SYSTEMIC ANATOMY Systemic anatomy is the study of the body’s organ systems that work together to carry out complex functions. ite basic systems and the field of study or treatment of each (in parentheses) int this Introduction, an overview of several systems significant to all parts and regions of the body will be provided like The integumentary system (dermatology) consists of the skin (L. integumentum, a covering) and its appendages—hair, nails, and sweat glands and the subcutaneous tissue just beneath it. The skin, an extensive sensory organ, forms the body's outer, protective covering and container. The skeletal system (osteology) consists of bones and cartilage; it provides our basic shape and support for the body and is what the muscular ‘system acts on to produce movement. It also protects vital organs such as the heart, lungs, and pelvic organs. The articular system (arthrology) consists of joints and their associated ligaments, connecting the bony parts of the skeletal system and providing the sites at which movements occur.. It also. protects vital organs such as the heart, Jungs, and pelvic organs. 3. The articular system (arthrology) ¢ consists of joints and their associated ligaments, connecting the bony parts of the skeletal system and providing the sites at which movements occur. ‘The muscular system (myology) ¢ consists of skeletal muscles that act (contract) to move or position parts of the body (e.g., the bones that articulate at joints), or ® smooth and cardiac muscle that propels, expels, or controls the flow of fluids and contained substance. . The nervous system (neurology) * consists of the central nervous system (brain and spinal cord) and the peripheral nervous system (nerves and ganglia, together with their motor and sensory endings). « The nervous system controls and coordinates the functions of the organ systems, enabling the body's responses to and activities within its environment. The sense organs, including the olfactory organ (sense of smell), eye or visual system (ophthalmology), ear (sense of hearing and balance—otology), and gustatory organ (sense of taste), are often considered with the nervous system in systemic anatomy.a” a “© The circulatory system (angiology) TEED consists of the cardiovascular and lymphatic systems, which function in parallel to transport the body's fluids. The cardiovascular system (cardiology) consists of the heart and blood vessels that propel and conduct blood through the body, delivering oxygen, nutrients, and hormones to cells and removing their waste products. The lymphatic system is a network of lymphatic vessels that withdraws excess tissue fluid (lymph) from the body's interstitial (intercellular) fluid compartment, filters it through lymph nodes, and returns it to the bloodstream. The alimentary or digestive system (gastroenterology) consists of the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus, with all its associated organs and glands that function in ingestion, mastication (chewing), deglutition (swallowing), digestion, and absorption of food and the elimination of the solid waste (feces) remaining after the nutrients have been absorbed. The respiratory system (pulmonology) consists of the air passages and lungs that supply oxygen to the blood for cellular respiration and eliminate carbon dioxide from it. The diaphragm and larynx control the flow of air through the system, which may also produce tone in the larynx that is further modified by the tongue, teeth, and lips into speech. The urinary system (urology) ‘consists of the kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, and urethra, which filter blood and subsequently produce, transport, store, and intermittently excrete urineThe lymphatic system is a network of lymphatic vessels that withdraws exce@==aaaaanIa tissue fluid (lymph) from the body's interstitial (intercellular) fluid compartment, filters itthrough lymph nodes, and retums it to the bloodstream. 7eThe rr (gastroenterology) * consists of the digestive tract from the mouth to the anus, with alll its associated organs and glands that function in ingestion, mastication (chewing), deglutition (swallowing), digestion, and absorption of food and the elimination of the solid waste (feces) remaining after the nutrients have been absorbed. 8. The respiratory system (puimonology) © consists of the air passages and that supply oxygen to the blood for cellutar respiration and eliminate gator era © Thediaphragm andtaryax: air through the system, which may ne clean Seemeerrnelreer naar, ER on 9. The urinary system (urology) * consists of the:kidneys, ureters) urinaryibladder, anduurethra, which filter blood: land subsequently produce, transport, store, and intermittently excrete urine (liquid waste). 10.._The genital (reproductive) system (gynaecology for females; andrology for males) * consists of the gonads (ovaries and testes) that produce oocytes (eggs) and sperms, the ducts th: ct enable their union.= consists of the kidneys, ureters; urinary bladder, and urethra, which filter blood eacieubeer sentient >, LARGER, SERN! intermittently excrete urine (liquid waste) 10.. The genital (reproductive) system (gynaecology for females; andrology for males) © consists of the gonads (ovaries and testes) that produce oocytes (eggs) and sperms, the ducts that transport them, and the genitalia that enable their union. « After conception, the female reproductive tract nourishes and delivers the fetus. [Link] endocrine system (endocrinology) * consists of specialized structures that secrete hormones, including discrete ductless endocrine glands (such as the thyroid gland), isolated and clustered cells of the gut and blood vessel walls, and specialized nerve Hormones are organic molecules that are carried by the circulatory system to distant effector cells in all parts of the body. «The influence of the endocrine system is thus as broadly distributed as that of the nervous system.Hormones influence metabolism and other processes, such as the menstrual cycle, pregnancy, and parturition (giving birth). None of the systems functions in isolation. The passive skeletal and articular systems and the active muscular system collectively constitute a supersystem, the locomotor system or apparatus (orthopedics), because they must work together to produce locomotion of the body. Although the structures directly responsible for locomotion are the muscles, bones, joints, and ligaments of the limbs, other systems are indirectly involved as well. The brain and nerves of the nervous system stimulate them to act; the arteries and veins of the circulatory system supply oxygen and nutrients to and remove waste from these structures; and the sensory organs (especially vision and equilibrium) play important roles in directing their activities in a gravitational environment.CLINICAL ANATOMY Clinical (applied) anatomy emphasizes aspects of bodily structure and function important in the practice of medicine, dentistry, and the allied health sciences. It incorporates the regional and systemic approaches to studying anatomy and stresses clinical application. Clinical anatomy often involves inverting or reversing the thought process typically followed when studying regional or systemic anatomy. For example, instead of thinking, “The action of this muscle is to . . . ,” clinical anatomy asks, “How would the absence of this muscle's activity be manifest?” Instead of noting, “The . . . nerve provides innervation to this area of skin,” clinical anatomy asks, “Numbness in this area indicates a lesion of which nerve?” Clinical anatomy is exciting to learn because of its role in solving clinical problems. The “clinical correlations in the book describe practical applications of anatomy. “Case studies,” given in books are integral parts of the clinical approach to studying anatomy.ANATOMICOMEDICAL TERMINOLOGY * Anatomical terms are descriptive terms standardized in an international reference guide, Terminologia Anatomica (TA). These terms, in English or Latin, are used worldwide. Colloquial terminology is used by—and to communicate with—tay people. Eponyms are often used in clinical settings but are not recommended because they do not provide anatomical context and are not standardized. Anatomical directional terms are based on the body in the anatomical position. Four anatomical planes divide the body, and sections divide the planes into visually useful and descriptive parts. © Other anatomical terms describe relationships of parts of the body, compare the positions of structures, and describe laterality and movement Anatomical variations ‘Anatomy books describe (initially, at least) the structure of the body as it is usually observed in people—that is, the most common pattern. « However, occasionally a particular structure demonstrates so much variation within the normal range that the most common pattem is found less than half the time! * Beginning students are frequently frustrated because the bodies they are examining or dissecting do not conform to the atlas or text they are using . * Often students ignore the variations or inadvertently damage them by attempting to produce conformity. « Therefore, you should expect anatomical variations when you dissect or inspect* UtNer anatomical terms describe relauonsnips of parts OF Ine DOGy, COMpare TEIN Positions of structures, and describe laterality and movement Anatomical variations ‘Anatomy books describe (initially, at least) the structure of the body as it is. usually observed in people—that is, the most common pattem. However, occasionally a particular structure demonstrates'so much variation within the normal range that the most common pattern is found less than haifithe time! ‘* Beginning students are frequently frustrated because the bodies they are examining or dissecting do not conform to the atias or text they are using . Often students ignore the variations or inadvertently damage them by attempting to produce conformity. * Therefore, you should expect anatomical variations when you dissect or inspect prosected specimens. « In arandom group of people, individuals differ from each other in physical 1 appearance. The bones of the skeleton vary not only in their basic shape but also in lesser details of surface structure. * Awide variation is found in the size, shape, and form of the attachments of muscles. Similarly, considerable variation exists in the patterns of branching of veins, arteries, and nerves. Veins vary the most and nerves the least. Individual variation must be considered in physical examination, diagnosis, and treatment. Most descriptions in this text assume a normal range of variation. However, the frequency of variation often differs among human groups, and variations collected in one population may not apply to members of another population.prosectea specimens. Paso In a random group of people, individuals differ from each other in physical appearance. The bones of the skeleton vary not only in their basic shape but also in lesser details of surface structure. A wide variation is found in the size, shape, and form of the attachments of muscles. Similarly, considerable variation exists in the pattems of branching of veins, arteries, and nerves. Veins vary the most and nerves the /east. Individual variation must be considered in physical examination, diagnosis, and treatment. Most descriptions in this text assume a normal range of variation. However, the frequency of variation often differs among human groups, and variations collected in one population may not apply to members of another population. ‘Some variations, such as those occurring in the origin and course of the cystic artery to the gallbladder, are clinically important, and any surgeon operating without knowledge of them is certain to have problems. Apart from racial and sexual differences, humans exhibit considerable genetic variation, such as polydactyly (extra digits).« Approximately 3% of new-borns show one or more significant congenital anomalies. Other defects (e.g., atresia or blockage of the intestine) are not detected until symptoms occur. Discovering variations and congenital anomalies in cadavers is actually one of the many benefits of first hand dissection, because it enables students to develop an awareness of the occurrence of variations and a sense of their frequency.