Biodiversity Notes-Biogeography lecture series

Biodiversity
Biodiversity is coined from the words ‘biology’ and ‘diversity’ and is defined as the totality of
genes, species and ecosystems. Biodiversity is the incredible, variety of life that surrounds us,
including all of the earth’s plants, animals, their habitats, and the natural processes that they are a
part of. At species level, it is construed to include plants, animals and micro-organisms that are
and form the life support system of the earth. It can be measured by the types of different
species, or the genetic variations within and between them and how they interact with each other.
Biodiversity is neither uniform nor equally distributed on Earth. However, it is often used as a
measure of the health of ecosystems. It is richer in the tropical countries such as Kenya, as
conditions are conducive for more species to flourish and to form meaningful ecological
relationships. It is lower in polar, extremely cold, dry and hot regions where conditions support
less biomass and fewer life forms

Levels of biodiversity

Three Levels of Biodiversity

There are three levels of biodiversity; genetic, species, and ecosystem. These levels are all
interrelated yet they can be studied as three separate components. Most studies, either theoretical
or experimental, focus on the species level, as it is the easiest to work on both conceptually and
in practice.

Genetic Diversity
Genetic diversity is the variety present at the level of genes. Genes,
made of DNA (right), are the building blocks that determine how an
organism will develop and what its traits and abilities will be. This level
of diversity can differ by alleles (different variants of the same gene,
such as blue or brown eyes), by entire genes (which determine traits,
such as the ability to metabolize a particular substance), or by units
larger than genes such as chromosomal structure.

Genetic diversity can be measured at many different levels, including

population, species, community, and biome. Which level is used
depends upon what is being examined and why, but genetic diversity is
important at each of these levels.

Species Diversity

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Biodiversity studies typically focus on species not because species diversity is more important
than the other two types, but because species diversity is easier to
work with. Species are relatively easy to identify by eye in the
field, whereas genetic diversity (above) requires laboratories,
time and resources to identify and ecosystem diversity needs
many complex measurements to be taken over a long period of
time. Species are also easier to conceptualize and have been the basis of much of the
evolutionary and ecological research that biodiversity draws on.

Species are well known and are distinct units of diversity. Each species can be considered to
have a particular "role" in the ecosystem, so the addition or loss of single species may have
consequences for the system as a whole.

Ecosystem Diversity

Ecosystem-level theory deals with species distributions and

community patterns, the role and function of key species, and
combines species functions and interactions. The term "ecosystem"
here represents all levels greater than species: associations,
communities, ecosystems, and the like. Different names are used
for this level and it is sometimes divided into several different
levels, such as community and ecosystem levels; all these levels are
included in this overview. This is the least-understood level of the
three described here due to the complexity of the interactions.
Trying to understand all the species in an ecosystem and how they
affect each other and their surroundings while at the same time
being affected themselves, is extremely complex.

Importance of biodiversity

Biodiversity is the life support system of our planet- we depend

on it for the air we breathe, the food we eat, and the water we drink. Wetlands filter pollutants
from water, trees and plants reduce global warming by absorbing carbon, and bacteria and fungi
break down organic material and fertilize the soil.

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Medicines originating from wild species, including penicillin, aspirin, taxol, and quinine, have
saved millions of lives and alleviated tremendous suffering. 40% of all prescriptions are for
medicines that originated from plants and animals. No one knows how many more cures await
discovery, hidden in Earth’s poorly studied species. There are 80,000 species of edible plants
known on Earth, but 90% of the world’s food comes from a mere 20 of these species. Edible
plant species, both those we know of and those we don’t, offer a tremendous resource of
possibilities that could greatly add to the security of our food.

Biodiversity boosts ecosystem productivity

Each species, no matter how small, all have an important role to play.

For example,

 A larger number of plant species means a greater variety of crops

 Greater species diversity ensures natural sustainability for all life forms
 Healthy ecosystems can better withstand and recover from a variety of disasters.

Biodiversity offers many natural services.

A healthy biodiversity provides a number of natural services for everyone:

 Ecosystem services, such as

o Protection of water resources
o Soils formation and protection
o Nutrient storage and recycling
o Pollution breakdown and absorption
o Contribution to climate stability
o Maintenance of ecosystems
o Recovery from unpredictable events
 Biological resources, such as
o Food
o Medicinal resources and pharmaceutical drugs
o Wood products
o Ornamental plants
o Breeding stocks, population reservoirs
o Future resources
o Diversity in genes, species and ecosystems
 Social benefits, such as
o Research, education and monitoring
o Recreation and tourism
o Cultural values

Species depend on each other

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Biodiversity Notes-Biogeography lecture series

While there might be “survival of the fittest” within a given species, each species depends on the
services provided by other species to ensure survival. It is a type of cooperation based on mutual
survival and is often what a “balanced ecosystem” refers to.

Soil, bacteria, plants; the Nitrogen Cycle

The relationship between soil, plants, bacteria and other life forms is also reffered to as the
nitrogen cycle. Biodiversity helps in providing nitrogen cycle which is important to the human
beings and wildlife in general.

Biodiversity provides knowledge in various fields of study.

For a number of years now, scientists have been looking more and more at nature to see how
various species work, produce, consume resources, trying to mimic the amazing feats that
millions of years of evolution has produce

Biodiversity has been identified as one of the important resources in attaining this vision.
Biodiversity resources and the associated processes support sectors such as energy, food, fibres,
drinks, medicines, industry, fishery and agriculture on which
human lives depend. Biodiversity also ensures air and water purification, pollination, seed
dispersal, climate modification, soil stabilization, drought and flood control, recycling of
nutrients and habitats.

Biodiversity also forms the basis for national and regional tourism.
As source of genetic resources, it supports the biotechnology sector.
Therefore, biodiversity impacts human livelihoods and lifestyles. Kenya’s vision 2030 hinges
heavily on 3 pillars of economic, social and cultural diversity.

The Status of Biodiversity in Kenya

Kenya is a mega bio-diverse country with over 35,000species of flora and fauna. The species
diversity is dominated by insects. This diversity is served by the variable ecosystems ranging
from marine, mountains, tropical, dry lands, forests and arid lands. In addition to these are some
467 inland lake and wetland habitats covering about 2.5% of the total area. Kenyan forests are
endowed with a rich array of plant and animal life. Some of the species endemic to the forest
habitats are found nowhere else in the world. Since species richness tends to correlate with the
annual amount of rainfall, wetter forests are richer in species. Consequently, Kakamega Forest
has the richest plant diversity in Kenya. However, coastal forests have more values as centers of
endemism with many plant and animal species found nowhere else in the world. Biodiversity is
mainly in forests and wildlife parks and reserves. According to reports, about 10-12 percent of
Kenya’s land area is designated protected area and the Kenya Wildlife Services (KWS) manages
about 8%of this area. 20% of the land area is under agriculture and also simultaneously supports
most of the human population. The remaining 70% of the land area is mostly rangeland. In spite
of these traditional land uses, there is realization that a lot of wild species are found and may
even thrive better outside designated protected areas. Also, that all management actions
including the decision not to take any action can affect biodiversity at the different scales.
Biodiversity conservation is fast evolving from the narrow focus on habitat preservation to
integrated landscape development and management.

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As such, managers of these areas are currently conscious of both positive and negative impacts
of their management activities on biodiversity. For example, when introducing species to an area,
they consider their effects on local biodiversity since they realize that increased number of
species or production is not necessarily better, particularly if it is at the expense of local
biodiversity. The management objective of these areas recognizes and aims to maintain
functional components of biodiversity rather than total numbers and recognizes that biodiversity
has great scope. Particularly since the CBD, the active management of these protected areas
continues to focus on biodiversity. For Kenya, the protection of wildlands, the integration of
compatible land-uses systems and creation of protected areas will ensure biodiversity
[Link] CBD also urges parties to put in place measures to conserve threatened species
of biodiversity Exsitu (off-site) to support biodiversity conservation. In Kenya, these facilities
cater for endangered species and manage small numbers of species for posterity. Exsitu
conservation aims to maximize a species chance of survival by relocating part of the population
to a less threatened location. However, even the species conserved offsite face some challenges.
For instance, it is extremely difficult to re-create the environment of the original location of the
species. It is challenging to move the species without causing some harm to the species and it is
expensive to maintain these species off site. Some of these facilities include the National
Genebank, Zoos, Arboreta, Parks and Parklands, Botanic Gardens, and the Seed Centre at the
Kenya Forestry Research Institute (KEFRI) and private lands.

Sources of collections for ex-situ facilities include field collection, donations, transfer and
exchange materials from other research institutions or private collectors, farmers’s fields and
stores particularly for cultivated crops. To increase the efficiency of ex-situ conservation
facilities, there is need to assure reasonable permanence of collections, support these collections
with research and sound management and to increase the number of these facilities around the
country. Rapid human population growth and the subsequent forest degradation threaten
biodiversity and may cause habitat fragmentation or in extreme cases, species extinction. Habitat
fragmentation is the process where large continuous areas are reduced in size and divided into
two or more patches. It alters habitats from a previous state of greater continuity, stability and
harmony. The resultant patches or populations are eventually isolated from one another by highly
modified or degraded landscape, thus disrupting populations. Many plant and animal species
populations have suffered due to this, and unless urgent measures are taken to restore ecological
stability, extinctions will occur. Besides, converting former wild lands to human settlements
mining, lumbering and agriculture and grazing areas or other land-use affects biodiversity
directly by displacing species in the landscape. Besides, converted lands are disturbed repeatedly
by human activities. Biodiversity in Kenya also suffers indirect effects of agricultural
management practices such as irrigation and drainage, soil erosion, and sedimentation. Further,
fertilizer application, weed and pest control all result in elevated nutrient and pollutant
discharges into the environment. Biopiracy and poaching are also challenges facing biodiversity
in Kenya. Since all land-use management actions affect biodiversity, they should be employed
cautiously and their effects, if notyet understood, be anticipated and studied to support decision-
making.

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Causes of biodiversity degradation and loss

a. Human population growth: The geometric rise in human population levels during the twentieth
century is the fundamental cause of the loss of biodiversity. The human population was
approximately 600,000 million in 1700, and one billion in 1800. Just now it exceeds six
billion, and low estimates are that it may reach 10 billion by the mid-21st century and 12
billion by 2100. The question is whether many ecological aspects of biological systems can be
sustained under the pressure of such numbers. It has led to an unceasing search for more
arable land for food production and livestock grazing, and for wood for fuel, construction, and
energy. Previously undisturbed areas (which may or may not be suitable for the purposes to
which they are constrained) are being transformed into agricultural or pasture land, stripped of
wood, or mined for resources to support the energy needs of an ever-growing human
population. Humans also tend to settle in areas of high biodiversity, which often have
relatively rich soils and other attractions for human activities. Most of the other effects
mentioned below are either consequent to the human population expansion or related to
b. Habitat destruction: Habitat destruction is the single most important cause of the loss of
rainforest biodiversity and is directly related to human population growth. As rainforest land is
converted to ranches, agricultural land (and then, frequently, to degraded woodlands, scrubland,
or desert), urban areas (cf. Brasilia) and other human usages, habitat is lost for forest organisms.
Many species are widely distributed and thus, initially, habitat destruction may only reduce local
population numbers. Species which are local, endemic, or which have specialized habitats are
much more vulnerable to extinction, since once their particular habitat is degraded or converted
for human activity, they will disappear. Most of the habitats being destroyed are those which
contain the highest levels of biodiversity, such as lowland tropical wet forests. In this case,
habitat loss is caused by clearing, selective logging, and burning.
c. Pollution: Industrial, agricultural and waste-based pollutants can have catastrophic effects on
many species. Those species which are more tolerant of pollution will survive; those requiring
pristine environments (water, air, food) will not. Thus, pollution can act as a selective agent.
Pollution of water in lakes and rivers has degraded waters so that many freshwater ecosystems
are dying. Since almost 12% of animals species live in these ecosystems, and most others depend
on them to some degree, this is a very serious matter. In developing countries approximately
90% of wastewater is discharged, untreated, directly into waterways.
d. Agriculture: The dramatic increase in the number of humans during the twentieth century has
instigated a concomitant growth in agriculture, and has led to conversion of wildlands to
croplands, massive diversions of water from lakes, rivers and underground aquifers, and, at the
same time, has polluted water and land resources with pesticides, fertilizers, and animal wastes.
The result has been the destruction, disturbance or disabling of terrestrial ecosystems, and
polluted, oxygen-depleted and atrophied water resources. Formerly, agriculture in different
regions of the world was relatively independent and local. Now, however, much of it has become
part of the global exchange economy and has caused significant changes in social organization.
Earlier agricultural systems were integrated with and co-evolved with technologies, beliefs,
myths and traditions as part of an integrated social system. Generally, people planted a variety of
crops in different areas, in the hope of obtaining a reasonably stable food supply. These systems
could only be maintained at low population levels, and were relatively nondestructive (but not
always). More recently, agriculture has in many places lost its local character, and has become

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incorporated into the global economy. This has led to increased pressure on agricultural land for
exchange commodities and export goods. More land is being diverted from local food production
to “cash crops” for export and exchange; fewer types of crops are raised, and each crop is raised
in much greater quantities than before. Thus, ever more land is converted from forest (and other
natural systems) for agriculture for export, rather than using land for subsistence crops. The
introduction of mono cropping and the use of relatively few plants for food and other uses – at
the expense of the wide variety of plants and animals utilized by earlier peoples and indigenous
peoples – is responsible for a loss of diversity and genetic variability. The native plants and
animals adapted to the local conditions are now being replaced with “foreign” (or “exotic”)
species which require special inputs of food and nutrients, large quantities of water. Such exotic
species frequently drive out native species. There is pressure to conform to crop selection and
agricultural techniques – all is driven by global markets and technologies.
e. Global warming: There is recent evidence that climate changes are having effects on tropical
forest ecology. Warming in general (as distinct from the effects of increasing concentrations of
CO2 and other greenhouse gases) can increase primary productivity, yielding new plant biomass,
increased organic litter, and increased food supplies for animals and soil flora (decomposers).
Temperature changes can also alter the water cycle and the availability of nitrogen and other
nutrients. Basically, the temperature variations which are now occurring affect all parts of forest
ecosystems, some more than others. These interactions are unimaginably complex. While
warming may at first increase net primary productivity (NPP), in the longer run, because plant
biomass is increasing, more nitrogen is taken up from the soil and sequestered in the plant
bodies. This leaves less nitrogen for the growth of additional plants, so the increase in NPP over
time (due to a rise in temperature or CO 2 levels) will be limited by nitrogen availability. The
same is probably true of other mineral nutrients. The consequences of warming-induced shifts in
the distribution of nutrients will not be seen rapidly, but perhaps only over many years. These
events may effect changes in species distribution and other ecosystem processes in complex
ways. We know little about the reactions of tropical forests, but they may differ from those of
temperate forests.
In tropical forests, warming may be more important because of its effects on evapotranspiration
and soil moisture levels than because of nutrient redistribution or NPP (which is already very
high because tropical temperatures are close to the optimum range for photosynthesis and there is
so much available light energy). And warming will obviously act in concert with other global or
local changes – increases in atmospheric CO 2 (which may modify plant chemistry and the water
balance of the forest) and land clearing (which changes rainfall and local temperatures), for
examples. (For an excellent discussion of these issues, see Shaver, et al., 2000.)
Root, et al.(2003) have determined that more than 80%of plant and animal species on which they
gathered data had undergone temperature-related shifts in physiology. Highland forests in Costa
Rica have suffered losses of amphibian and reptile populations which appear to be due to
increased warming of montane forests. The golden toad Bufo periglenes of Costa Rica has
become extinct, at least partly because of the decrease in mist frequency in its cloud forest
habitat. The changes in mists appear to be a consequence of warming trends. Other suspected
causes are alterations in juvenile growth or maturation rates or sex ratios due to temperature
shifts. Parmesan and Yohe (2003), in a statistical analysis, determined that climate change had
biological effects on the 279 species which they examined.

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The migratory patterns of some birds which live in both tropical and temperate regions during
the year seem to be shifting, which is dangerous for these species, as they may arrive at their
breeding or wintering grounds at an inappropriate time. Or they may lose their essential
interactions with plants which they pollinate or their insect or plant food supplies. Perhaps for
these reasons, many migratory species are in decline, and their inability to coördinate migratory
clues with climatic actualities may be partly to blame. The great tit, which still breeds at the
same time as previously, now misses much of its food supply because its plant food develops at
an earlier time of year, before the birds have arrived from their wintering grounds. Also, as
temperatures rise, some bird populations have shifted, with lowland and foothill species moving
into higher areas. The consequences for highland bird populations are not yet clear. And many
other organisms, both plant and animal, are being affected by warming.
An increase in infectious diseases is another consequence of climate change, since the causative
agents are affected by humidity, temperature change, and rainfall. Many species of frogs and
lizards have declined or disappeared, perhaps because of the increase in parasites occasioned by
higher temperatures. As warming continues, accelerating plant growth, pathogens may spread
more quickly because of the increased availability of vegetation (a “density” effect) and because
of increased humidity under heavier plant cover. As mentioned above, the fungus Phytophtora
cinnamoni has demolished many Eucalyptus forests in Australia. In addition, the geographical
range of pathogens can expand when the climate moderates, allowing pathogens to find new,
nonresistant hosts. On the other hand, a number of instances of amphibian decline seem to be due
to infections with chrytid fungi, which flourish at cooler temperatures. An excellent review of
this complex issue may be found in Harvell, et al., (2002).
There may be a link between augmented carbon dioxide levels and marked increase in the
density of lianas in Amazonian forests. This relationship is suggested by the fact that growth
rates of lianas are highly sensitive to CO 2 levels. As lianas become more dense, tree mortality
rises, but mortality is not equal among species because lianas preferentially grow on certain
species. Because of this biodiversity may be reduced by increased mortality in some species but
not others (Phillips, et al., 2002).
f. Forest fragmentation: The fragmentation of forests is a general consequence of the haphazard
logging and agricultural land conversion which is occurring everywhere, but especially in
tropical forests. When forests are cut into smaller and smaller pieces, there are many
consequences, some of which may be unanticipated.
i) Fragmentation decreases habitat simply through loss of land area, reducing the probability of
maintaining effective reproductive units of plant and animal populations. Most tropical trees are
pollinated by animals, and therefore the maintenance of adequate pollinator population levels is
essential for forest health. When a forest becomes fragmented, trees of many species are isolated
because their pollinators cannot cross the unforested areas. Under these conditions, the trees in
the fragments will then become inbred and lose genetic variability and vigor. Other species,
which have more wide-ranging pollinators, may suffer less from fragmentation. For instance, the
pollen of several species of strangler figs (the fruit of which is an essential element in the diets of
many animals) is dispersed by wasps over distances as great as 14.2 km (Nason, Herre, &
Hamrick, 1998). Thus “breeding units” of these figs are extremely large, comprising hundreds of
plants located in huge areas of forest. Isolated fig populations seem to survive and help to
maintain frugivore numbers (if not diversity), so long as the number of trees within the range of
the wasps does not fall below a critical minimum.

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Most species are not so tolerant, however. Animals, particularly large ones, cannot maintain
themselves in small fragmented forests. Many large mammals have huge ranges and require
extensive areas of intact forest to obtain sufficient food, or to find suitable nesting sites.
Additionally, their migrations may be interrupted by fragmentation. These animals are also much
more susceptible to hunting in forest fragments, which accounts for much of the decline in
animal populations in rainforests. Species extinctions occur more rapidly in fragments, for these
reasons, and also because species depend upon each other. The dissection of forests into
fragments in certain parts of the Amazon has led to extreme hunting pressures on peccaries, for
instance, and in some places where they are locally extinct, three species of frogs have also
disappeared, since they depended upon peccary wallows for breeding ponds. The absence of
large predator species leads to imbalances in prey populations, and, since many of the prey
species are seed-eaters, to declines in the population levels of many plant species. The prey, now
at high population levels, consume most available seeds, leaving few to germinate. On small
islands created after dam construction on the Chagres River in Panama, even large seed predators
could not survive, and after 70 years, the former mixed tropical forest has become a forest of
large-seeded plants only (Terborgh, 1992b). As Terborgh states, and we should attend to this
lesson, “Distortions in any link of the interaction chain will induce changes in the remaining
links.” (p. 289)
ii) When forests are cut down or burned, the resulting gaps are too large to be filled in by the
normal regeneration processes. This permits the ascendancy of rapid-growing, light-tolerant
species and grasses. Large gaps may then be converted to scrub or grassland.
iii) The “edge” effect: The cutting of forest into fragments creates many “edges” where
previously there was deep forest. Many effects are consequent upon this. Edges are lighter,
warmer and windier than the forest interior. These changes in microclimate alter plant
reproduction, animal distribution, the biological structure and many other features of the forest.
Tree mortality is much greater near edges, and climax species will be replaced by pioneer
species. These effects can be seen as far as one kilometer into the forest. The drier and warmer
conditions also make the fragment more flammable, with a concomitant increase in the
frequency of fires. Without further stress, the forest may regenerate. However, if the fragment is
surrounded by a human-dominated landscape, it may be inhibited from regeneration. This has
occurred in certain areas of Brazil, where forest fragments are surrounded by sugar cane and
Eucalyptus plantations. (For a discussion of edge effects, see Gascon, Williamson & da Fonseca,
2000). Thus, species requiring large areas of undisturbed primary forest are sacrificed to the
benefit of those species which can exist on forest margins.
iv) Fire is particularly frequent in fragments. Recently, many forests have been subjected to
deliberately-set and accidental fires, to which they have little resistance, and to which they are
rarely naturally subjected. People often set fire to cut-over areas adjacent to forests to clear them
of debris. These fires often get out of control and burn large areas, extend into the forest interior,
and inhibit edge regeneration by killing pioneer forest vegetation. More than 90% of forest fires
in certain eastern Amazon forest areas were associated with the edges of forest fragments
(Wuethrich, 2000). If conditions remain severe, the forest will recede and be replaced by scrub.
v) The use of herbicides and the introduction of exotic species into areas surrounding forest
fragments are detrimental to forest health. Herbicides blow from cleared agricultural areas into
forests, and exotic species introduced by farmers and ranchers spread, often displacing native
species. These exotic organisms interrupt the forest ecosystem and, since they have few or no

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natural enemies in their new environment, they are difficult to eradicate. According to Vitousek
(1997), there are many islands where fewer than half of the species are native, and in many other
terrestrial environments, more than 20% of species are foreign. These invasions drive the loss of
indigenous species.
vi) For unknown reasons, fragmentation leads to the death of large canopy trees, even in the
interior of fragments. Canopy trees dominate the forest structure, and they provide fruits and
shelter for many animals. The mortality of trees in fragmented patches in Brazil has been found
to be twice that of similar trees in the forest interior (Laurance, et al., 2000). Not only that, but
tree mortality is confined disproportionately to large trees (an almost 40% increase in mortality).
Large trees may be more vulnerable in fragmented forests because they are not as well buffered
from wind and natural forces, because there are more tree parasites (lianas), and because they are
more subject to dessication at forest edges. Loss of these largest trees has several corollary
effects – the alteration of biogeochemical cycles (transpiration, carbon cycles), the reduction of
species complexity, and the reduction of fecundity. As mentioned above, large trees are essential
habitats and food sources for many other organisms, both plant and animal; they are the source
of much of the primary productivity of the forest; and they are responsible for many effects on
the water and nutrient cycles. They are irreplaceable in the forest ecosystem.
vii) The fragmentation of forests by logging and agricultural conversion also exaggerates the
probability of major epidemics. Pathogens introduced through human activities by land use
practices in areas surrounding the forest can be lethal to forest plants and animals.
viii) Rainforests are losing species, not only because of the disappearance of their habitat, but
also because essential ecological processes are being interrupted by fragmentation. Fragments
are much more easily accessible to human incursions than are intact forests. This leads to a
variety of extractive activities within the forest interior. Intensive hunting, by depleting animal
populations, inhibits plant reproduction, since many seeds can neither be dispersed, nor flowers
be pollinated without them. Where these seed dispersers have been eliminated, are at low
population densities, or cannot move between forest fragments, seed dispersal will be very
limited, and as a result tree species dependent upon animal dispersers may become locally
extinct. In the remnants of the Atlantic forest of Brazil, the seeds of 71% of tree species are
dispersed by vertebrates (birds and mammals), and about 48% of these dispersers are birds which
are deep-forest dwellers. As this forest becomes more and more fragmented, these birds are
disappearing, so eventually the trees dependent upon them will be unable to replace themselves.
In some fragments, all large vertebrates (including seed-eaters) have been hunted to extinction,
and in some places the fragments are so distant from each other that these animals cannot pass
from one to another. The Alagoas curassow, a large fruit-eating bird of this area, is now extinct;
many others (toucans, aracaris, guans) are endangered by hunting pressures. Other species are
sensitive to disturbance of their environment and they become locally extinct. The tiny bits of
Atlantic forest remaining are becoming dominated by trees which are wind or water-pollinated or
whose seeds are dispersed by animal species which can tolerate disturbed habitats or edges
(“edge species”) (Cardoso da Silva and Tabarelli, 2000).
In addition, in fragmented forests, seeds will frequently land in deforested areas (where they are
in the open, and exposed to heat, light and desiccation) in which they cannot germinate, and the
seedlings cannot survive. In Brazil, three to seven times as many Heliconia acuminata seedlings
planted in continuous areas of forest germinated as compared to those planted in fragmented
areas (Bruna, 1999). Whatever the explanation for the lower rate of seedling germination in

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fragmented forests, whether due to inbreeding or other causes, fewer and fewer individuals in
fragments grow to adulthood. Those which do will breed, but since populations are small,
inbreeding occurs and the downward spiral continues until the population becomes locally
extinct. This effect is seen frequently in forest fragments.
g. Hunting, fishing, and gathering: Many forests which appear intact are in fact “empty
forests,” since most large animals have been hunted to unsustainable levels. These animals are
mainly hunted for meat, but also for skins (jaguar, ocelot) or medicinal/chemical properties
(poison-arrow frogs, collected to provide poisons for arrow tips, and the midwife toad, which in
the Amazon is thought to have medicinal value). Turtles are heavily harvested for meat and their
eggs are collected for food almost everywhere in the tropics and subtropics. Asian tropical
freshwater turtles are in serious decline because they are extensively hunted for food or for use in
traditional Chinese medicines. Thousands of tons of live turtles are caught or sent to China
annually, a completely unsustainable level of collection. There are apparently no turtles left in
the wild in Vietnam for this reason (Gibbons, et al., 2000). More than 80 species of Asian turtles
are at such low population numbers that they will become extinct unless emergency measures –
restrictions on international trade, increased habitat protection, captive breeding programs – are
taken immediately.
Some of the hunting is done for subsistence purposes by villagers; some by farmers, miners and
loggers, who live in the forest and use forest animals as a major food source; some by
commercial hunters to supply urban markets. This is a major source of income in many rural
tropical areas. In Gabon alone, a tiny country, 3,600 tons of bushmeat are consumed annually
(Tuxill, 1998). The popularity of “bushmeat” in cities and towns located in or close to rainforests
is rising. Surveys of bushmeat consumption in Bolivia and Honduras showed that people will eat
more bushmeat as their income rises, but when they become more affluent, consumption
declines. Consumption declines as well when bushmeat prices rise and the price of alternative
sources of protein declines (Wilkie and Godoy, 2000). Part of the remedy for overexploitation of
wildlife resources, then, lies with improving the income levels of local residents (so bushmeat
becomes less attractive as a protein source), in increasing the costs of hunting, and in lowering
the prices of alternative protein sources.
Many animals are trapped for the pet trade (tropical fish, birds, reptiles, monkeys) or for zoos or
medical research. A 25-week survey of the Bangkok weekend market found specimens of 225
species of birds (most “protected” by government decree) for sale (Sponsel, Bailey and
Headland, 1996). Other animals are trapped for their hides or furs, and some are killed because
they live too close to human habitation and impinge on human activities. For instance, ocelots
and other small carnivores may be shot when they attempt to prey on chickens or other domestic
animals.
Many tropical animals are hunted mercilessly for their value in traditional Asian medicines.
Tigers, bears, deer, snakes, and many other animals are near extinction in many places because
of this trade. Tigers in India are almost gone and only 3-5000 tigers still exist in the wild
anywhere (Tuxill, 1998). Many of these animals, or their parts, are smuggled illegally from
Southeast Asian (and other) countries to China and other countries with large Chinese
populations for these uses.
The effects of hunting are not just on the animals “taken.” Many animals which are human prey
eat fruits and seeds, and are major seed dispersers in tropical forests (see above), and the seeds of

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certain species of trees must pass through the gut of an animal in order to germinate. In these
ways many tropical plants and trees depend upon animals, for, without them, they will not be
able to reproduce. For instance, the seeds of Inga ingoides, a South American tree, are dispersed
widely by the spider monkey Ateles paniscus. Where this monkey is locally extinct (due to
hunting pressures), the trees do not “outbreed”; the seeds fall to the forest floor and patches of
seedlings of low genetic diversity surround the parent trees (Moore, 2001). This can be very
detrimental to forests, which generally have high genetic diversity, because more homogeneous
plants are generally less fit. The loss of elephants in African countries due to hunting has led to a
loss of reproductive ability in many valuable tree species (Tuxill, 1998).
Fish and aquatic animals are killed indiscriminately by fishing techniques which employ
insecticides and/or dynamite. These techniques not only catch the few desired specimens, but kill
all of the other animals in the area. Commercial fishing operations are not sensitive to issues of
sustainability. They catch as many marketable fish as possible, and intensify their efforts when
fish populations drop (declines due in the first place to overfishing). Such unsustainable fishing
operations have led and are leading to severe declines in fish in major river systems within
tropical rainforests (see the case of the tambaqui, Part II, F3, b, ia).
Fragmentation may be more serious than previously imagined because the consequences of
fragmentation are not static, but progressive. The edges of cut areas do not remain “in place” but
gradually recede, further reducing the size of the fragments. Eventually fragments may disappear
altogether or undergo ecological collapse.
Why do people heedlessly decimate the precious biodiversity of their planet? Some of them feel
they have no economic alternative, while others are driven by the desire for short-term profit.
Still others are uncomprehending. Unfortunately, so much of the depredation which is being
inflicted upon areas of great biodiversity is, in the long run, and often in the short run, in vain.
While tropical forests now occupy less than half of their former range, and much of what
remains is damaged or fragmented, the net profit to humanity is slight. Clearing of tropical
forests has provided only a relatively small percentage of total agricultural land, since much of
the land converted for farms becomes rapidly degraded and is abandoned. Logging results in a
one-time profit, mainly to large companies. Ranching is an activity which, on former rainforest
land, is uneconomical, requires subsidizing, and is eventually abandoned. But the damage is
permanent and the forest irreplaceable, so forest destruction has dire consequences. It degrades
aquatic fisheries, causes floods and has many other consequences (see below) – so much harm
for so little benefit.

Conservation measures in Kenya.

Kenya is putting in place interventions to tackle biodiversity loss. They range from
environmental policies and legislation, community involvement, national biodiversity assessment
and documentation, sustainable management and conservation of biodiversity including fair and
equitable benefit-sharing. Also, technical and scientific research support, information
dissemination, and capacity-building and integrated national planning for development. The
efforts and strategies employed to preserve the threatened areas,human livelihoods and the
threatened species and to reverse the loss of biodiversity, indirectly address challenges that result
from human activities responsible for biodiversity loss and environmental change. These may
also support sustainable development and protect bio-resources, their habitats and ecosystems,

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while simultaneously supporting bio-entrepreneurship. These are informed and reinforced by

environmental mpact assessments before implementation of major land-use change projects,
species and habitat studies, and direct management of Kenya’s biodiversity, and integrated
development planning. Also, there are a few restoration projects for declining species, ruined
habitats and landscapes. In the subsequent section, the paper provides some detailed discussion
on specific strategies and efforts in use.

In-situ conservation efforts and strategies

Kenya’s protected area system includes National Parks, National Reserves, Sanctuaries, Marine
Reserves and Forest Reserves managed in-situ by the Kenya Wildlife Service or Kenya Forest
Service or conjointly with communities. Their primary goal is to protect wildlife as defined in
the broadest sense by the proposed Wildlife Bill 2009. In addition, there are private ranches in
marginal areas such as Samburu and Laikipia counties, licensed to ranch wildlife. The protected
areas support biodiversity conservation ranging from protection of single species such as the
white rhino to full scale biodiversity protection programmes. Marine reserves are spaces either in
the sea or inland water bodies.

Ex-Situ Conservation Efforts and Strategies

Ex-situ conservation facilities in Kenya are mainly for plant species conservation. The National
Gene bank undertakes ex-situ conservation of cultivated species and wild species of economic
value such as medicinal plants and wild relatives of crops. The Genebank collects materials and
distributes for use, research and crop improvement programmes. The Kenya Forestry Research
Institute (KEFRI) supports forestry research and also maintains ex-situ seed collections at the
Seed Centre in Muguga and live plants at the Nairobi Arboretum. The Institute also manages in-
situ populations of trees for seed production.
Botanical and Zoological Gardens
The Nairobi Botanic Garden at the Nairobi National Museum holds plants collections for
research, education, conservation and recreation. Some public universities and schools have
established or are in the process of setting up botanical gardens or arboreta to support plant
conservation and plant sciences. They include Nairobi University, Moi University, Egerton
Universityand Maseno University to mention a few. Other public or private plant collections
include Mazeras botanical garden at the Coast and Bracken Hurst arboretum in Limuru.
Arboreta and Parks
Urban centres and Municipalities are also served by gardens and parks. These include Nairobi
City with Uhuru Gardens and Uhuru Park, Jamhuri and CityPark. Kericho with Kericho
Arboretum, Kakamega with Muliro gardens among others.
Integrated Agricultural Development
Mosaics of pasturelands, cropland, woodlands and wetlands are typical of agricultural
ecosystems and this patchiness benefits some wild species. Compared to extensively modified
urban and suburban lands, agricultural lands provide more suitable lands for non domesticated
species. For agricultural development, to benefit biodiversity, it is important to consider their
compatibility, particularly habitat availability for species at risk as well as potential for economic
damage to agriculture emanating from human-wildlife conflict. At the landscape level,
agriculture best preserves biodiversity when it is incorporated as wildlife corridors or part of the
matrix that connects natural areas.

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Rangeland Management
Rangelands are marginal areas dominated by grass and grass-like species, with or without
interspersed woody species. In Kenya, rangelands occupy about 70% of the land area and are
home to large populations of wild animals and plants. Rangelands have a high value for leisure,
pastoral livelihoods and scientific studies. They present a paradox for biodiversity conservation
because they are threatened and continuously changing under the influence of pastoralism and
now increasingly under subsistence agriculture. Most rangeland and grazing management
techniques were designed to increase and sustain livestock production by decreasing rangeland
diversity, in favor of grassland communities. This approach is obviously contrary with
biodiversity management and conservation but can be moderated for the benefit of biodiversity.
For example, in riparian and aquatic habitats, surrounded by dry lands, ranching practices that
protect water quality are applicable to habitat protection and biodiversity conservation. This is
achieved by excluding livestock through creation of buffer zones and by providing alternate
water supplies. Prescribed grazing, livestock exclusion and creation of
paddocks are common ranching practices that support and conserve local biodiversity. Also,
adhering to proper stocking rates and continuous monitoring and adjustment are beneficial to
biodiversity conservation.

Integrated Land-Use Planning

Sustainable resource use does not necessarily contradict biodiversity conservation. This is mainly
because most biodiversity is higher on marginally productive land that is not ideal for
agriculture. Land-use planning as proposed in the New Land Policy and the new constitution can
ensure that each part of the landscape is used for those purposes for which it is best suited
including multiple use. Biodiversity can benefit if it is considered in the initial planning for the
land. On protected areas and public land held in trust, including heritage sites, biodiversity
conservation can be achieved by improving visitor experience, protecting natural and historic
lands, heritage sites and monuments and land around them. Where it is known, land with natural
and cultural values, should be acquired, available activities expanded, educational opportunities
increased, outreach and interpretive programmes started, coupled with appropriate resource
management. Further, there is need to adopt a landscape approach to the management of land
resources and further investments on land. These can take the form of encouraging private
landowners to conserve their lands and create recreational and educational opportunities. Further,
by providing information and technical advice on habitat management, through incentives for
similar investments or through government intervention.
Continuing Research
Given the current state of biodiversity, there is need for long term research at different ecological
scales including monitoring to support biodiversity conservation both in-situ and ex-situ.
Research that could support biodiversity conservation includes but is not limited to:•
Identification of high-priority sites for habitat monitoring based on species composition, size,
human activities, water resource protection and the value of restored habitats to biodiversity and
agriculture.
• Conducting site surveys and monitoring species populations.
• Identification and demarcation of key habitat areas for the protection of endangered
biodiversity as well as buffer zones for stationary species like plants and or corridors for species
that move about.
• Recognition of the ecological value and likely permanence of certain introduced species and
habitats and incorporating these into biodiversity planning efforts.

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Integrated Land-Use Planning

Sustainable resource use does not necessarily contradict biodiversity conservation. This is mainly
because most biodiversity is higher on marginally productive land that is not ideal for
agriculture. Land-use planning as proposed in the New Land Policy and the new constitution can
ensure that each part of the landscape is used for those purposes for which it is best suited
including multiple use. Biodiversity can benefit if it is considered in the initial planning for the
land. On protected areas and public land held in trust, including heritage sites, biodiversity
conservation can be achieved by improving visitor experience, protecting natural and historic
lands, heritage sites and monuments and land around them. Where it is known, land with natural
and cultural values, should be acquired, available activities expanded, educational opportunities
increased, outreach and interpretive programmes started, coupled with appropriate resource
management. Further, there is need to adopt a landscape approach to the management of land
resources and further investments on land. These can take the form of encouraging private
landowners to conserve their lands and create recreational and educational opportunities. Further,
by providing information and technical advice on habitat management, through incentives for
similar investments or through government intervention.
Continuing Research
Given the current state of biodiversity, there is need for long term research at different ecological
scales including monitoring to support biodiversity conservation both in-situ and ex-situ.
Research that could support biodiversity conservation includes but is not limited to:
• Identification of high-priority sites for habitat monitoring based on species composition, size,
human activities, water resource protection and the value of restored habitats to biodiversity and
agriculture.
• Conducting site surveys and monitoring species populations.
• Identification and demarcation of key habitat areas for the protection of endangered
biodiversity as well as buffer zones for stationary species like plants and or corridors for species
that move about.
• Recognition of the ecological value and likely permanence of certain introduced species and
habitats and incorporating these into biodiversity planning efforts.
Specialized Programmes
These programmes are mainly centered on large, critical ecosystems or specific groups of
critically endangered species. Such programmes are large scale with long term impacts on
biodiversity conservation. Examples include the KWS programmes for biodiversity audits,
fencing off wildlife parks and reserves to stem human wildlife conflict, the Save the Mau
integrated project for catchments protection, the Lake Victoria Ecosystem Management Program
that addresses challenges of dwindling inland fisheries among others.

Public Awareness
Increasing public awareness is one of the most important steps in biodiversity conservation. This
can be achieved through educational programmes, incentive programmes, and voluntary
programmes. Some notable initiatives include the Save the Rhino and the Lewa Marathon among
others.

The Policies and Practice That Support Biodiversity Conservation

The protection of Kenya’s natural landscapes and biodiversity as well as their enhancement
continues to be guided by the Environmental Management and Cordination Act (EMCA), 1993.
This act stipulates that the National Enviromental Management Authority- NEMA coordinates

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the management of biodiversity resources in Kenya. Lead institutions achieve this through the
enactment of their respective acts of parliament. Under the new constitution, the current
legislation if found deficient, may be strengthened by policies and guidelines developed by the
National and respective County governments.

National Practice and Policy Framework

In Kenya, there are protected areas to protect specific sites of biodiversity and cultural interest.
They range in significance from international to local level, vary in scope, function and extent
and may overlap. For example, Nakuru National Park is designated Ramsar site1 while most
coastal Kaya forests are important cultural sites that are providing eco-tourism facilities. It is
proposed to increase protection of important biomes not currently under the management of
protected areas including forests, heritage sites, national parks, game reserves and marine parks
and reserves including inland waters. Indeed, one national target for biodiversity conservation in
the run up to 2010year of biodiversity was to increase the coverage of protected areas and
designating sites that are important for biodiversity conservation. The strategy for forests and
forest cover which in Kenya stands at about 2% is to increase it to 10% through community and
on-farm forestry. Other sectors that support biodiversity assets have comparable targets.

International Biodiversity Conservation Frameworks

Kenya ratified the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the negotiated biodiversity
agreement, committed to sustainable use of biodiversity. Since then, Kenya has made significant
progress in putting in place the proposed measures for biodiversity use and conservation. In
addition, Kenya also participates in the CBD’s international programmes of work in agricultural
biodiversity, dry and sub-humid lands biodiversity, forest biodiversity, inland waters
biodiversity, island biodiversity, mountain biodiversity and marine and coastal biodiversity.

Coordinated Planning and Management

Kenya needs to streamline the mostly sectarian laws enacted since independence to work for
rather than against biodiversity conservation. EMCA, 1993spells out the framework legislation
that coordinates environmental management activities including biodiversity conservation,
management and utilization. For example, the on-going participatory planning to develop
integrated wetlands management led by the National Environment Management Authority in
different parts of the country may work well for biodiversity conservation. Also, by laying much
emphasis on biodiversity access and utilization through permitting, EMCA embraces the
principles of using biodiversity for prosperity. 1 Ramsar Sites pertain to the Convention of
Wetlands of International Importance which is a treaty that aims to conserve wetlands around the
world. These sites are included under the Ramsar list of Wetlands of International importance

Joint Biodiversity Management

Some initiatives for the joint management of biodiversity resources include medicinal plants
networks, management of forest reserves, coastal forests and some sacred sites. Benefits from
successful joint management ventures include: improved land and biodiversity management;
better visitor experience in the national parks or such other areas; social development and
economic opportunities and the recognition of indigenous people’s rights and interests. A notable
Kenyan example is the establishment of conservancies. The conservancies protect important
natural places, their ecology and biodiversity, by applying science principles and smart
partnerships. Their partners include local communities, businesses, multilateral institutions and

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not-for-profit organizations. The Laikipia district with its vast number of game ranches and
conservancies is one of the few places where wildlife populations are increasing. This area has
remarkable integrity of the ecosystem, large wildlife populations and many endangered animal
species than anywhere else in Kenya. Laikipia’s biodiversity is entirely sustained by the Laikipia
community, encompassing the Laikipia Wildlife Forum (LWF), the local community initiatives,
private ranches, small scale farmers, cooperatives and tourism ventures.

Challenges and threats to biodiversity conservation

Major challenges to implementing the conservation of biodiversity and its use in sustainable
development are many. Only some selected ones are discussed below.

Population growth and increasing demand for biological resources

As we use biodiversity to meet our demand under the above points, population increase in the
world stands as a major problem because it increases consumption creating pressure for using
bio-resources more and more. The world is losing its tropical forests at the alarming rate of
almost 42 million acres per year. This means that nearly 1.3 acres of tropical forest disappear
every second. The largest areas of forest loss occurred in Latin America, followed by Africa.
However, when deforestation is measured as a percentage of the remaining forest, the most
losses happen to have occurred in Asia. At the current rate tropical forest will be gone within 115
years.

The Bangladesh forest with its exuberant majesty and biodiversity depleted and shrank to 6 per
cent from 20 per cent of land area within a time span of 50 years. This happened due to policy
weakness, over-exploitation and law and order failures. It is fact that, there is lack of legislation
to provide protection to the national forest but poor implementation mechanism of the existing
rules perhaps causes a greater damage in this regard.

Exotic species
Introduction of exotic species is another major challenge to biodiversity conservation and its use
in development.

In Bangladesh, some plant and animal species have been introduced from different countries.
These exotic species have hampered endemic species both in their population dynamics and in
the position of their trophic levels. At the same time, in many cases the importation has opted for
changing ecosystem. In the aquatic ecosystem, the major introduced species those have changed
a lot the ecosystem are African magur (Clarias garipinus) and red Piranha (Pygocentrus natteri).
In the terrestrial ecosystem the species are Tectona grandis (Shegun), Acacia spp. Eucaliptus
spp. and Swietenia mahagoni.

The forest areas of our country from Karer Hat to Teknaf in the Chittagong division have been
dominated by garzon (Dipterocarpus turbinatus) tree as canopy layer since long time; and it is
endemically sustained also for long time. The garzon forests have got some important characters
for maintaining the three layers of vegetation. First layer of vegetation is with the soil surface
and does not come up to the height of more than one meter. They are mainly the grasses and the
members of Zingiberaceae family. They keep the soil surface wet. This layer is the suitable

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shelter for microbes' growth and sustainability. It supports the second layer of vegetation and
also the third canopy layer.

Second layer of vegetation is the vegetation of man height level. This is the vegetation layer
comprised of vines, grubs, hedges and shrubs plants. These provide enough shade, protection and
make favourable conditions for the plants' and microbes' growth of first layer. The layer is called
the "Undergrowth Vegetation" in the forest. Third layer is the canopy layer of typical Garzon
population or the population with other related trees. Third layer protects the grubs, vines, shrubs
and hedges. During the variation of seasons the leaves fall on the ground and the fallen leaves
provide enough organic deposition for the growth of both first and second layer of vegetation. In
this way the entire typical forest ecosystem in the endemism sustains and survives in a normal
and usual situation. If any unusualness appears because of introduction of any exotic species then
the change of the ecosystem happens.

In typical aquatic ecosystem of our country (like pond ecosystem), fishes like shingi
(Heteropneustes spp.) feed on the chironomid larvae keeping them in the status of fourth trophic
level (3rd consumer). The carnivorous fishes of our endemic nature like Chital (Nostosterus spp.)
and Boal (Walago spp.) feed on the fishes of fourth trophic level and attain the status of fifth
trophic level (fourth consumer). In our typical aquatic ecosystem (pond ecosystem) the energy-
flow and ecological pyramids are arranged in this pattern. On the other hand, when African
magur (Clarias garipinus) and Red Piranha (Pygocentrus natteri) are introduced to the ecosystem
they drastically consume without maintaining the chronology of the ecological pyramid-pattern
in an ecosystem. These introduced species drastically reduce the population of animals of all
trophic levels and create ecological hazard for the population of all other aquatic animals and
many aquatic plants also. Consequently aquatic ecosystem gets changed or "altered".

Government policies
At least two conditions must be fulfilled if a country has to achieve or at least make significant
progress towards the targets of realising biodiversity use in sustainable development. One relates
to the capacity of the country to implement policies and programmes effectively. In most
developing countries, governance is poor in terms of human capability on one hand and lack of
transparency and accountability on the other. It is, therefore, essential that the developing
countries take necessary steps to establish good governance, including rule of law and
improvement in the economic and social management capacity. In Bangladesh perspective, main
constraints for the development are corruption and inadequacy in administration.

Biodiversity conservation has got a great role in maintenance of species richness and proper
functioning of an ecosystem. Conservation of biodiversity means the conservation of biotic and
abiotic factors together and their interaction to provide the sustainable situation for living
organisms in an ecosystem. If the normal proliferation and reproduction of all living organisms
and their interaction with abiotic factors fail in an ecosystem, then ecological imbalance remains
in its persistence. Persisted ecological imbalance makes the environment unfavourable for
initiating any kind of development plan. And this is why the biodiversity conservation stands at
epicentre of the sustainability of the global developmental goals and targets.

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Habitat degradation
The major threats to biodiversity that result from human activity are habitat destruction, habitat
fragmentation, habitat degradation, overexploitation of species for human use, introduction of
exotic species, and increased spread of diseases. Most threatened species face at least two or
more of these threats, speeding their way to extinction and hindering efforts to protect them.
Typically, these threats develop so rapidly and on such a large scale that species are not able to
adapt genetically to the changes or disperse to a more hospitable location (Primack, 1998).

Habitat degradation becomes threat to biodiversity in different appearance and dimension. In

different countries, the habitat loss is different and causes the loss of biodiversity in different
ways. One example could be cited from Cambodia, its habitat loss and its impact on biodiversity
depletion. Before the Vietnam War, Cambodia was a quiet, forest-rich country. The war
disrupted all aspects of the country's life for 20 years, and the ensuing civil war continued the
disruption, with environmental consequences that would be felt for many more years to come.
Cambodia has lost approximately three fourths of its wildlife habitat and has put at risk more
than half of its wetlands.

Conclusion
Biodiversity and development are intricately intertwined. Biodiversity supports development and
development impacts biodiversity. In fact, sustainable development is impossible when
biodiversity has been compromised. Biodiversity is central to Kenya’s economic development
because it provides basic goods and ecosystem services. It is also integral to key development
sectors among them tourism, agriculture, livestock, forestry and fishing. Further, it supports the
industrial sector through the provision of raw materials. As such, effective biodiversity
conservation, proposed management measures and practice must be broad based. This can be
achieved through many mechanisms including: sound natural resource management and
conservation of critical habitat and outdoor recreation lands. Some work needs to be done to
attract significant government funding for biodiversity conservation programmes. This can be
done through the public private partnership, lobby for funding for the acquisition and
development of national, county, and community parks, forests, wildlife refuges, heritage sites
and open spaces particularly near urban settlements. Also important, is the permanent protection
and restoration of important habitats in Kenya.

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