdt, 2004), as well as attempts to quantify all consumable
products in this way (Desai and Riddlestone, 2002). However, the discipline at

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7.3 Eco-footprint numbers present only goes so far in terms of recognizing both practical and political
realities. By comparing an average area of ecological footprint in one country
7.3(1) It is estimated that we need some 1.3ha
of forest for each m3 of timber produced and with that of another, there has so far been little acknowledgement of the
0.35ha to absorb each tonne of CO2 produced from differences wrought by different scales and natures of territory. Instead the case
burning fossil fuels (Desai and Riddlestone , 2002). is made for global equity, where each country brings its average eco-footprint
Quantifying entire industries would be very complex, per capita within a limit representing the available bio-capacity of the planet.
but the underlying principle is valid. 7.3(2) However, playing devil’s advocate, one could argue that a small
intensively populated country like the Netherlands requires different
7.3(2) The World Wildlife Fund (WWF) Living Planet
Report 2000 (Desai and Riddlestone, 2002) estimates infrastructural solutions to a large sparsely populated country like Canada.
that the total bio-capacity of the earth amounts to Accordingly, these should be reflected in varying eco-footprint targets. 7.3(3)
about 25 per cent of its surface or 12.6 thousand Similarly, choices for active electrical or thermal solar applications, or purely
million ha (126 million km2). This assumes that passive green applications, will inevitably reflect particular ambitions and
deserts, high mountains and deep oceans are of ‘low constraints. These will vary with relevant local and regional characteristics,
biological productivity’, but the rejected 75 per cent which are usually dominated by the prevailing economic and political climate. A
begs the question of suitability for forms of renewable particular region developing an industry around active solar components could
power generation. WWF argues that once a further 10 be one such influence, which would have a direct bearing on the eco-footprint.
per cent is set aside for wildlife conservation, there is a
However, as the topic of this last chapter implies a much wider field in terms of
balance of some 11.3 thousand million ha available to
potential case studies, these have been consciously confined mainly to the
meet human needs. Divided by the global population of
work of two practices, whose names have already been introduced, plus some
6 thousand million, a target figure of 1.9 ha per capita
brief references to others.
is obtained. Predictably, estimates for all the developed
countries significantly exceed this value. To redress Ambitions and constraints might also be perceived as opportunities and
this situation, two questions present themselves threats, but if this signifies a scale of freedom for architects, innovation is
– firstly, is the 11.3 thousand million estimate realistic possible at all points along it. Whichever semantics are used, a good example
and, secondly, should the target vary to take account is the overriding aim of the rural micro-community of five families at Hockerton
of varying regional factors? (Chapter 3) to be as fully autonomous as possible, as well as to be materially
7.3(3) The estimated eco-footprint for Canada is
green and achieve a zero CO2 balance, all within a very tight budget. Besides
7.66 ha per capita (Desai and Riddlestone , 2002), the design and construction of the super-efficient dwellings, the realization of
less than 25 per cent of the area of land available. these aims involves a wind generator, recently complemented by a linear PV
In the Netherlands, the corresponding eco-footprint array, two methods of water collection, one for drinking and one for other
is given as 5.75 ha per capita, reflecting somewhat uses, a reed-bed drainage system, growing food and bee keeping. However,
greater efficiency, but this is over 27 times greater an active solar thermal system was not deemed necessary. Instead a heat
than the area of land available. Even though the pump works in tandem with the passive solar conservatories to provide hot
Netherlands makes much more intensive use of its water. On the other hand, in the case of the similarly deep green EVA-
land, both agriculturally and for industry, the respective Lanxmeer eco-village, active solar thermal, as well as electrical arrays, are
differences are immense. There may also be
very much in evidence. The same can be said of the ‘Wohnen & Arbeiten’
significant variations within the regions of one country.
urban co-housing project in the Vauban district of Freiburg (Chapter 4). Both
The eco-footprint of the UK is given as 6.29 ha per
solar thermal and PV are included as dual-purpose canopies, although there
capita, which is 15.5 times greater than the area of
land for each person. But if the same value is used for
is still a residual reliance on natural gas. One could also draw parallels
Scotland alone, it is now only 4 times the area of land, between the Vauban project and the widely published Beddington Zero Energy
and like Canada, some of this could be classified as Development (BedZED) by architect Bill Dunster in south London for the
biologically marginal. If one added in the recognized Peabody Trust (Figure 7.2) (Hawkes and Forster, 2002; Gregory, 2003). Here
territory of surrounding sea and ocean in each case, PV arrays complement passive solar thermal gain and very low rates of heat
such regional differences would be magnified.

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loss, while the balance of thermal and electrical needs are met indirectly by
solar energy in the wood-chip combined heat and power plant.
All four developments require commitment on the part of the residents,
although the extent of this varies and one might question the level of participation
in BedZED by the wider local community. There is some contrast between
BedZED and the fully participatory model of Vauban in its area of sustainable
regeneration from military to civilian use in a small city, which has a firmly
established reputation for solar architecture. BedZED’s context is that of any
suburb in London, its nearest new neighbours to the south and east being
typical examples of retrogressive private development. One might counter-
argue that BedZED represents a more comprehensive and radical ‘compact
city’ model compared with the Vauban project. It has demonstrable strengths,
which are considerable as a green oasis with a remarkable range of enclosure
and prospect, as well as excellent solar access. For all that, its ‘zero energy’
titular objective is not met. One occupant of a two-apartment flat acknowledged
a bill from July to September 2004 that averaged £27 per month. This implies a
significant number of units of energy billed in a period when there should have
been no space heating and a reasonable amount of electricity generated by the
PV arrays. Water heating and use of electrical appliances must be mainly 7.2 Part of south façade of BedZED terrace
responsible for this.
In other projects the green agenda may be much more focused. The work
of Shigeru Ban in Japan on structures that are reliant on cardboard tubes is
driven more by the risk of earthquakes than climate – a tangible threat motivates
one innovation. These constructions are inherently green in terms of their CO2-
neutral materiality with very low embodied energy, ratio of mass to enclosed
volume, and the ease with which they can be fabricated, constructed,
deconstructed and recycled. Embodied energy in its fullest sense normally
means the energy used in extraction of raw materials, in transport to a place or
places of manufacture and/or processing, in manufacture and/or processing, in
transport to a building site and finally in construction or assembly. It follows that
energy used in demolition or disassembly for re-use or recycling should be
taken in lieu of the extraction of raw materials stage.
Inevitably, the relativity that is implicit in sustainability and ‘green’ does not
necessarily imply an absolute for anything, including embodied energy or
autonomy. On the other hand, one aspect may be weighted inappropriately
relative to another. It is quite possible to achieve renewable autonomy in an
architectural context that lacks green aspiration. A bio-CHP plant, as used at
BedZED or the PV factory in Freiburg, could have provided heat and power to
any building – possibly one with very high embodied energy. Indeed, in contrast
to BedZED where great care was taken to reduce embodied energy and to
recycle materials as far as possible, one might query whether the choice of
structural steel at that solar factory is as green as timber might have been.

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merit and diversity in environmental architecture

The argument here is that sustainability as a process and greenness as a
product should still inclusively align with architectural merit and diversity, as well
as accepting certain pragmatic, often economic, realities. It is just that the
diversity should work with the possibilities and limitations implied by sustainably
addressing people, place and prosperity. That should result in an aesthetic that
has reacted to particular natural or cultural characteristics of place, but not
necessarily in an obvious, demonstrative way. It has been shown that solar
collection is not as geometrically confined as one might think. Techniques for
cool climates with a high proportion of diffuse solar irradiation can transfer to
ones with a much higher direct contribution, but also with temperatures that
generate a significant demand for heat. Therefore, we have a situation where
aesthetic expression may be legitimately diverse within a single climatic context.
The response to the existing cultural, natural and artificial locus is likely to be
more influential in determining visual outcomes; and in the first case, historical
precedent cannot and should not be ignored.
Susannah Hagan (2001) poses three criteria to be considered relative to
environmental architecture – symbiosis, differentiation and visibility. Briefly, she
posits that the first is essential, a mutually beneficial relationship between
building and its natural context, more often than not already subject to human
change. The second is more problematic to pin down. Can there be different
symbiotic solutions, given the same place, and should different places engender
distinct visual language? The third criterion questions the extent to which new
forms, directly related to the environmental functioning of a building, may define
the aesthetics. For example, the ventilating cowls of BedZED are visually
vociferous, as are the ventilating towers at the Queens Building in Leicester
(Chapter 5). However, both devices are very different in appearance. It is
interesting that the first, which caps a passive stack ventilation system with heat
recovery, is a modernized version of a 19th century invention, the ‘McKinnel
double tube’, while the second has a neo-Gothic syntax, similarly evoking 19th
century technology. Hagan suggests that environmental architects divide into
two camps – an arcadian minority who are essentially pre-industrial in spirit, and
a rationalist majority who are more inclined to new techniques and technologies.
However, such classification provokes paradox. If arcadia implies a rural idyll or
rustic simplicity, projects such as that of Hockerton are surely arcadian. Even
so, its terrace of houses could not be more rational. Rustic simplicity also aligns
with the ‘organic simplicity’ of Frank Lloyd Wright. But Wright was certainly not
pre-industrial in spirit.
It is clear that any study of green or environmental architecture should
investigate both the rural and the urban condition, and both ‘green-field’ and
‘brown-field’ sites. Many of the case studies, which have been included here as
relevant in a solar context, have also been examples of brown-field regeneration.

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Some, such as Dolf Floors’s Gravinnehof and Theo Bosch’s housing in Deventer,
have also had to address solar accessibility on restricted and historically
sensitive urban sites. To an extent, the constraint of space disappears in rural
schemes, whether arcadian, rational or both, but these can at least partly be
‘brown-field’ in nature. The Ottrupgård Fjernewarme project in Denmark was
built within a former farm. Not only were its outbuildings refurbished for new
communal purposes, but also the project as a whole brought in new life, with
more young people and children, and more intensive horticulture. The Earth
Balance project to the north of Newcastle in Northumbria, UK, has a very similar
agenda (Porteous, 1997). It is no surprise to find that one of its initiators is
Malcolm Newton, the author of the ingenious back-to-back solar housing
discussed in the first chapter. As at Ottrupgård, new buildings were needed.
This then introduces a ‘green-field’ challenge integral to an essentially ‘brown-
field’ concept. But building anew on green land is not a blank canvas. Both
Fjernewarme and Earth Balance had to accommodate intensive horticulture as
well as facilitating renewable energy – wind and water power for Earth Balance,
active solar collection and storage for Fjernewarme. Ecological treatment of
sewage, such as a reed bed, also takes up space, and must observe certain
conditions. It is then perfectly reasonable to explore new-build on rural sites in
a quest for a green solar future. All it does is increase the required level of
architectural sensitivity and skill, including the application of the science needed
to produce solar buildings in cool and cloudy climates.

The work of two North American practices

Aspects of the work by two practices in Canada, one in British Columbia and one
in Nova Scotia, have already been brought up in preceding chapters. As it
happens, their buildings are more often than not located on green-field sites. Both
portfolios also belong in the green or environmental genre. However, Brian
MacKay-Lyons in the east is justifiably reluctant to accept such a simple
categorization. Similarly, the work of Bo Helliwell and Kim Smith in the west has
been published in the wider terms of picturesque, tectonic and romantic qualities
(Boddy, 1999, pp8–15). One might also argue that the western practice leans
more to the arcadian and the eastern one more to the rationalist approach, but it
will be shown that both have a strong contemporary rationale. What is
incontrovertible is that each has carved out distinct architectural territory that
ascribes to people, place and prosperity. Partly for this reason, and partly because
case studies in northern European countries have already had a good airing,
some of their work has been chosen as the principal focus for this final chapter.
The choice is also connected to interesting commonalities and contrasts of
ambition and precedent, acknowledging that the demographic and socio-
economic climate in Canada differs significantly from its European counterparts.

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contextual commonalities and differences

Helliwell + Smith: Blue Sky Architecture sets out its stall for an architectural
programme as a response to place, climate, materials and structure. This
methodology is distinctly environmental and regional. A programme, of course,
addresses the needs of people – their clients, usually also the occupants. Place
defers to the detailed topography of the site, land and water, as well as its eco-
systems supported by the nature of its climate. They carefully research the
microclimate of sites as well as acknowledging regional characteristics, which
in turn relate to resources. They strive to use local materials as much as
possible, and also exploit local skills to achieve desired results. The structures
they use are a manifest expression of the primary material in British Columbia
– timber. But there is more to it than that. For example, the formal language of
post and beam is rooted in first nation architecture. This was adopted by
architects such as Arthur Erickson and melded with Pacific Coast modernism.
Bo Helliwell worked from 1968–72 in the office of Erickson-Massey, and the
impact those four years had on him is still evident. Architectural historian Trevor
Boddy asserts (rightly, it would seem) that a house Helliwell designed during this
period, the 1970 Rothstein house in Whistler, was also strongly influenced by
the 1964–65 Sea Ranch Condominium in California by MLTW (Boddy,1999,
pp8–15). MLTW is Charles Moore, Donlyn Lyndon, William Turnbull and Richard
Whittaker. Boddy further compares Helliwell and Smith’s work with that of Glenn
Murcutt and others in Australia.
This immediately defines mutual connections with Brian MacKay-Lyons in
Nova Scotia (the practice now named MacKay-Lyons Sweetapple Architects
Ltd.). His former tutor and mentor was Charles Moore of MLTW and Glenn
Murcutt is a good friend. It is perhaps too easily forgotten that Moore’s early
Californian work in the 1960s had an evident regional and climatically sensitive
flavour. In addition, it was one that more often than not had an inner sequence
of spatial and structural order, which set up a different grammar to that of the
external skin. For example, there are the two roof-lit, load-bearing ‘temples’
within the small house for himself at Orinda in 1962 (Allen, 1980, pp24–29).
These define the main sitting area and a sunken bath, and their asymmetric
placing has some interesting consequences. Since the raised lantern is
symmetrically centred over the ridge of a hipped roof, the vaults over the
‘temples’ have a skewed geometry that influences the channelling of light. The
outer envelope then has a layer of opaque sliding panels that can open up
corners directly to the outside. In the main sitting zone, the column of the larger
‘temple’ nearest the corner allows eaves beams to cantilever over a considerable
distance. Thus the opening up can be dramatic. Apparently Moore described
this as placing his piano into ‘a kind of exhilarating jeopardy’ (Allen, 1980,
pp24–29). At the same time the sliding doors offer the alternative of shading and
containment. Thus the apparent simplicity of the building belies a very rich
formal resolution.

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The Sea Ranch Condominium again plays with rooms within rooms, as well
as expressing a vigorous articulation of a diagonally braced post and beam
structure (Allen, 1980, pp30–37). The Sea Ranch Swim Club, 1966 and also by
MLTW, uses both accommodation and earth berms to provide a wind-sheltered
microclimate (Allen, 1980, pp39–41). The Budge house built in 1967 near
Healdsburg had counterbalanced screen walls, which folded up to the ceiling in
order to open the house out to the landscape (Allen, 1980, pp48–53).
While Moore’s work grew ever more playfully exuberant, humorously
engaging with post-modernism, there is a spare quality to most of MacKay-
Lyons’s work that aligns with the cultural history of Nova Scotia (see the
quotation on page 31 of this book). His trick of using ‘saddle-bags’ to maximize
spatial opportunities and flexibility within a main space is not only a reference to
one of Moore’s first realized projects, the Bonham house in the Santa Cruz
Mountains (Allen , 1980, pp16–19), but it is also immensely practical. That said,
an early example of his own work overlays a disciplined idea of core and skin
with humorous overtones of Moore’s rather later work. This is the 1985
conversion of a 200-year old house at Kingsburg, in itself a green act, where all
the original partitions were stripped out and replaced with his version of a local
lighthouse. A central tower, its girth reducing with height, contains a wilful stack
of sleeping shelves, lofts and belvedere, as well as plumbing and hearth (Figure
7.3). Brian MacKay-Lyons describes it with poetry, passion and commitment:

The House on the Nova Scotia Coast is symbolically

the center of our universe as family.
It is an archetypal one-room ‘House’, wrapping around a massive ‘Hearth’,
and wrapped by a ‘Grove’ of optimistic fruit trees, inside an archetypal
village.
It is a utopian project that is a built argument
for preservation of the agrarian cultural landscape.
The restored shell, contrasting the modern interior, is a metaphor
for the social contract between the individual and society.
My family climbs into the safety of the hearth to sleep.
(MacKay-Lyons, 1995, p25)

It can be argued that the complex rationalism of the Sea Ranch Condominium
has prevailed for Brian MacKay-Lyons as a line of more quietly restrained
enquiry. His work has been recognized as research through practice (Carter,
2001), with qualities that are very particularly associated with place: ‘Both
extremely rational and highly idiosyncratic, MacKay-Lyons’ work shows how
rootedness in a place, however geographically isolated, can result in architecture
as rigorous as that produced anywhere.’ Although Sea Ranch was also one of
several early influences for Bo Helliwell, he has increasingly moved towards a
subtly vibrant and romantically extrovert vocabulary of angled and undulating
walls and roofs, especially after his partnership with Kim Smith. In order to

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7.3 Inside and outside the 1985 conversion of

the MacKay-Lyons house at Kingsburg

understand this progression, one has to return to respective architectural roots.

The Gulf Island of Hornby became their shared working arena during the 1980s.
Helliwell moved there in the 1970s, after completing a post-graduate course at
the Architectural Association in London, and set up Blue Sky Design with
Michael McNamara as partner. The Graham house, designed in 1976 and
completed seven years later in 1983 remains a remarkable example of their
work together (Figure 7.4). Not only was it their first major collaboration in terms
of its design, but also they were both involved in self-building the 620m2
complex. This provided first hand skills with respect to constructional
techniques, and established the idea of a structure where heavy post and beam
elements internally are complemented by a load-bearing skin of fenestration.
The mullions of the latter are simply slim posts at closer intervals than the
primary ones inside.
Meanwhile, before her career as an architect, Kim Smith had designed and
helped to self-build a large boatshed, as a prelude to self-building a 12m ocean-
going catamaran. This was followed by more self-building with fellow
architectural students in Vancouver from 1980–82. Later in the 1980s, she
bought a house on Hornby Island, which became a test-bed of pragmatic
architectural subtraction and addition. The bold cliff-side creation of an
architectural technician, it offered scope for a linear studio slung below two
floors of existing accommodation, which was also extended and opened up.
Still the Hornby studio of Helliwell + Smith, this building touches its verdant cliff
very lightly, and makes the most of its commanding position, whether in terms
of arrival, activity or repose (Figure 7.5).

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GREEN SOLAR FUTURE

coastal Pacific projects

Much the same tactic of subtraction and addition has been used for their house
and main studio of Blue Sky Architecture in West Vancouver. The original upper
ground floor has been opened up to provide a generous linear, living-dining-
kitchen-study space. A cascade of extra terraces has been added overlooking
the steeply sloping garden to the southeast. Their new studio projects out on
the other side towards the access road, with a curved glass wall addressing a
dense temperate rain forest to the west. A tilted roof in the form of a hyperbolic
paraboloid dramatically tops the space. There is a remarkable green discipline
about this extension. Although it is at the same level as the main floor and the
site slopes up steeply at this side, it is a diagonal slope, with the floor level well
above grade at the east end. Thus no retaining walls were required and the load
of the timber structure could be taken into the ground at relatively few selective
points. This meant that the new extension could be built very close to existing
trees. In fact only one tree had to be felled, while all the growth beyond the
westerly screen of glass shades the interior (Figure 7.6a). The upward sweep of
the roof towards the northwest corner not only recognizes the position of the
public entrance to the studio, it also acknowledges the rising ground. Each
rafter coincides with a mullion along this edge while at the other, easterly side
the rafters come to rest on a chunky horizontal beam.
One might ask why a beam and not the wall, and why horizontal, when the
other side slopes? At one level it might be perceived as a wilful architectural
move, but it involves more than the aesthetics of the space. The horizontal
beam rests on piers, which internally buttress the slim timber-framed wall,
located parallel and close to the boundary. It is a counterpoint to the structurally
effective curve of the load-bearing screen on the other side. Each pier supports
the load of three rafters via the beams, which are located close to the inner edge
of the piers. In turn this construction permits a tilted clerestory strip of windows
to face the sky and shed daylight down the eastern wall of the studio above
bays of bookshelves (Figure 7.6b). The fact that the beam is parallel to the
bookshelves provides a sense of anchored stability to the ensemble. This is the
architectural and green synergy of place, climate, materials and structure
relative to the programme.
In terms of solar design, the objective was to avoid overheating in a room
occupied by several people and computers. At the same time the eastern
clerestory and the full-height western facets of glass help to maintain an
awareness of the external environment and the daily cycle of the sun. The
extension does not compromise access to sun and view from all the main 7.4 Inside the main living space of the Graham
house – note the sectional device for
rooms of the house, where roof overhangs, and the projecting decks in the case providing daylight and ventilation deep within
of the lower floor of bedrooms, provide fixed shading. This solution has great the floor plate
clarity, but was not reached without polemics. Two earlier ideas were 7.5 Helliwell + Smith’s cliff-side home and studio
systematically and mutually assessed, before being discarded – a ‘Bo-idea’ for on Hornby Island – looking into main living
space from upper entry level

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7.6 The West Vancouver studio of Blue Sky the studio at low level on the southern side; and a ‘Kim-idea’ for a high-level,
Architecture northwest solution, using the car port as a starting point.
a curved west facade
b straight façade opposite, facing to the north Another ordering mechanism, which is clearly present in much of Helliwell +
of due east Smith’s work is that of front and back. Historically, we are used to a formal front,
always facing the street or other public approach, while the back can be more
informal and offers privacy. In the case of Helliwell + Smith, the front sometimes
coincides with access. Arrival at the Murphy house on Gambier Island by boat
is such an example. Their own studio and house in West Vancouver is more
complex, but entirely logical. The studio is entered from the public edge, as is
the house. The path from carport to door is romantic and informal, down steps
and across a bridge, which spans a pool. Meanwhile the real front of the house
is private, with fantastic views across the bay to the city centre. Even though the
entrance is not always located on the front, it is nonetheless adopted as a
formal device – one which relates to orientation and aspect, as well as to
programmatic function, and therefore to relative areas of glazing. The concept
of front and back may translate to fluid and solid, flexible and specific, served
and servant and so on. In their studio, the front is the curved wall of glass, with
the entrance occupying the corner, while its back is the straight wall close to the
boundary. The back of the house on the other hand adopts the same informal
functionalism as the entrance, with the projecting stairs to the lower level clearly
expressed. In the Murphy house, the front is an undulating wall, mainly glazed
from floor to roof in order to capture the ocean view through pine trees. It was
important to the clients that the house should intrude minimally on the natural

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landscape of the island. Viewed from the sea, the gentle form of the front is
virtually invisible. By contrast, the back is a series of juxtaposed flat planes,
more solid than transparent, that enclose the utility spaces (Figure 7.7). The
unifying curved roof follows the geometry of the plan, with the exception of the
outdoor room (see Chapter 3), which it oversails. The whole nestles elegantly
within its sylvan nirvana.
The Greenwood or ‘Fishbones’ house on Galiano Island also has a long and
predominantly glazed scalloped wall facing the ocean and a jetty for arrival by boat.
This means that it is a relatively private front, while in this case the house is more
usually accessed from the rear. A public road bounds the site on the northeast,
several metres above the entrance and garage. Hence even this side is secluded,
with a limited glimpse from the top of the driveway into the forecourt and over a turf
and glass roof. The careful placing on the site, with a minimum amount of excavation
to secure a southwest-facing ledge on the restricted and steeply sloping interface
between forest and rocky shore, is evocative of Frank Lloyd Wright. However, if
such a precedent has relevance, it is not the whole story.
The highly disciplined juxtaposition of curved and orthogonal form has
become a signature of Blue Sky Architecture. Here the flowing façade to the
ocean terminates in a substantial cedar post set out from a massive stone
chimneystack at the southern end (Figure 7.8). At right angles to this and parallel
to the eastern boundary, a flat wall then turns through 45° and moves in and out
as required to enclose the garage and provide a recess for the entrance, with
children’s bedrooms jutting out beyond. The 45° move relative to the eastern
boundary is formally and structurally important. A long horizontal ridge, also at

7.7 The curvaceous front and angular back of

the Murphy house

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45° to the eastern wall is the spine of the plan and section. Programmatically, in
the diurnal core of the dwelling, the spine is a demarcation between leisure and
work. In the nocturnal part, it separates the adult zone from that for children and
guests. Where it intersects with the eastern wall at its southernmost post, the
ridge beam turns horizontally at right angles to connect with the post that marks
the south end of the scalloped façade. It then turns at right angles again, but
this time slopes down towards the southeast to connect with a final post on the
line of the eastern wall, and simultaneously defines a small triangular outdoor
space. To the southwest of the spine, parallel cylindrical cedar rafters drop
down at varying angles to provide a flowing form for the roof in harmony with
that of the wall. However, to the northeast there are simple mono-pitches and
flat roofs respecting the predominantly rectilinear forms, which accommodate
utilitarian spaces. A long stretch of this is a lean-to clerestory similar to that
used in their studio. This window to the encircling forest allows morning
sunshine to penetrate the heart of the house and enables stack-assisted cross
ventilation (Figure 7.8).
If Frank Lloyd Wright was possibly a subliminal influence in terms of
topographical placement, there is at least one late 20th century building in
Europe that has formal similarities. The technique of a horizontal spine or
backbone acting as a launch pad for curvilinear gymnastics on plan and section
is reminiscent of the Japanese cultural centre in Kraków, Poland, by Arata
Izozaki & Associates (Cerver, 2000). Completed in 1994, its sinuous accents suit
the location on the west bank of the River Wisła, a small enclave of green
between the flowing water and the busy main road that bypasses the old city
centre. However, within its voluptuous envelope, Izozaki uses a series of
regularly spaced, and identically dimensioned, hollow brick piers as an
orthogonal ordering device. From these, diagonal struts support his roof, which
undulates on plan and section in two separate halves (Figure 7.9). The piers,
each with a generous rectilinear opening, also define a primary circulation route
for visitors, as well as forming ducts for controlled circulation of air. Izozaki’s
synthesis of programme, structure and services undoubtedly has green
resonance. The rationale is one of multiple added value, as well as being
formalistically analogous to some of Helliwell + Smith’s buildings.
Returning to British Columbia and the Murphy house, a similar spine is used
as a spatial and structural delineator between curvilinear front and angular
back. A large rectangular Douglas fir beam, the underside of which is at the level
of the top of doors, is aligned to coincide with the sliding screen of the outdoor
room. It again mediates between work and leisure in the principal diurnal space
(Figure 7.10) where a substantial circular post, a former tree from the site,
breaks the span. The beam runs right through the centre of the post, which
carries on to the roof and thus helps to stabilize the structure, as do other
elements such as the massive masonry chimneystack. Thereafter, relatively slim

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7.8 The Greenwood or ‘Fishbones’ house on

Galiano Island:
a plan
b elevation
c cross section
d interior view

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7.9 Japanese Centre for Art and Technology in rectangular posts on the top of this beam provide intermediate support for each
Kracow: a) external and b) internal view rafter, which can then span a fairly moderate distance to either load-bearing
mullions or timber-framed sections of the outer wall. Douglas fir is used
throughout for structural timber, including tongued and grooved roof-decking
and windows, while the unglazed parts of the exterior are clad in flush-jointed,
tongued and grooved cedar siding. On the south side rafters also cantilever
beyond the face of the wall, providing a visual cornice and additional shading to
that of the trees. To accommodate the roof’s changing curvature, the posts
simply have to alter their length. At least the principle is simple, but since
virtually every junction is visible, successful realization depends on predictive
accuracy at the pre-contract stage, as well as high standards of carpentry in
execution. Dimensional stability of the structural timber plays an important part,
and to help in this regard it was all radio-frequency (microwave), vacuum kiln-
dried. The process of building also recognizes the isolated location. As soon as
the roof was on, the building crew lived in, the house temporarily used as their
finishing workshop.
A similar degree of accuracy was demanded for ‘Fishbones’ on Galiano
Island. Here, visible junctions had to be accommodated between circular posts,
eaves-beams and rafters. As a client, Barry Greenwood was strongly against
metal connections and practicalities made other demands relative to aesthetics.
For example, the main bedroom required a degree of acoustic isolation from the
main space, while visual continuity down the length of the building was equally
important. The constructionally demanding solution, frameless glass set into
horizontal rectangular beam, circular rafter and post, is beautifully executed.

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Somewhat easier, but with the same meticulous attention to detail, is the copper
gargoyle from the roof. This is functionally seated on one of the projecting cedar
rafters and also celebrates the purpose of the roof at a pivotal position on plan.
It not only axiomatically coincides with the roof’s concave centre-point, but also
that of the façade, which in turn aligns with one of the primary columns to the
north of the island unit of the kitchen. Although one might talk about the
ecological benefit of a copper roof and spout relative to rockery plants on the
terrace below, the architectural panache of this small component relative to a
bigger whole moves beyond the realm of green qualities.
Trevor Boddy (1999, p14) emphasizes the picturesque and romantic nature
of these designs, ‘treating nature more as a visual system than one where
energy concerns dominate’. He suggests that ‘“green” or “organic” architecture
seems to offer some parallels to their work.’ Peter Davey, in his preface to the
same book in which Boddy writes (1999, pp5–6), accepts that ecological
consciousness is deeply embedded in their work. This view is positively
qualified: ‘Helliwell and Smith are inheritors and interpreters of the Organic
tradition of Modernism. But they are free of its often claustrophobic tendencies.’
However, because there are picturesque and romantic layers embedded in the
aesthetic and tectonic ambition and resolution of each programme in terms of
7.10 The spinal beam of the Murphy house,
place, climate, materials and structure, it does not mean that these metaphoric
looking west into the main room (Bo Helliwell
planks of their methodology are subsidiary. They are fundamental, and they are in background)
essentially bound up with a process of sustainability that carries a particular
Helliwell + Smith hallmark. It is a hallmark that, from the outset, recognized
value in precedence as well as always looking forwards in terms of refinement.
The Gadsby house, 1988–92, bears examination as the outcome of the first
formal partnership between the two while still with Blue Sky Design (that is, just
before setting up Blue Sky Architecture). As with the Greenwood house, there is
a front facing out to the ocean. This is backed by all the utility spaces along the
public side of the plot. Entry is again through paired sets of this ancillary
accommodation. The long façade of the main living-dining space faces virtually
due east and, on this occasion, front and back meet on the south edge. Here a
triangular section of roof glazing covers part of the kitchen and a loggia facing
into a walled sun court. This is complemented by another section of glass over
the west-facing entrance threshold and lobby (Figure 7.11). A third roof-glazed
triangular extension to the rectilinear master bedroom juts out to claim the view
and morning sun. Thus the daily cycle of the sun is carefully considered. Inside,
the roof glazing over the kitchen and entrance porch allows sunlight deep into
the main space throughout the day, without compromising the paramount
nature of the views north and east to the sea. Moreover, large ceramic floor tiles
over the areas that receive most sunshine provide useful thermal mass. External
spaces allow migratory scope for sun or shade from dawn to dusk. The decks
along the east side can receive some sunshine until midday, while a generous

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7.11 The Gadsby house looking into main living

area west towards entrance porch

triangular roof overhang also provides the opportunity for shade and shelter.
The sun court is both more secluded and sheltered, while a second garden
court with a hot tub is functionally located on the northwest corner next to
internal plumbing.
On plan, there is one major directional shift of about 25°, while on section,
siting the dwelling over a natural hollow allows the living space to drop by two
steps and still to gain some extra bedrooms below. The change of angle is
essentially taken up in the main space, allowing the convenience and
functionality of an orthogonal discipline in the smaller rooms and closets. As in
the Greenwood house, there is a primary ridge beam. However, here it soars
diagonally across the main space, tilting upwards towards the northeast. At
each extremity it is supported on slim corner posts, with only one additional
central support. This is a chunky circular timber post, around which the spiral
stair to the lower floor pivots. Thus the structure, plan and section are synergic.
In particular the position and tilt of the beam skilfully regulates the volume, with
maximum height and openness over the main living space contrasting with the
lower volume of the kitchen with its internalized view from the sink on to the sun
court. Whilst the dynamics of the geometry are probably more attributable to
the influence of Kim Smith, the single central support is reminiscent of an earlier
Hornby precedent, that of the Lloyd house ‘leaf retreat’. Bo Helliwell included
this in his 1974 historical dissertation and as a special issue of Architectural
Design (Helliwell and McNamara, 1978).

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ubiquitous environmental concerns

It almost goes without saying that Helliwell + Smith use good standards of
insulation and glazing, as well as ecologically sensitive finishes. For example,
low-emissivity, argon-filled, triple glazing is used in the Greenwood house to
complement the insulated and untreated cedar-clad walls. The roof is similarly
well insulated above the structural cedar decking, as is the heated screed below
the cherry-wood flooring. As a matter of policy, the timber is sourced as locally
as possible, with fabrication by local contractors. In its natural state, timber is of
course an innately benign ecological material. It is carbon neutral, non-toxic,
acts as an absorber for moisture and, as stated previously, it is a surprisingly
good thermal store, given adequate thickness. However, one might still question
the green credentials of individual dwellings in isolated places, especially when
they sometimes seem luxuriously large. This could challenge the output of many
practices that rely substantially on one-off domestic commissions. Although a
well-known British architectural commentator, Martin Pawley (2001), seems not
to have a problem with this in the UK, others do, particularly the environmentalists
who are concerned about the inbuilt reliance on personal transport. This brings
us back to the debate about the relativity of eco-footprints in varying contexts.
There is no reason why the intensive European context cannot have an efficient
and fine-grained system of public transport to serve built-up areas. But this is
difficult to justify or achieve as populations reduce and distances expand.
In a country as large and as sparsely populated as Canada, detached
houses on reasonably large plots, as well as cars to get to them, are hard to
argue against. Also, by and large, wealth or relative wealth does not generally
seem to be perceived as having been aggressively acquired at the expense of
the less fortunate; and dwellings in a beautiful landscape are not automatically
regarded as threatening or despoiling – as they are now in Scotland, unless
grouped in corporate estates. Throughout the UK and other densely populated
European countries, such apparently haphazard and unrestrained growth
continues to burgeon around existing villages, towns and cities. Unfortunately,
more often than not it also continues to display monotonous anonymity, not to
mention the visual impact of regurgitated goulash. Most (in the UK at least) are
stuck in some dreadful pseudo reflection of the past. Speculative developers in
particular, but also housing associations and lenders, insist this is what people
want. Having said that, the public sector remains the one area of occasional
enlightenment compared with the private one, where the profit incentive always
seems to be contradictory to aesthetic quality. One might argue whether people
are seduced or traduced to open their wallets to such regressive pastiche as the
least line of resistance, rather than actively seeking it. But if ‘my home is my
castle’ is the main incentive, the plots are simply too small to provide that
aspirant degree of seclusion. On the other hand, the model runs counter to a
cohesive sense of community.

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In Canada there is still room for the culture of the pioneer, the culture of
possibility; and given a big enough plot, the character of a housing cluster
becomes much more diffuse, with controlled nature asserting its dominance.
Ironically, a diffuse community also seems to be a realistic goal. For example,
Helliwell + Smith’s house and studio is on a 0.2 hectare (half-acre) plot with
virtually no visual awareness of neighbouring houses. Yet there is a tangible
sense of ‘West Van’ togetherness. Settlements in more remote rural areas are
not so different. The less dense vegetation surrounding the Gadsby house on
Hornby Island means that neighbours are rather more in evidence, while the
aura of village life throughout the island could hardly be more robust. Key social
hubs are a co-operative shop and gas station, a recycling and re-using centre,
a community hall and a local pub with cool jazz of a Friday – all vibrantly thriving.
The size of plots tends to be somewhat smaller than 0.2 hectare and is about
0.15 in the case of Gadsby. Even so, they are still very generous by typical
northern European standards for populous suburban areas, or the equivalent
expansion of smaller towns and villages. In the UK one would expect to find four
or five dwellings crammed into a fifth of a hectare. Exceptions to this are older
models. For example, the crofting ‘townships’ to be found in the Highlands and
Islands of Scotland have an equivalent generosity in terms of land. There is calm
and privacy in open landscapes, but there is also a sense of collective,
interactive purpose. In Canada, where a higher density of more than 15 or so
dwellings per hectare is economically dictated, low-rise condominiums are a
pragmatic solution, especially when in, or close to, a town or city. There is a fine
20th century demonstration of such a development on the steeply forested
slopes of West Vancouver by Arthur Erickson, which might be regarded as a
timber equivalent of the 1961 Siedlung Halen by Atelier 5 just outside Berne in
Switzerland. High-rise housing is also now being built at a great rate in the
centre of Vancouver. The demand is huge, reflecting the current price of land.
Therefore, individual dwellings, sometimes on relatively isolated virginal
sites, but more often in clusters, cannot just be shunted out of sustainable sight.
The Pacific Coast region of North America has developed a seminal reputation
for radical domestic experimentation that dates back to the arrival of Rudolph
Schindler at the outbreak of the First World War and Richard Neutra in the
1920s. Much of the innovation would today be regarded as ecologically aware
(Porteous, 2002). Much of it has also now been absorbed into suburbia. Once
accepted, such locations may also throw up some quite tricky environmental
issues. For example, there is understandably a minimum distance stipulated
between a septic tank and a well for fresh water. Due to this constraint, the
Gadsby House has a large cistern in its basement to store rainwater collected
from the roof. In the case of the Greenwood House, the client chose not to do
this, but to install a desalination plant in an outhouse. He was familiar with the
technology, felt comfortable with it and could afford it.

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coastal Atlantic projects 7.4 Frank Lloyd Wright and Usonia

Exactly the same issues occur in Nova Scotia although, as indicated earlier, its Usonia and Usonian were terms used by Frank Lloyd
climate is in some respects harsher than that in British Columbia. Consequently, Wright in a philosophical, political and practical sense
there is less dense afforestation and smaller trees. There is still plenty of space applied to the USA. In his autobiography (Wright, 1977)
and there seems to be a tendency for minimal landscaping around dwellings, we find him referring to a ’new sense of Architecture’
perhaps more referential to the prevailing and austere agrarian and fishing culture to ‘awaken the United States to fresh beauty and the
than the climate. Hence we have Brian MacKay-Lyons (1995, p12) referring to Usonian horizon of the individual’, which he claims
buildings ‘perched on the land like brightly coloured dice.’ In fact, despite the to be enhanced by ‘this great lever, the machine’. He
also refers to ‘the great Usonian Life, the universal life
name of this province, the built forms, materials and colours are much more
of our own true democracy’ and ‘the road to Freedom
redolent of Scandinavia than Scotland. The cost of land is presently a good deal
in Usonia’. The association of USA and utopia is
cheaper in Nova Scotia than British Columbia and so building plots in rural
inescapable, and Wright used Usonian as a paradigm
locations tend to be less constrained. More ground can be afforded with fewer for houses in the 1930s and 1940s.
natural obstructions such as trees. This provides the possibility of pavilions in the
round, rather than the more bipolar arrangement with public and private edges,
which are common to several of Helliwell + Smith’s commissions. A corollary to
the vernacular heritage is that MacKay-Lyons has no compunction about building
on the top of hills, rather than on the side. His sculptural regional aesthetic, with
his simple forms vigorously editing the anthropogenic landscape, defers more to
Europe and Le Corbusier than Frank Lloyd Wright and Usonia. 7.4
A good illustration of these issues alongside the fundamental ethos of
MacKay-Lyons is the 1999 dwelling known as Coastal House No. 22 (Carter,
2001). Near the mouth of the historic LaHave estuary at 44.2°N, the way in
which the programme has been interpreted and then positioned on the
landscape is key. Initially the site being considered was a single drumlin. This is
one of a pair, roughly 150m apart, and in an elevated position relative to other
houses in the vicinity. MacKay-Lyons, in any case fascinated by duality and
reciprocity, saw a golden opportunity. He persuaded his client to purchase both
grassy drumlins. He then aligned two perfect pavilions on their respective
summits. The approach is dramatic. Once seen in their elevated purity, the road
spirals round and up, eventually arriving at the opposite side of the larger of the
two. This is the main house, volumetrically a double cuboid, while the second is
the guest wing, a reflection of the first in terms of the facing elevation, but
shorter in length. Effectively it is simply a smaller second house, which is
approached on foot via a bridge across the low-lying and sometimes wet
ground between the two drumlins.
Although there are panoramic views in all directions, compass orientation
was also a major consideration. Having made the decision for respective living
spaces to face each other, the main house has been given solar priority. Thus it
is situated on the northerly drumlin, with its double-height living room facing
south to the guesthouse, as well as west. To include the superb view north to
the LaHave estuary, the living space extends under the main bedroom into the
dining space (Figure7.12). The same happens in reverse in the guesthouse. It

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has a large window facing south to the Atlantic below the bedroom and a more
constrained double volume facing north and west. Each building also has a
wing wall, stretched adherence to the aligned reciprocity, forming an eastern
windbreak to respective patios. Although it means that guests will not receive
much sunshine on theirs until late afternoon, there is another outdoor element,
a deck to the south of the guesthouse close to the edge of the cliffs.
Referring back to the influence of Charles Moore, there are no rooms within
rooms as such, but a spine of stairs and storage has a strong identity, critical to a
parti of served and servant spaces (parti is defined as ‘choice, means or method;
… the choice of approach when realizing the scheme’ (Curl, 1999)). This is evident
from the architect’s drawings (Figure 7.13). Forming the demarcation between the
main living spaces and all the east-facing single-height utility spaces together
with double-height porte cochère, the spine is an internal manifestation of the
external wing walls. The staircase descends on to a striking stainless steel shelf,
which continues the alignment of the storage out into the landscape. The served/
servant parti is similar to that employed by Helliwell + Smith, but a difference lies
in the relative suppression of it externally. Only one freestanding element breaks
7.12 Coastal House 22: view south to the
out of the main double cuboid, but it too conforms to the essence of the parti.
guesthouse and north to the LaHave estuary

7.13 Coastal House 22: architect’s drawings –

plans (north to right) and elevations, the
plan clearly showing the parti of ‘served
and servant’

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Lying to the west of the living space in the main house, it contains an open hearth
and bookshelves, beefed up by the plant room behind. It is known as the ‘bump’.
What the stair-storage-shelf and the ‘bump’ achieve is to leave an uncluttered,
but economic, width for the primary spaces. The ‘bump’ is a version of Moore’s
‘saddlebags’, while the spinal feature again manages to be completely practical
while lifting architecture on to another aesthetic plane. Thus the resolution is
bound in with pragmatic green aspects, such as conveniently concentrating the
expensive wet and warming services, as well as poetic symbolism – the fixed but
pivotal hearth, and the vertical movement along the line of transition. It also allows
flexible use of the main spaces. The bedroom doubles as the working space for
one partner, while the living room fulfils the same function for the other. This is
green strategy in action.
The other striking Moore precedent is the exposure of diagonal timber struts.
It is particularly bold in this instance because two of them embrace the bed
(Figure 7.14). As with the work of Helliwell + Smith, the tectonics are essential to
the whole. A light timber building with so many openings requires to be well
braced. Even though the external visual expression is of a pair of timber boxes on
top of metal and glass ones, each building is in reality all one coherent

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construction. Just as the polished concrete floors are not an issue for the owners,
neither is the structural and material rationale. They love it, and it is all value for
money – another reason why this project deserves to be credited as green.
Internally, there is absolutely no wasted space. The planning is faultless in
this regard. This is partly attributable to the decision to separate the two
components. It takes slightly more in the way of materials, but there are no
conflicting circulatory demands. The only elements that might be challenged
as being too generous are the double-height portes cochères. But they
celebrate entrance as well as providing practical shelter while loading and
unloading cars at the main house. Moreover, they were absolutely essential to
the cuboid composition, and the extra cedar siding for the upper rain screen
is hardly extravagant.
A similar kind of reciprocity between main house and guest wing is
employed at the 2004 Hill house (see also Chapter 3) on the South Shore of
Nova Scotia (Architectural Review, 2004). In this case, the two elements of
accommodation are just either side of a single summit, allowing both a minimally
excavated lower ground floor. In the main house, this accommodates studio,
utility and exercise space. In the other part, which also has a generous garage-
playroom at ground level, the bedrooms are at the lower level. The main part of
7.14 Coastal House 22: structure integrated in the
main bedroom, looking north
the house has slight solar dominance, with the bedroom facing east and main
space receiving sunlight from dawn to dusk. However, in this case the guest
wing does not face back to the main house, but out to the south, and so is not
exactly disadvantaged in terms of sunlight. Similarly, there is no wasted space
in the planning: built-in storage plays a significant role and the palette of
materials is restrained – the usual heated polished concrete floors, hemlock
ceiling, maple fitments and an external skin of cedar shingles. This house also
collects rainwater from both of its mono-pitched roofs, which slope gently down
towards the central court. This supplements the supply from a borehole, with
the facility to switch from one to the other.
An equivalent elegant clarity exists for non-domestic buildings by the
practice. The new community theatre in Parsboro has only three programmatic
components, all below a single unifying mono-pitch roof – a large flexible
theatre space, a narrow two-storey strip of ancillary accommodation through
which the theatre is entered, and a covered portico-foyer. This last houses the
remains of the small ship around which the theatre has until now revolved,
making use of temporary tented structures for each production. There are
actually three materials used on façades, but each has a very distinct role.
Hemlock lines solid parts of the sheltered ancillary spine, cedar shingles clad
the two flanking gables of the theatre, and galvanized corrugated steel protects
the tilted wall on the seaward face. The roof is finished in the same material, with
sections of corrugated plastic integrated above the portico. The structure is
mainly a combination of steel and timber, with concrete playing a very minor

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role. Steel columns bring their load on to concrete pile caps, which are in turn
supported on pairs of timber piles descending through the artificially built-up
ground of the site.
The computing technology centre for Dalhousie University in Halifax also
reduces quite an elaborate programme to a few simple elements. All the teaching
spaces face northward to the street, while a vertiginous linear atrium, housing a
muscular cascading stair and with a social area at its foot, faces southward
(Figure 7.15). It is also bridged at intervals over its height by cul-de-sac retreats.
These allow students to take short breaks from their closed world of computers
into spectacular sunlit vantage points. Indeed, a slight eastward bias will allow
students to enjoy sunshine here well before midday, while the corresponding
westward bias of the IT areas should not cause overheating. The large angle of
incidence in late afternoon will mean that most of the solar heat will be reflected
and a mainly exposed structure of concrete provides plenty of thermal mass,
which absorbs heat from computers in the northern section and solar heat gain in
the southern one. There are selective areas of lightweight linings for acoustic
absorbency, and these may be regarded as an internal reflection of the external
skin, held off from the grid of concrete. Entry into the atrium from the street-level
foyer is one floor up from its base. The sense of looking down as well as up at this
arrival point adds to the legibility as well as the drama of the space, which also
functions passively as part of the return circulatory system for mechanically
supplied air. Servicing is stacked conveniently at east and west extremities.
Overall, this building may not immediately display green or solar characteristics,
but these issues have been considered in a practical and coherent manner within
an undemonstrative rectilinear shell.

The need for a ‘value system of complexity’

It was the absence of such order and legibility that architect and academic,
Professor Isi Metzstein, criticized when interviewed about the controversial new
Scottish Parliament building at Holyrood in Edinburgh:

It lacks some kind of logic that could offer some clues to de-coding
the forms … I think architecture needs some kind of narrative, not
exactly a hierarchy, in which some parts of a building are more important
than others. In other words, a value system of complexity in materials,
construction and form.

Queried as to why this approach is so important, he goes on:

It is important because you read a building. The building tells you what
it is. At Holyrood, every bit of the building is equally elaborate, there is no
clear way through it. There is no way to recognize when you have come to
something important; you don’t know what to look at first. All buildings
7.15 The atrium of the computing technology
need an unfolding sequence. (Lewis and Metzstein, 2004) centre at Dalhousie University, looking west

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As just one example, the random distribution of superfluous screens over

windows and other parts of the façades contributes to the external obfuscation
and ‘look at me’ and ‘look at this’ to which Metzstein refers (Figure 7.16). Asked
whether the building should be more functional and formal, Metzstein comments:
‘It is not about formality it is about orchestration. Like a piece of music, a building
has a structure, it tells you where the next piece of the composition is going to
come from and where it is going.’ (The transcription of excerpts from the interview
of Isi Metzstein by Penny Lewis has been reproduced here without any
amendment to punctuation.) This sentiment echoes the words of Louis Kahn
(1962): ‘At some point there must be a place of maximum intensity.’
Although Isi Metzstein was not talking ‘green’, the essence of both how a
building reads and a value system of complexity seems to be fundamental to
sustainable, environmental design. That is not to say that the last work of an
eminent architect such as Enric Miralles, together with the significant
contribution of his widow, Benedetta Tagliabue (the other half of EMBT), and
RMJM (Robert Matthew Johnson Marshall), does not have strengths, but simply
that it does not seem to have the strength of canonical, logical clarity.
Taking up his critique from a solar perspective, Metzstein complains of too
much daylight in the main chamber, implying that it is over-glazed. Actually, he
was questioning the need for any daylight in such a space. While it may be
legitimate to posit a ‘black-box’ solution, the counter-position that daylight is
desirable, even if only because we tend to feel deprived over time in its absence,
can be justified. In this regard, it could be argued that the chamber is a qualified
success. The direct vertical fenestration on the east and west sides of the
chamber has necessitated anti-glare shields. These are not very skilfully
handled on the east side to the rear of the visitors’ gallery. Gravity is exerting its

7.16 The ‘look at me’ and ‘look at this’ of the new

Scottish Parliament’s exterior

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GREEN SOLAR FUTURE

influence over the internal solar blinds, which, perversely, are horizontally
drawn. Unsurprisingly, they are not adequately tensioned and are sagging. By
contrast, in the case of the west façade, a thin layer of sycamore is securely
sandwiched between two sheets of glass to form a light-filtering mural. MSPs
and visitors view this as they face towards the presiding officer. Miralles clearly
expresses his fascination with translucence and multiple layering, and in this
case the screen is practical in editing the relatively confined view beyond the
windows, as well as preventing glare. In terms of admitting daylight, it is the
reflected light from east-sloping roof glazing, in particular via glass ‘guillotines’
suspended above the west side of the chamber, that is paramount. On a dull
day the consequence is that the chamber appears subtly lit rather than over-
glazed. Indeed it is a tribute to the architectural resolution that, even in such
weather, it is still possible to appreciate the space without artificial lighting,
which appears to be over-provided in the extreme and is now left on regardless
of ambient brightness. A veritable forest of lights hang from the roof structure
and one can contrast the intrusiveness of these fittings relative to daylight with
the elegant symbiosis achieved at the museum in Ålborg (Chapter 5).
If the main chamber can be praised with a faint damn, it has to be said
overall that there is neither a convincing strategy for orientation and natural
lighting, nor for natural ventilation. For example, there have been justifiable
complaints from MSPs that their offices are under lit, requiring the lights to be
on, not to mention too warm with an inadequate area of opening windows (Tait,
2004). This is not surprising, given the design of the projecting oriel windows on
the west façade. Their extruded shape makes airing awkward and excessive
‘glare contrast’ inevitable, with the area of glass very small relative to the depth
of offices. Hence there is a need for more or less permanent artificial lighting in
the workspace. Perhaps MSPs should be grateful that at least this is handled
reasonably, with the ceiling acting as a reflector for background illumination,
complemented by task lighting on their desks.
An assertion was made near the beginning of this chapter that while a solar
building is not necessarily green, a green one should always be to some extent
solar. The Scottish Parliament does not get to the starting block on either basis.
Orientation does not seem to have influenced any of the fenestration. For
example, accepting the logic of the decision to align the MSPs along the
western boundary to enclose a private court, there is a thermal argument for the
offices to face east rather than west. The temperature of the air is cooler during
periods of morning sunshine than in the afternoon. Hence there would have
been justification for larger windows facing in this direction. But if that is put
down to dubious judgement, orientation appears to be otherwise a matter of
happenstance. The plan of the main complex still defers to the collage of leaves
and twigs presented at the time of the first stage of the competition. Inevitably,
this results in a considerable amount of mutual obstruction to daylight as well as

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sunlight. Apart from this, the tight collision of the four buildings immediately
west of the debating chamber, with their pointed forms causing some external
spaces to terminate in extremely acute angles, implies great future difficulty in
terms of maintenance. The architects seem to have become fixated on the
dense and often awkwardly claustrophobic, not to mention unhealthy, grain of
medieval Edinburgh, rather than its spatially generous and environmentally
reforming Georgian counterpart.
Finally, although there was a considerable amount of hype at an early stage
concerning environmentally sensitive materiality, such aspirations fell by the
wayside. Excessive use of concrete threatens the environment both in terms of
finding sources of aggregate and in terms of the production of cement. The
sourcing of all the other main materials outside Scotland not only betrays a
laissez-faire approach to sustainability (Dorrell, 2004), but also confirms the lack
of a value system other than that of hard cash. The cost has of course been a
major political bone of contention. But setting aside specification, sourcing and
the hikes attributable to the type of contract, bomb proofing and so forth, there
is no escaping the amount of material that can be laid at the door of the planning
concept. The number of discrete components of accommodation and the
excessive circulation, at least partly driven by placing the offices of MSPs at the
opposite end of the site from the main debating chamber, equate to a very large
area of external surface relative to usable space.
By way of contrast, it can be argued that all the case studies, described and
discussed previously in this chapter, conform to the premise of logically respecting
and optimizing sunlight and daylight, as well as the principle of pragmatic
planning and bioregionalism in terms of materials. Orientation, position, size and
specification of fenestration have all been carefully determined relative to the
topographical and climatic locus. Each project also has Metzstein’s value system
of complexity as well as Kahn’s places of maximum intensity – crescendos,
according to the former’s musical analogy. Moreover, the economically low
surface to volume ratios implied by the simple forms of MacKay-Lyons, compared
with the rather more elaborated ones of Helliwell + Smith, may be interpreted as
a logical response to differing climates and cultures.
Similarly the lack of active solar thermal and electrical systems in both sets
of work, can be understood in contrast to more committed and interventionist
political climates or cultures in countries such as Holland and Germany.
Nevertheless, since it exploits a solar-heated ambient source, one may consider
a heat pump to be an active solar thermal variant. As the one chosen in a
number of the Canadian and European case studies cited, the advantage of
out-of-sight compactness is self-evident. There is a credible argument that
architects should not be force-fed solar panels, which are bound in with tricky
aesthetic decisions. Essentially, over-regulation is riskier than a policy of
tempting incentives. If they do opt in, then panels can be discreetly handled, as

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several of the case studies in Chapter 2 demonstrate. Successive chapters 7.5 Vitruvian triad: sense and sensibility?
have also shown that the performance of any building is sensitive to systems of Cassel’s Latin Dictionary (undated) defines venustas
control through a wide passive–active and participatory–automatic (or as ‘loveliness, beauty, charm, attractiveness’,
selective–exclusive) range, and not necessarily in the same respective order. utilitas as ‘usefulness, utility, advantageousness,
Although this principle applies to all systems in all climates, there is a point profitableness, use, profit, advantage’ and firmitas
made in the preface that seems to hold true. Just as a green building should be as ‘firmness, durability’. This does match Wotton’s
a solar building, but the reverse is a harder proposition, a solar building will find later version quite closely. For example, a dictionary
it easier to transfer from an area with a poor supply–demand ratio to one with a definition of commodity (Allen, 1993) is ‘profit,
more favourable balance than vice versa. The original Trombe-Michel wall is a expediency, advantage, convenience or privilege’.
case in point. Substantial modification is required to make the principle work in Morgan (1914) also uses ‘durability’ for firmitas
and ‘beauty’ for venustas, but reduces utilitas to
a less favourable climate, but such a modification might still be advantageous
simple ‘convenience’. According to his translation,
moving in the other direction. The ability for occupants to compromise heating
convenience is achieved ‘when the arrangement
performance also seems to be more sensitive to situations where the solar
of the apartments is faultless and presents no
supply is relatively small compared to demand. The opposite is likely to be true hindrance to use, and when each class of building is
of cooling. The wills and perceptions, both rational and apparently irrational, of assigned to its suitable and appropriate exposure’.
occupants have been shown to be a factor in this regard, and there seems to be In this last regard, Vitruvius was clearly concerned
a case for instituting tangible incentives. with prevailing winds, and their impact on health and
Thus it is clear that performance relative to climate, and particularly a cool comfort, as well as gaining solar warmth in winter
climate, requires a value system of complexity not only in materials, construction while avoiding solar overheating in summer.
and form, but also in control systems and psychology. One might still be tempted
to seek the comfort of an established value system of complexity such as
‘commodity, firmness and delight’ (Wotton, 1624; Wilkes, 1988) or one could
simply refer to the original Latin version of Vitruvius – ‘venustas, utilitas, firmitas’
(Morgan, 1914; Wilkes, 1988). 7.5 Austin Williams, technical and practice editor
of the Architects’ Journal, recently advocated such adherence, whilst railing
against having to subject ourselves to ‘mundane tick-box criteria’ embodied in
phrases such as ‘positive impact on the local community and environment’
(Williams, 2004). One can certainly sympathize with his frustration over current
bureaucratic and political ‘speak’, whilst acknowledging that utilitas and
commodity address prosperity in a manner that would still appeal to modern
politicians and economists. It has also been made very clear in this book that
engendering delight is of strategic importance to architecture. However, unless
the semantics were to be significantly stretched, either triad would tend to leave
aspects of people and place under-explored relative to meaningful characteristics
of sustainability tackled here. Also, in whatever way a value system is termed and
while much can be achieved logically and intuitively by architects, it should be
accepted that some systematic number-crunching is still required – both pre-start
and post-completion. Peter Davey (Boddy, 1999, p6) says of Helliwell + Smith’s
designs: ‘The buildings are kindly, and tender to humankind and nature, which are
both enriched by their existence.’ This is so, but it is a calculated enrichment. It
does not happen by chance, but because their iteratively adjusted methodology,
which is based on principles of sustainability, has made it so.

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SOLAR ARCHITECTURE IN COOL CLIMATES

Brian MacKay-Lyons (1995, p24) also says: ‘The human urge to build is a
fundamentally optimistic act. Architects have no business with cynicism,
pessimism or distopias [sic]. We are in the business of optimism.’ Isi Metzstein
(Lewis and Metzstein, 2004) expresses this only slightly differently when
responding to a question about changing things through process: ‘Building is a
fantastically confident process, in the sense that somebody knows that
something can be done.’ While not dissenting from these abstract sentiments,
a question to be asked is whether their sense can be numerically valued? If the
answer is yes, then the psychologically charged dimensions of contentment,
happiness or delight remain very under-researched. If a feel-good factor arising
from solar architecture, and ideally green solar architecture, is a reliable indicator
of better health and better productivity, it must be tangibly counted in together
with any non-renewable energy saved or renewable energy generated.
Then we can have a green solar future.

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GREEN SOLAR FUTURE

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246
PICTURE CREDITS

Note: all photographs by Colin Porteous unless otherwise stated

Chapter 1 North Sun Context

1.1 Plan of ‘direct gain’ passive solar house by Stillman and Eastwick-Field
© David Stephens and with permission of John Stillman; drawing reproduced from International Journal
of Ambient Energy, Vol 6, No 3, 1985, Ambient Press Ltd
1.2 3-dimensional ‘cutaway’ of ‘indirect gain’ solar house by Malcolm Newton
© Malcolm Newton, Newton Architects; drawing reproduced from International Journal of Ambient
Energy, Vol 6, No 3, 1985, Ambient Press Ltd

Chapter 2 Multiple and Added Solar Value

2.12 Solar house in Freiburg – plan, section and detail of façade
© Dieter Hölken; drawings reproduced from Sun at Work in Europe, Vol 7 No 4, 1992
2.15a John Darling Mall at Eastleigh in Hampshire, plan
© Hampshire County Council; drawing reproduced from ‘Schools of Thought, Hampshire Architecture
1974-1991, by Richard Weston, 1991
2.17 Images from proposed BIPV retrofit project for Strathclyde University
© Dr Irena Kondratenko; reproduced from PhD thesis, Mackintosh School of Architecture, Glasgow, 2003
2.1 The solar cladding features of the STinG project in Glasgow
© Dr Tim Sharpe; reproduced from draft Thermie bid, Mackintosh School of Architecture, Glasgow, 1998

Chapter 3 Environmental Comfort and Well-being

3.1b Cross section through access promenades, detailing glass and timber screen
© Dolf Floors – architekt iva, Amersfoort

Chapter 4 Adaptive Control

4.1 General view of the JUgend FOrum
4.2 Schematics for the rotating roof
© Peter Hübner; drawings reproduced from The Architectural Review, September 1996, EMAP
Construct 1996
4.3 Internal view of ‘city of mud’
© Peter Blundell Jones; photograph reproduced courtesy of the Architectural Review. September 1996,
EMAP Construct 1996
4.7 Schematic of Stile Park solar housing in Stornoway – stacked sun-porches
© Comhairle nan Eilean Siar (Western Isles Islands Council)
4.16 South façade of the ‘Wohnen & Arbeiten’ (Living & Working) block in Freiburg
© Photograph by Guido Kirsch, Freiburg

Chapter 5 Passive Control

5.1 Cross section of roof monitor at Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum
© Drawing by Mary Patrick, Cusp Design, Glasgow
5.9 Sports ‘factory’ – schematic section showing system for natural light and ventilation
© David Morley Architects; cross section of the National Cricket Academy, Loughborough University,
reproduced courtesy of the Architects’ Journal, 11 March 2004, EMAP Construct 1996

247
5.19a Koster’s mirror-optics – typical sections
Reproduced from Workshop Proceedings TI3, Transparent Insulation Technology for Solar Energy
Conversion, 3rd International Workshop 18–19 September 1989, Tiltsee/Freiburg, FRG, ed Leslie F.
Jesch, © The Franklin Company Consultants Ltd., 1989

Chapter 6 Machine Control

6.15 Double-height winter garden above plant room of solar house at Stokkan
Cross section reproduced from Proceedings North Sun 92, Trondheim, Norway
(reproduced by permission of SINTEF per Professor Anne Grete Hestnes)
6.16 The combined geothermal heat pump and solar system for Shettlestone
© John Gilbert Architects, Glasgow

Chapter 7 Green Solar Future

7.1 The concept of three overlapping dimensions of sustainability – people, place and
prosperity – per William Heath Robinson
© ‘An artistic way of hiding an unsightly view from a flat’ from HOW TO LIVE IN A FLAT by William Heath
Robinson, Hutchinson & Co, London, 1936; reproduced by permission of Pollinger Limited and the
proprietor
7.8a,b The Greenwood or ‘Fishbones’ house on Galiano Island
© Bo Helliwell + Kim Smith: Blue Sky Architecture
7.13 Coastal House 22: architect’s drawings – plans and elevations
© MacKay-Lyons Sweetapple Architects Ltd.

248
INDEX OF SOLAR BUILDINGS AND PROJECTS

Superscript numbers denote category of main solar attribute(s), as follows:

1 – passive solar thermal
2 – active solar thermal
3 – daylight
4 – BIPV
5 – PV
6 – environmental
Note: ‘passive solar’ signifies a specific design intention, sometimes linked with
mechanically assisted ventilation, cf. ‘environmental’ where passive solar gain is
usually incidental to a wider environmentally sensitive agenda; ‘daylight’
included as a category for non-domestic buildings (assumed for all dwellings);and
distinction between BIPV and PV is that BIPV signifies integration where the PV
array has another building function.
Names of architects/leaders are given in parentheses.

Culture Education
Art gallery – Fondation Beyeler, Basel, Akademie Mont-Cenis, Herne-Sodingen,
Switzerland1 & 3 (Renzo Piano Workshop) Germany1, 4 & 6 (Jourda and Perraudin with
138–139 Hegger, Hegger and Schleiff) 44, 46–47, 71,
Burrell Museam, Glasgow, Scotland1 & 3 162, 205, 206
(Barry Gasson) 173–174 Adult learning centre, Kirkintilloch, Scotland,
Joan Miro Gallery, Barcelona, Spain 3 UK3 (Richard Murphy) 142–144
(Josep Lluis Sert) 24, 138 Community School, Benbecula, Scotland UK1, 3 &
Japanese Centre for Art and Technology,
6
(Western Isles Islands Council) 204
Kracow, Poland (Arata Izozaki & Associates) College in Sönderborg, Denmark
226, 228 (Jean Jacques Baruel) 128
Modern art gallery, Ålborg, Denmark – Computing technology centre, Dalhousie
Nordjyllands Kunstmuseum3 (Elissa and Alvar University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada3 & 6
Aalto with Jean Jacques Baruel) 24–25, (Brian MacKay-Lyons) 237
128–135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 239 Delft Technical University library, Delft,
Modern art gallery (Kuntsbygning), Århus, Netherlands3 & 6 (Mecanoo) 141–142
Denmark3 (Mads Møller) 24, 135–138, 139 Jubilee Campus, University of Nottingham,
Modern art gallery, Bregenz, Austria1 & 3 Nottingham, UK1, 3, 5 & 6 (Michael Hopkins
(Peter Zumthor) 138 and Partners) 194–196, 197
Modern art gallery, Davos, Switzerland3 Junior school (St Aloysius), Glasgow, Scotland
(Gijon and Guyer) 138. 139 UK3 (Elder and Cannon) 176
Theatre, Parsboro, Nova Scotia, Canada6 Kingsdale School, Dulwich, London, UK1 & 3
(Mackay-Lyons Sweetapple Architects Ltd.) 236 (De Rijke Marsh Morgan Architects) 179

249
Methilhill Primary School (Building 2000 Exhibition
programme of the CEC Directorate General XII), Congress and Exhibition Hall, Linz, Austria1 & 3
Methil, Fife, Scotland2 & 3 UK (Fife Council) (Thomas Herzog) 163
86, 187
Netley Abbey Infants’ School, Hampshire, UK1
Government
(Dennis Goodwin, Hampshire County Council)
192–194, 196 ECN research campus, buildings 42 & 31,
Petten, Netherlands1, 3 & 4 (Tjerk Reijenga, BEAR
Norwegian Institute of Technology, Trondheim, Architecten) 182, 198–199
Norway1 (Per Knudsen) 197–198
Scottish Parliament, Holyrood, Edinburgh,
Odenwaldeschule gymnasium, Oberhambach, Scotland UK3? (EMBT & RMJM) 237–240
Germany1 & 2 (Peter Hübner) 31–33
Town Hall, Nyköping, Sweden (Jean Jacques
Queen’s Building, De Montfort University, Baruel) 128
Leicester, UK6 (Short Ford and Associates)
146–147, 148, 218 ‘VillaVISION’, Danish Technological Institute,
National Solar Test Laboratory, Taastrup,
Swanlea secondary school, London UK1 & 3 Copenhagen, Denmark1, 2, 4 & 6 (Ivar Moltke,
(Percy Thomas Partnership) 160 project manager) 14–15
University of Strathclyde theoretical retrofit of
teaching block, Glasgow, Scotland UK1, 3 & 4
(Irena Kondratenko) 91–93, 153–154 Houses and Housing
Back-to-back theoretical model for atrium
Wolfson Medical School, University of Glasgow,
terraced housing1 (Malcolm Newton) 7–11,
Scotland UK3? (Reiach and Hall Architects)
12–13, 219
180–183, 199
Beddington Zero Energy Development
(BedZED), London, UK1, 2, 4 & 6 (Bill Dunster)
Environment 216–217, 218
Brundtland Centre, Toftlund, Denmark1, 3, 4 & 6 Blue Sky Architecture house and studio,
(KHR Architects) 160–162 Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada1 (Barry
De Kleine Aarde (The Little Earth), Boxtel, Downs – original house; Bo Helliwell + Kim
Netherlands1, 4 & 6 (Tjerk Reijenga, BEAR Smith – alterations and studio) 204, 223–224,
Architecten) 144–146, 147, 198 232
Earth Balance project, Northumbria, UK6 Bonham House, Santa Cruz, San Fransisco,
(Malcom Newton) 219 USA6 (Charles Moore with Warren Fuller) 221
Eco-centre, Jarrow, UK6 (Carole Townsend, Bourneville ‘solar village’, Birmingham, UK 90
Earth Sense) 146–147 ‘Breathing Sunshine into Scottish Housing’,
Exhibition building, Earth Centre, Doncaster, Edinburgh, Scotland UK1 & 5 (Kerr MacGregor)
UK6 (Fielden, Clegg, Bradley Architects) 182 188–189
International Garden Exhibition, Stuttgart, Brown House, Tucson, Arizona, USA1 (Arthur
Germany1, 3 & 4 (Manfred Hegger) 162 Brown) 87–88, 95
Living Planet Report 2000 (World Wildlife Fund) Budge House, Healdsburg, California, USA6
216 (Charles Moore) 221

250
Cahn House, Lake Forest, Illinois, USA1 Flats, Freiburg, Germany UK1, 2 & 4 (Thomas
(Keck & Keck) 87 Spiegelhalter) 51–52
Cash House, Garriston, near Dublin, Ireland1 Gadsby House, Hornby Island, British Columbia,
(Duncan Stewart) 30 Canada1 & 6 (Bo Helliwell + Kim Smith)
Clarté apartments, Geneva, Switzerland 229–231, 232–233
(Le Corbusier) 116 Gibson-Livingston House, Nova Scotia,
Coastal House 22, South Coast, Nova Scotia 1&6 Canada2, 5 & 6 (Brian MacKay-Lyons) 204
(Brian MacKay-Lyons) 157–158, 233–236 Graham House, Hornby Island, British
Courtyard house, Dollar, Scotland UK 1 Columbia, Canada1 & 6 (Bo Helliwell & Michael
(Andrew Whalley) 164 McNamara, Blue Sky Design) 222, 223

Delft Technical University: IEA Task XIII solar Graham Square urban redevelopment, Glasgow,
apartments, Amstelveen, Netherlands1, 2 Scotland UK1 (McKeown Alexander) 116–117,
(Atelier Z) 206–207 119–120

Doldertal apartments, Zurich, Switzerland1 Gravinnehof urban infill, Haarlem, Netherlands1

(Marcel Breuer with Alfred and Emil Roth) 87 (Dolf Floors) 60–64, 67, 72, 73, 77, 218

Duncan House, Flossmoor, Illinois, USA1 Greenwood (‘Fishbones’) house, Galiano Is.,
(Keck & Keck) 9 British Columbia, Canada1 & 6 (Bo Helliwell +
Kim Smith, Blue Sky Architecture) 70,
‘Ecobuild’ experimental houses, Petten, 225–228, 230, 231, 232
Netherlands1, 2, 4 & 6 (ECN Research Centre) 182
‘Heatfest’ community ideas competition,
Edwards House (retrofit), near Kirknewton, Glasgow, Scotland UK1 & 2 (not applicable) 102
Scotland UK1 (Brian Edwards) 64–67, 73, 78,
110 Hill House, South Coast, Nova Scotia, Canada1 &
6
(Brian MacKay-Lyons) 67–68, 236
Energiebalanswoning (energy balance house),
Amersfoort, Netherlands1, 2 & 4 Hockerton Housing Project, Nottinghamshire,
(Architectenbureau Van Straalen, Zeist UK1, 5 & 6 (Brenda & Robert Vale) 74–78, 85,
& BOOM) 34, 35, 39 110, 112, 122, 128, 216, 218

EVA Lanxmeer eco-village, Culemborg, Howard House, West Pennant, Nova Scotia,
Netherlands (Peter van der Cammen, Orta Canada1 (Brian MacKay-Lyons) 31, 68, 157,
Nova; Joachim Eble; Bart Jan van den Brink) 158, 174
34–35, 37, 39, 50, 205, 216 IEA Task VIII apartments, Berlin, Germany1/2
Experimental solar house, Ayton, Scotland UK (Gustav Hillman) 152
1, 2 & 4
(Bean and Swan) 108–109, 110, 112 IEA Task XIII apartments, Amstelveen,
Experimental solar house, Bregenz, Austria1 Amsterdam, Netherlands1 & 2 (Atelier Z) 15,
(Walter Unterrainer) 157, 158 206–207

Experimental solar house, Ebnat-Kappel, IEA Task 28/38 Sustainable Solar Housing
Switzerland1 (Dietrich Schwarz) 165 (monitoring of ‘Wohnen + Arbeiten’ below) 123

Experimental Trombe-Michel wall, Carlow, Isolated seasonal active system, Falkenborg,

Ireland1 (unknown) 89–90, 154–155 Sweden2 53

251
Jacobs II ‘solar hemicycle’, Middleton, Stile Park suburban terrace, Stornoway,
Wisconsin USA1 (Frank Lloyd Wright) 7–9, 11, Scotland UK (Allan Holling, Western Isles
40, 148 Islands Council) 13, 95, 97–102, 106, 108,
Kutcher House, Herring Cove, Halifax, Nova 112, 116, 185, 187
Scotia, Canada1 (Brian MacKay-Lyons) 68–70 Student residence, University of Strathclyde,
Messenger II House, South Coast, Nova Scotia, Glasgow, Scotland UK1 (Kennedy and Partners)
Canada6 (Brian MacKay-Lyons) 68 41, 91–93, 153–154, 167, 174–175

Moore House, Orinda, California, USA6 Suburban development, Göteborg, Sweden2

(Charles Moore) 220–221 (Christer & Kirsten Nordström) 36, 37

Murphy House, Gambier Island, British Suburban villa at Stokkan, Trondheim, Norway1
Columbia, Canada1 & 6 (Bo Helliwell + Kim (Anne Grete Hestnes) 200, 201
Smith, Blue Sky Architecture) 70–71, Suburban terrace, Priesthill, Glasgow1 (Glasgow
203–204, 224–225, 226–228, 229 City Council) 73–74
Ottrupgård Fjernewarme rural co-housing, Suburban terrace, Zollikofen, Berne, Switzerland
Skörping, Denmark2 (Per Sorenson, Plan Energi 1&5
(AARPLAN) 28–30, 31, 32, 39, 110
– isolated seasonal active system) 49–50, 51, Terrace at Egebjerggard ‘boiby’ Housing
120–121, 219 Exhibition, Ballerup, Denmark1 (Tegnestuen
Parmann House, Stavanger, Norway1, 2, 4 & 6 Vandkunsten) 110, 112
(Harald Røstvik) 16 Terrace at Waterkwartier, Niewland, Amersfoort,
Paxton Court (Netherspring) suburban self-build, Netherlands1 & 5 (Galis Architectenbureau BNA
Sheffield, UK1 (Cedric Green) 110–111, 184 and Van Straalen) 50–51
Proposed floating dwellings in the Netherlands TI (transparent insulation) demonstration,
1, 2, 4 & 6
(Bart Jan van den Brink) 205 Bourneville, Birmingham, UK1 (Leslie Jesch) 175
Rothstein House, Whistler, British Columbia, ‘Trisol’ rural housing, Dingwall, Scotland UK2
Canada6 (Bo Helliwell, Erickson-Massey) 220 (David Somerville, Ross & Cromarty District
Rural terraces at Ballantrae, Scotland UK1 Council) 185–186, 187
(Gordon Fleming, ARP Lorimer Associates) Trombe-Michel (CNRS-ANVAR) experimental
113–115, 116, 189 dwellings, Odeillo, France1 (Jacques Michel)
Sea Ranch Condominium and Sea Ranch Swim 88–89
Club, California, USA6 (MLTW – Charles Moore, Urban housing infill, Deventer, Netherlands1
Donlyn Lyndon, William Turnbull & Richard (Theo Bosch) 115–116, 206, 219
Whittaker) 220–221 Urban housing infill, Shettlestone, Glasgow,
Semi-detached rural dwellings, Coldstream, Scotland UK1, 2 & 6 (John Gilbert Architects)
Scotland UK1 (Aitken and Turnbull) 111–112 200–201, 202, 203
Siedlung Halen compact rural/suburban model, Urban retrofit, Easthall, Glasgow, Scotland UK1 &
Berne, Switzerland1 7 6 (Atelier 5) 232 2
(Community Architecture Scotland) 95,
‘Solar House’, Freiburg, Germany1, 2 & 4 (Hölken 102–108, 112, 115, 116, 117, 119–120, 121,
& Berghoff) 41, 42, 124, 153–154, 167, 182 186–187, 188, 201, 206

‘Solar Towers in Glasgow’ (StinG) retrofit, Urban retrofit, Göteborg, Sweden2 (Christer &
Glasgow, Scotland UK1, 2 & 4 (MEARU, Kirsten Nordström) 36, 37, 93–94, 151–152,
Mackintosh School of Architecture) 48–49, 191 158, 187

252
Urban retrofit, Lumphinnans, Fife, Scotland UK1 Transport
(John Gilbert Architects) 201–203 Nils Ericson bus station, Göteborg, Sweden1 & 3
Van den Brink House ‘Fantasy’ competition, (Niels Torp) 140–141
Almere, Netherlands2 (Bart Jan van den Brink)
26–28, 34, 190, 204–205
Workplace
Waterkwartier, Nieuwland solar suburb, Berlingske Tidene newspaper offices,
Amersfoort, Netherlands1, 2, 4 & 5 (various) 34, Copenhagen, Denmark3 (Henning Larsen) 166
50–51, 215
ECN research campus, buildings 42 & 31,
‘Wohnen & Arbeiten’ (Living & Working), Petten, Netherlands1, 3 & 4 (Tjerk Reijenga, BEAR
Vauban, Freiburg, Germany (Michael Gies, Architecten) 182, 198–199
id-architektur) 121–124, 205, 206, 216
Johnson Administration/Wax Building3 46
Okohuis, Frankfurt, Germany1, 3 & 6
Mixed Development
(Eble and Sambeth) 160
‘Wasa City’ urban/suburban housing and
Photovoltaic factory, Freburg, Germany1, 3 & 4
shops, Gävle, Sweden1 (Thurfjell) 43, 146, 147
(Rolf and Hotz) 140, 142, 182, 205, 217
Rheinelbe Science Park research and
Social Care
development building, Gelsenkirchen,
Christopher Taylor Court, Bourneville, Germany1, 3 & 5 (Kiessler + Partner) 174, 175,
Birmingham, UK1 (David Clarke Associates) 177, 183
90–91, 92, 155–156
Rijkswaterstaat, Ijmuiden, Netherlands1, 3, 4 & 6
Day care centre, Alta, Norway1 (SINTEF (Atelier Z) 177–178, 181, 199
division 62) 14
Strathclyde Police Traffic Division headquarters,
Dementia unit, Larbert, Scotland UK1 Glasgow, Scotland UK3 (Smith McEwan
(Foster and Partners) 40, 41 Architects) 176
John Darling Mall, Eastleigh, Hampshire, UK
(David White, Hampshire County Council)
44, 45, 46
Söderhamn residential unit with special
facilities, Sweden1 & 3 (Jack Hanson) 43–44

Sport/leisure
Gleneagles Community Centre, Vancouver,
Canada6 (John and Patricia Patkau) 150–151
JUFO (JUgend FOrum) youth club, Möglingen,
Stuttgart, Germany1, 3 & 6 (Peter Hübner) 83–85,
86, 87
National Cricket Centre, Loughborough, UK3
(David Morley) 140
Swimming pool retrofit, Gouda, Netherlands2
(municipal council) 36

253
INDEX OF PEOPLE, PRACTICES, INSTITUTIONS ETC.

A A5 Architects 5 Binet, H. 129

Aalto, A. 24, 128, 131, 160 Blair, T. 211
Aalto, E 24, 128 Blue Sky Architecture 68, 204, 220, 223,
AARPLAN 28, 30 225, 229

Aitken and Turnbull 111 Blue Sky Design 222, 229

Allen, G. 220, 221 Blundell Jones, P. 84

Allen, R. 82, 241 Boddy, T. 219, 220, 229, 241

Appleton, J. 59 Bosch, T. 115, 206, 219

Appropriate Energy Systems (AES) 201 Bosselar, L. 14, 16

Arata Izozaki & Associates 226 Botta, M. 41

Arnold, D. 196 Boyce, R. 9, 87, 148

ARP Lorimer Associates 113 Brandi, U. 162

Atelier Z. 177, 206 Brawne, M. 134

Atelier 5, 232 Breuer, M. 87

Ayrshire Housing Association 113 Brown, A. 87, 95

Brown, P. 212

B Baird, G. 177 Brundtland, G. H. 213

Bak, A. 129 Bruton, T. 215

Baker, N. 81, 176, 192 Building Research Establishment (BRE) 190

Baker P. H. 105, 190 Burke, T. 212

Balmbro, D. 4 Busby, P. 16

Bartenbach, C. 160, 162 Butti, K. 87, 184

Bartholomew, D. M. L. 5
Baruel, J. J. 24, 128, 129 C Cabot Corporation 168

Bean & Swan Architects 108 Caps, R. 167, 168

BEAR Architecten 144, 198 Carpenter, A. M. 16

Beck, A. 168 Carrell, S. 211

Beckman, W. A. 4 Carter, B. 150, 221, 233

Bell, M. M. 17, 18 Cerver, F. A. 140, 226

Berghoff (Hölken & Berghoff) 41 Christian Bartenbach 160, 162

Berry, J. 195, 196 Christianson, G. E. 212

Berwickshire Housing Association 108, Commission of European Communities

111, 189 86, 90

254
Community Architecture Scotland 103 Enconsult 200
Compagno, A. 159, 163 Energy Technology Support Unit 5, 90
Courtney-Bennett 100 Erickson, A. 204, 220, 232
Curl, J. S. 234 Erickson-Massey 220
Currie, J. 188 Esbebsen Consulting Engineers 160
Etlin, R. A. 59
D Dalenback, J.-O. 15
Daniels, K. 159, 162, 163 F Fielden, Clegg, Bradley Architects 182
Danish Energy Directorate 15 Figini, L. 41
Danish Technological Institute 15 Fleming, G. 113
Davey, P. 167, 220, 229, 241 Floors, D. 60, 219
David Clarke Associates 90 Fordham, M. 37, 146
Davis, M. 162 Forster, W. 216
Delft Technical University (mechanical Foster and Partners 40
engineering department) 141, 206 Fraunhofer Institut fur Solare
Dekker, J. E. 4 Energiesysteme 41, 121, 123, 174
De Rijke Marsh Morgan Architects 179 Fricke, J. 167, 168
Desai, P. 215, 216 Fulcrum (sevices consultant) 179
Dorrel, E. 240 Fuller and Partners 192
Downs, B. 204 Furbo, S. 26
Duffie, J. A. 4
Dundee Sun City 215 G Galis Architectenbureau BNA 50
Dunster, B. 216 Gasson, B. 174
Gates, C. 211
E Earth Balance 219 Gates, M. 44
Earth Sense 146 Gibson, G. 86
Easthall Residents’ Association 102, 103 Gies, M. (id Architektur) 121
Eble, J. 35, 160 Gijon and Guyer 138
Eble and Sambeth 160 Gilbert, J. (John Gilbert Architects) 200
Ecofys (international consultancy) 15 Glasgow City Council 103
Ecostream (marketing arm of Ecofys) 15 Glaumann, M. 146
Edwards, B. 64, 65, 66, 73, 78, 110 Goldie, S. (Community Architecture
ECN Research Centre 182 Scotland) 103

Elder and Cannon Architects 176 Goodwin, D. 192

EMBT (Enric Miralles and Benedetta Graham, J. G. 64

Tagliabue) 238 Grant, A. D. 153

255
Grassie, T. 26 Hopkins, M. 195
Green, C. 110, 184 Hölken & Berghoff 41
Greenwood, B. 228 Holling, A. 100, 185
Gregory, R. 16, 216 Hollinsworth, F. 204
Guldberg, H. 212 Howe, B. 146
Howieson, S. G. 72
H Hadid, Z. 59 Hübner, P. 31, 32, 33, 83
Hagan, S. 18, 218 Hutchins, M. 162, 163
Hampshire County Architect’s Department
44, 192 I Id-architektur 121
Hanna, R. 167 International Solar Energy Society (ISES)
Hanson, J. 43, 44 2, 123, 175
Harlang, C. 129 Institute of Technology, Merrit, British
Harris, J. 154, 160 Columbia 16

Hastings, R. 206 Irvine New Town Development Corporation

200
Hawkes, D. 81, 182, 194, 216
Izokaki, A. (Arata Izozaki Assoc.) 226
Hayton, I. 116, 117, 119
Hedge, A. 72
J Jacobs, H. and Jacobs K. 7, 8, 9, 148
Hegger, M. 162
Jacobsen, T. 200
Hegger, Hegger and Schleiff 44
Jbach, H. W. 167
Hegger, Hegger-Luhnen and Schleiff 162
Jensen, K. I. 168
Heideler, K. 41
Jesch, L. F. 159, 175
Helliwell, B. (Bo Helliwell, Blue Sky
Architecture) 203, 204, 219, 220, 221, Johnstone, C. M. 91, 153
222, 229, 230 Jourda and Perraudin 44, 162
Helliwell + Smith: Blue Sky Architecture
68, 70, 204, 220, 222, 223, 224, 225, K Kahn, L. 238, 240
226, 231, 232, 233, 234, 235, 240, 241
Keable, J. 88
Henning Larsen (architects) 166
Keck, G. F. 9, 87, 148
Herdt, J. 212, 215
Keck and Keck 9
Herzog, T. 163
Kennedy, D. 190
Hestnes, A. G. 16, 200
Kennedy and Partners 92
Hicks, W. 195, 196
Keren, H. 194
Hildon, A. 14
KHR Architects 160
Hillman, G. 152
Kiessler + Partners 174
Ho, M. 102, 186, 190
Kilmartin, L. 190

256
King, D. (Sir) 211 M MacAlister, T. 17, 18
Kistler, S. S. 167, 168 MacGregor, A. W. K. 1, 2, 4, 26, 48, 159,
Knudsen, P. 197 188, 189, 190, 191

Knudsen, S. 26 MacKay-Lyons, B. 31, 67, 68, 157, 158,

174, 204, 219, 220, 221, 222, 233, 240,
Kondratenko, I. 47, 73, 182, 190, 199, 242
200
MacKay-Lyons Sweetapple Architects 220
Köster, H. 159, 160, 161, 162
Mackintosh School of Architecture 157
Kugel, C. 46
Markus, T. A. 11
Martin Centre, Cambridge 192
L Laboratoire Energetique Solaire (at CNRS,
Odeillo, France) 88 McEvoy, M. E. 105, 190

Lacy, R. E. 11 McKeown Alexander 116

Lange, J. 123 McNamara, M. 222, 231

Lean, G. 211 Mecanoo 141

Lebens, R. 2, 12, 37, 38, 39, 40, 52, 53, Metzstein, I. 237, 238, 240, 242
153, 156 Michael Hopkins and Partners 195
Le Corbusier 116, 165, 233 Michel, J. 88, 89
Leggett, J. 211 Mies van der Rohe, L. 160
Lewis, J. O. 90 Milner, M. 212
Lewis, P. 237, 238, 242 Miralles, E. 239
Libby-Owens-Ford Glass Co. 9, 86 MLTW (Charles Moore, Donlyn Lyndon,
Lichtplanung Christian Bartenbach William Turnbull, Richard Whittaker) 220
160, 163 Molendinar Park Housing Association 116
Liefhebber, M. 16 Møller, M. 24, 135, 136
Link, A. 168 Moore, C. 220, 221, 234, 235
Linthorst, G. 15 Morgan, M. H 241
Littlefield, D. 179 Morley, D. 140
Löf, G. 184 Morse, E. 89, 184
Lomborg, B. 212 Murcutt, G. 220
Long, G. 2, 88 Murphy, R. 142
Lottner, V. 14
Lowe, R. 17, 18 N Napier University 67, 158, 180, 188, 189
Lund, P. 16 Neutra, R. 57, 59, 60, 67, 78, 204, 232
Luther, J. 14 Newton, M. 7, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 219
Lyndon, D. 220 Niels Torp AS Arkitekter MNAL 140
Lynskey, G. 89, 155

257
Nilsson, O. 167 R Raaen, H. 200
Nordström, C. and K. 36, 93, 94, 151, 158 Radford, R. 212
Northumbria Photovoltaics Applications Rantil, M. 15
Centre, School of Engineering and Rees, W. 215
Technology, University of Northumbria 215
Reiach and Hall Architects 180
Norwegian Institute of Technology
(SINTEF) 197 Reijenga, T. 144, 198
Renzo Piano Building Workshop 138
O O’Farrell, F. 89, 155 Richard Murphy Architects 142
Olgyay, V. 212, 215 Richard Rogers Partnership 162
Olseth, J. A. 4 Riddlestone, S. 215, 216
Oppenheim, D. 2 Riffat, S. B. 195, 196
Orta Nova 35, 37, 39 Robert Matthew Johnson Marshall
(RMJM) 238
Ove Arup and Partners 195, 196
Roberts, P. 17, 18
Oxburgh (Lord) 211
Rolf and Hotz 140, 182
Ross and Cromarty District Council 185
P Page, J. K. 2, 12, 37, 38, 39, 40, 52, 53,
153, 156 Røstvik, H. 16
Palz, W. 88 Roth, A. and E. 87
Patkau, J. and K. 150 Royal Institute of British Architects 149
Patterson, J. 100 Rutherford, R. 200
Pawley, M. 231
Peabody Trust 216 S Salvesen, F. 16
Pearsall, N. 215 Saluja, G. S. 100, 185
Peebles, J. C. 9 Sambeth (Eble and Sambeth) 160
Percy Thomas 160 Sammonds, P. 212
Perlin, J. 87, 184 Seager, A. 14
Pinna, Schwarzenbach and Süsstrunk, Scheer, H. 16, 17, 18
Architekten 167 Schindler, R. 232
Plant, J. A. 38 Schittich, C. 165
Platt, C. 116 School of the Built Environment (University
Porteous, C. D. A. 2, 11, 12, 16, 43, 48, of Nottingham) 195
49, 50, 73, 74, 98, 100, 103, 140, 142, Schreck, H. 152
153, 154, 163, 164, 185, 186, 190, 191,
Schwarz, D. 165
219, 232
Scottish Ecological Design Association 215
Preuss, S. A. 128
Scottish Solar Energy Group xvii, 30, 102,
215

258
Seager, A. 14, Tong, D. 72
Sert, J. L. 24, 138 Torp, N. 140
Sharpe, S. 17 Townsend, C. 146
Sharpe, T. R. 48, 73, 74, 190, 191 Trombe, F. 88, 89
Shigeru Ban 217 Trumpp Ingenieurburo 174
Short, Ford and Associates 146 Turnbull, W. 220
Siemens A. G. 163 Twidell, J. W. 91, 146, 153
Skartveit, A. 4
Smith, K. (Kim Smith, Blue Sky Architecture) U University of Nottingham 194
203, 219, 220, 221, 222, 229, 230 University of Strathclyde 91
Smith, P. F. 17, 18 Unterrainer, W. 157
Smith McEwan Architects 176 Upshall, M. 78
Solar Energy Systems 201
Somerville, D. 185, 186 V Vale, B. and R. 17, 18, 74, 122
Spiegelhalter, T. 51 Van den Brink, B. J. 26, 34, 190, 204,
Standeven, M. 81 205, 214
Stansfield-Smith, C. (Sir) 44, 192 Van den Broek and Bakema 141
Steemers, C. 176 Van den Cammen, P. 35
Steemers, T. C. 88 Van der Heyden, W. 23
Stephens, M. 5, 7 Van Straalen 50
Stewart, D. 30 Van Straalen, Zeist and Boom
Stillman and Eastwick-Field, Architects (Architectenbureau) 34
5, 6 Vector Special Projects (VSP) 179
Vitruvius, M. (Marcus Vitruvius Pollio) 241
T Tagliabue, B. 238 Voss, K. 123
Tait, M. 239
Talbot, R. 30 W Wackernagel, M. 215
Taylor, A. 188 Walsh, N. P. 211
Taylor, W. 196 West of Scotland Energy Working Group
Technical Services Agency 102, 103 102

Thomas, R. 37 Western Isles Islands Council (Comhairle

nan Eilean Siar) 98
Thornton, J. 195, 196
Whalley, A. 164
Thurfjell arkitektkontor 43, 146
White, D. 44
Thyholt, M. 198
Whittaker, R. 220
Tombazis, A. H. 128

259
Wiggington, M. 154, 160
Wilkes, J. A. 241
Williams, A. 149, 165, 168, 241
Wilson, S. 72
Windeleff, J. 14
Wittwer, V. 154
World Commission on Environment and
Development 213
World Wildlife Fund 216
Wotton, H. 241
Wright, F. L. 7, 8, 9, 11, 40, 46, 139, 148,
160, 218, 225, 226, 233
Wundt, W. M. 78

Y Yannas, S. 90, 111, 156, 194

Younge, G. 211

Z Zumthor, P. 138

260
INDEX OF DEFINED TERMS AND PRODUCTS

Note: page numbers in bold used to signify some explanation of the term

A acrylic foam 167

D damping factor 152
active/passive (solar/ventilating/servicing
techniques) xiii, xiv, xv, xvii–xviii, 2, 3, 4, decrement factor 97
5–13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, degree days 2, 3
28, 29, 30, 33, 34, 35, 38, 40, 41, 42, 43,
‘dendriform’ 46
46, 47, 50, 52, 60, 63, 64, 74, 84, 86–88,
89, 90, 92, 94, 95, 96, 98, 101, 102, 103, direct (solar) gain 5, 6,10, 11, 12, 39, 41,
104, 108, 110, 113, 115, 120, 121, 122, 84, 86, 87, 98, 101–102, 146, 152, 159,
123, 127, 128, 133, 134, 138, 142, 144, double-skin façade(s) 43, 180, 182, 183,
145, 146, 147, 148, 151, 153, 154, 157, 199, 200
159, 160, 163, 165, 173, 174, 175, 176,
179, 182, 190, 191, 192, 193, 194, 200, ‘Drimaster’ (ventilation system by NuAire
201, 204–205, 214–215, 216, 219, 237, Ltd.) 114, 188, 189
240, 241 ‘Drimaster Ecosmart’ (‘solar slates’
adaptive control 81, 82, 84, 85, 87, 88, ventilation system by NuAire Ltd.) 189
89, 90, 92, 93, 94, 95, 108, 109, 111, driving rain index (DRI) 11, 12, 101
143, 176
dynamic insulation; ‘dynamically insulated’
adaptive opportunity/opportunities 81, 82 wall 190
admittance xiii, 147, 149, 150, 151, 152,
178
E eco-footprint 215–216, 231
aerogel (Nanogel) 41, 167–168
effective U-value 153, 154, 156, 157,
air-to-air heat exchanger 76, 108, 146, 158, 190,
204, 205
electro-chromatic, variable-transmission
air-to-water heat exchanger 95, 186, 187 glass 163
angle of incidence 23, 39, 88, 176, 196, embodied energy 217
237
environmental architecture (Hagan’s three
angular selectivity 163 criteria) 218
asymmetric fluorescent light fitting 160 equivalent outside temperature 152, 156
‘exclusive’ (mode of control) 81–82, 182,
B black attic (solar air collector) 185, 187 241

breathing solar air collectors 184, 187

building-integrated (e.g. photovoltaics or F fin shades (clip fin absorber strips) 180
active solar thermal systems) xiii, 15, 25, fixed interstitial specular louvred blades
26, 50, 145, 199 160
flat-plate (solar thermal) collectors 2, 14,
C climatic severity index 11 25–27, 34, 50, 123, 184, 200, 204, 205

261
‘fluid shades’ 180 L laser-cut panels 162
foamed acrylic 41, 167 LBL 3-pane krypton window 167
light-grid 163
G geothermal heat pump/geothermal heating liquefied petroleum gas (LPG) 191, 192
150, 203–204 low-emissivity coating/glass/surface 101,
global solar radiation 2 117, 122, 163, 164, 167, 175–176, 180,
global warming 43, 211–212, 213 198, 231

greenhouse effect 7, 62, 96, 163, 212

M ‘Maxorb’ (selective coating) 155, 156, 190

H heat loss coefficient 3, 4, 73, 111 McKinnel double tube 218

heat pump 77, 186, 192, 200, 201, 202, Mechanical/whole-house (ventilation) heat
203, 204, 205, 216, 240 recovery 4, 13–14, 41, 72, 93, 108, 122,
200, 205
heliodon 131, 133
mirror-optics (optical energy transport and
holographic diffractive film (HDF) 162 optical daylight modulation) 159, 160,
162, 163
I ‘Imacryl’ foam (foamed acrylic sheet) 167
indirect (solar) gain 7, 10, 11, 12, 29, 87, N ‘Nanogel’ 168
88, 89 non-selective/selective (absorber) surfaces
insolation 2, 159, 212 26–27, 190
Internal base temperature 3, 73, 152, 156
‘interoceptives’ 57, 59 O ‘Okalux’ (transparent insulation) 167
interstitial venetian blind(s) 162, 163, 176 ‘Okasolar’ (mirror-optics) 160, 165, 167
inverted venetian blinds 160
irradiance 2, 26, 154, 156, 199 P parti 234
irradiation 2, 3, 11, 26, 27, 37, 38, 39, 40, passive heat recovery (ventilation, including
52, 53, 84, 87, 162, 165, 218 by solar ventilation preheat) 10, 96
isolated (solar) systems 50 passive solar architecture 127
‘passive stack ventilation’ 175, 190, 192,
218
K ‘Kalwall’ (transparent insulation) 167, 168
‘pedway’ 43
‘Kalwall + Nanogel’ 168
phase-change materials 159
Keeling curve 212
photo-chromatic glass 163
‘kinesthesis’ 59, 60, 67
‘photovoltaics in practice’ 215
Kyoto accord/protocol 211, 212
‘physiological psychology’ 78
‘Koolshade’ (woven bronze micro-louvres)
165–166 primary energy 72, 191, 194, 196

262
prismatic louvres 162 thermal capacitance (storage) 10, 73, 74,
proaction (relative to control systems) 82 75, 85, 94, 145, 147, 149, 150, 151, 156,
157, 184
‘proprioceptives’ 57, 59, 60
thermal damping (factor) 97, 147, 149, 152
‘prospect-refuge’ theory (prospect and
refuge) 59, 67 thermal diffusivity 149

PV (photovoltaic) shading lamellas 47, 198, (thermal) emissivity/emittance 84, 162 (for
199 other references, see ‘low-emissivity’)
thermal response (factor) 147, 149, 151,
152
S selective coating 156, 167, 176, 190
(thermal) time lag xiii, 41, 88, 147, 149,
selective (mode of control) 81–82, 182, 152, 154, 156, 178
241
thermal transmittance coefficient (U-value)
selectively coated polyester foils 167 4, 5, 7, 12, 41, 73, 76, 87, 90, 101, 103,
self-adjusting photo-chromatic glass 163 117,120, 122. 149, 151, 152, 153, 154,
155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 162, 167, 168,
solar air collector 28, 36, 48, 67, 73, 95,
190, 195, 196, 206
98, 152, 173, 182, 183, 184, 185, 187,
188, 189, 190, 191 thermal wheel 195, 196
solar chimney 89, 181, 182, 199, 200 thermo-chromatic gels 168
solar slates (unglazed solar air collectors) thermo-chromatic glazing/layers 23, 163
67, 184, 188, 189, 201 thermo-chromatic, phase-change storage
solar ventilation preheat (preheated supply wall 165
of air) 2, 29 tracking collectors 26
‘somethesis’ 59, 60, 67 ‘translucent’ PV 34
specific heat capacity 93, 149, 156, 157 transparent insulation (TI) 41, 91, 153,
specific heat loss 3, 73 154, 155, 159, 160, 167
specular louvred blades 160 transpired (breathing) solar air collector 67,
184, 187, 189, 190, 191
‘steady state’ methodology 3
transpired-plate (solar air collector) 187,
supply air windows 190
190
surface factor 62
Trisol (solar air collector, heat pump and
surface senses 57 brine store) 185, 186, 187
sustainability xviii, 18, 50, 64, 121, 207, Trombe-Michel wall/principle 88, 89, 91,
212, 213, 214, 215, 217, 218, 229, 240, 154, 155, 241
241
sustainable development xviii, 213
U ‘Ultrawarm Thermascrene’ (transparent
insulation) 167
T ‘teleceptives’ 57, 60 unglazed (transpired) solar air collector
thermal admittance xiii, 149, 150, 151, 184, 188, 190
152, 178

263
Usonia/Usonian 233
U-value (thermal transmittance coefficient)
4, 5, 7, 12, 41, 73, 76, 87, 90, 101, 103,
117, 120, 122. 149, 151, 152, 153, 154,
155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 162, 167, 168,
190, 195, 196, 206

V variable transmission (glazing/glass) 159,

162, 163, 165, 179
‘Visi Heat’ double glazing 163–164
Vitruvian triad 241
volumetric thermal capacity 149
Vostok ice core 212

W water-to-air heat exchanger 205

wind assisted ‘passive stack ventilation’
190 (192 for explanation of performance)
window integrated solar air collectors
(WISACs) 190, 191

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INDEX OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS

A AES (Appropriate Energy Systems) 27, 201 EMBT (Enric Miralles, Benedetta Tagliabue)
238

B BedZED (Beddington Zero Energy EPA (Energy Performance Appraisal)

Development) 216, 217, 218 90, 111

BIPV (Building Integrated Photovoltaics) 25, ESP/ESPr (Environmental Systems

46, 47, 199, 200 Performance) 147, 203

BMS (Building Management System) ETFE (ethylene-tetra-fluoro-ethylene) 179

180, 183 ETSU (Energy Technology Support Unit)
BRE (Building Research Establishment) 190 5, 90, 111
EU (European Union) 14

C CANMET (Canadian Centre for Mineral and

Energy Technologies) 16 H HDF (holographic diffractive film) 162
CEC (Commission of European
Communities) 86, 90 I IEA (International Energy Agency) 14, 15,
CFCs (chlorofluorocarbons – also called 43, 123, 152, 206
freons) 203 ISE (Fraunhofer Institut fur Solare
CFD (Computational Fluid Dynamics) 147 Energiesysteme) 41
CHP (Combined Heat and Power) 49, 123, ISES (International Solar Energy Society) 1,
205, 217 16, 123, 175, 194
CNRS (Centre National de la Recherche IT (Information Technology) 180
Scientifique) 88
COP (Coefficient of Performance) 203 J JUFO (JUgend FOrum) 83, 85, 86, 87
CSI (Climate Severity Index) 11
DC (Direct Current) 26 L LCP (laser-cut panels) 162
LEGIS (acronym unknown for Transparent
D DHW (Domestic Hot Water) 37, 94, Insulation wall) 92
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) 59 LPG (liquefied petroleum gas) 191, 192
DRI (Driving Rain Index) 11 LT (Light Thermal [predictive tool]) 176

E ECADAP (Environmental Computer Aided M MLTW (Charles Moore, Donlyn Lyndon,

Design and Performance) 147 William Turnbull and Richard Whittaker)
ECN (Dutch government’s energy research 220, 221
centre) 15, 182, 198 MSP (Member of the Scottish Parliament)
239, 240

265
P PASSYS (Passive System [test cells]) 190, T Tardis (Time and relative dimensions in
191, 192 space) 85
PV (photovoltaic) 1, 5, 14, 15, 16, 17, 26, TI (Transparent Insulation) 41, 91, 92, 153,
34, 37, 46, 47, 48, 50, 51, 174, 178, 182, 154, 155, 156, 157, 159, 167, 175
189, 190, 192, 195, 196, 199, 200, 204, Trisol (triple solar system) 185, 186, 187
205, 214, 215, 216, 217
PVC (polyvinyl chloride) 44
U UFO (Unidentified Flying Object) 83, 84
PVT (photovoltaic thermal) 15
UK-ISES (UK Section of International Solar
Energy Society) 2, 3, 42
R RIBA (Royal Institute of British Architects)
149, 196
V VAT (Value Added Tax) 18
RMJM (Robert Matthew Johnson Marshall)
238 VSP (Vector Special Projects) 179

S SAP (Standard Assessment Procedure) W WISAC (window integrated solar air

73, 117 collectors’) 190
SI (Standard International [units of WWF (World Wildlife Fund) 216
measurement]) 149
SINTEF (Norwegian Solar Energy Research
Centre at the Norwegian Institute of
Technology, Trondheim) 14, 16, 197, 198
StinG (Solar Towers in Glasgow) 48, 49,
191

266