MAW-003

Animal Welfare Laws,

Policies and Organizations

Block

3
BIODIVERSITY, CONSERVATION AND INTERNATIONAL
TREATIES

UNIT 9
Biodiversity Convention and Conservation of Animals

UNIT 10
International Treaties
Biodiversity, Conservation
and International Treaties BLOCK 3 BIODIVERSITY, CONSERVATION
AND INTERNATIONAL TREATIES

Biodiversity encompasses the variety of all life on earth. Conservation of

biodiversity is protection, upliftment and scientific management of essential
ecological processes, preserve the diversity of species and make sustainable
utilisation of species and ecosystems. Levels of exploitation of some wild animal
species are high and the international trade in them, together with other factors,
such as habitat loss, is capable of heavily depleting their populations and even
bringing some species close to extinction. The Convention on International Trade
in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), Convention of
Migratory Species (CMS) and International Whaling Commission (IWC) are
major conventions which control trading of several fauna and flora from one
zone to other zone in the entire globe. The purpose of this Block is to make you
understand the concepts of biodiversity, conservation and international treaties.

Unit 9, Biodiversity Convention and Conservation of Animals delineates the

meaning, hierarchical levels and the need for biodiversity conservation,
biodiversity convention, and ex-situ and in-situ conservation of biodiversity.

Unit 10, International Treaties deals with the three major conventions viz.,
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora, Convention on Migratory Species and Convention on International Whaling
Commission.

142
Biodiversity Convention and
UNIT 9 BIODIVERSITY CONVENTION AND Conservation of Animals

CONSERVATION OF ANIMALS
Structure
9.1 Learning Outcomes
9.2 Introduction
9.3 Biodiversity
9.3.1 Distribution and Types of Biodiversity
9.3.2 Biodiversity of India
9.3.3 Threats to Biodiversity
9.3.4 Biodiversity Convention - Origin and Scope
9.3.5 Conservation of Biodiversity
9.3.6 Methods of Conservation of Biodiversity
9.4 Ex-situ Conservation of Biodiversity
9.4.1 Advantages of Ex-Situ Conservation
9.4.2 Disadvantages of Ex-Situ Conservation
9.4.3 Strategies for Ex-Situ Conservation
9.4.4 Examples of Ex-Situ Conservation for Animals
9.5 In-situ Conservation of Biodiversity
9.5.1 Advantages of In-Situ Conservation
9.5.2 Disadvantages of In-Situ Conservation
9.5.3 Examples of In-Situ Conservation
9.6 Let Us Sum Up
9.7 Keywords
9.8 Bibliography/ Further Readings
9.9 Self Assessment Exercises
9.10 Answers / Hints to Check your Progress

9.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Knowledge and Understanding: After studying this Unit, you will be
able to:
Understand the meaning and hierarchical levels of biodiversity
Explain the need for conservation of biodiversity and biodiversity
convention.
b) Practical and Professional Skills: After studying this Unit, you will be
able to:
Discuss the ex-situ and in-situ conservation of biodiversity

9.2 INTRODUCTION
Dear Learner,
In MAW-002 (Unit 18), you were introduced to the ex-situ conservation as one
of the major functions of a modern zoo. This unit will help you to understand
about biodiversity convention leading to conservation of animals. You are aware
143
Biodiversity, Conservation that conservation is the process of preventing the decay, injury, waste or loss of
and International Treaties
the components of the species. It is also known as preservation. One can use the
process of conservation of ecosystem within the nature including different fauna
(animals) and flora (plants). Conservation biology is the scientific study of nature
and of earth’s biodiversity with the aim of protecting species, their habitats, and
ecosystems from excessive rates of extinction and the erosion of biotic
interactions. Primarily, the biodiversity or biological diversity depends on ex-
situ conservation and in-situ conservation, which we will discuss in the following
sections.

9.3 BIODIVERSITY
In one line, diversity is the state or fact of being diverse; difference; unlikeness.
The biological diversity or biodiversity encompasses the variety of all life on
earth. We can define biodiversity as the “variability among living organisms
from all sources including inter-alia, and the ecological complexes in which
they exist”. In simple words, you can call biodiversity as the “totality of genes,
species and ecosystems of a region”.

9.3.1 Distribution and Types of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across the globe as
well as within regions. There are three interrelated hierarchical levels of
biodiversity namely, genetic diversity, species diversity and community or
ecosystem diversity (Box 9.1).

Box 9.1: Hierarchical Levels of Biodiversity

Genetic Biodiversity: It describes the variation in the number and types of

genes as well as chromosomes present in different species. It increases with
increase in size and environmental parameters of the habitat.

Species Biodiversity: It describes the variety in the number and richness of

the species within a region. The species richness may be defined as the number
of species per unit area. It tells about the extent of biodiversity of a site and
provides a means for comparing different sites. The species richness depends
largely on climatic conditions.

Community of Ecosystem Biodiversity: The community or ecosystem

diversity is the variety of habitats, biological communities and ecological
processes that occur in the biosphere. It describes the assemblage and
interaction of species living together and the physical environment in a given
area. It also tells about the inter-specific (between species) and intra-specific
(within species) diversity supported by ecosystem.

9.3.2 Biodiversity of India

India is one of the 17 mega diverse nations of the world. As per the available
data, the varieties of species living on the earth are 17,53,739. Out of the above
species, about 1,34,781 are residing in India although surface area of India is
only 2% of the earth. It has 7.3% of the global fauna and 10.88% of global flora
as per the data collected by Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change
(MoEF&CC). Wildlife Institute of India has divided India into ten biogeographical
144
regions: (i) Coastal lands (ii) Deccan peninsula (iii) Desert (iv) Gangetic plains Biodiversity Convention and
Conservation of Animals
(v) Himalayas (vi) Islands (vii) North eastern zone (viii) Semi-arid zone (ix)
Trans Himalayas, and (x) Western ghats.

9.3.3 Threats to Biodiversity

Biodiversity is considered as a reservoir of resources to be used for the
manufacture of food, medicine, industrial products, etc. But with an increased
demand of rapid population growth, biodiversity is gradually depleting. A number
of plants and animal species have already become extinct and many are
endangered. The different factors responsible for causing threat to biodiversity
are as follows:

Habitat destruction: The primary cause of loss of biodiversity is habitat

loss or destruction which results due to the large industrial and commercial
activities associated with agriculture, irrigation, construction of dams, mining,
fishing etc.

Habitat fragmentation: With increased population, the habitats are

fragmented into pieces by roads, fields, canals, power lines, towns etc. The
isolated fragment of habitats restricts the potential of species for dispersal
and colonization. In addition, the habitat fragmentation also brings about
microclimatic changes in light, temperature, wind etc.

Pollution: The most dreaded factor inducing loss of biodiversity is the

environmental pollution which include air pollution, water pollution,
industrial pollution, pollution due to harmful chemicals, pesticides,
radioactive materials etc.

Over-exploitation: The natural resources are over-exploited to meet growing

rural poverty, intensive technological growth and globalization of economy.
All these factors together may be responsible for the extinction of a number
of species.

Introduction of exotic species: The introduction of exotic species is due

to: (i) accidental transport (ii) agriculture (iii) European colonisation (iv)
horticulture.

Diseases: Since the animals are more vulnerable to infection, the

anthropological activities may increase the incidence of diseases in wild
species, leading to their extinction.

Shifting or Jhum cultivation: The shifting or Jhum cultivation by poor

tribal people greatly affects the forest structure which is a store house of
biodiversity.

Poaching of wildlife: A number of wildlife species are becoming extinct

due to poaching and hunting.

9.3.4 Biodiversity Convention - Origin and Scope

The Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), known informally as the
Biodiversity Convention is a multilateral treaty with India as one of its member.
A Conference for the Adoption of the Agreed Text of the Convention on Biological
145
Biodiversity, Conservation Diversity was held in Nairobi, Kenya, in 1992, and its conclusions were distilled
and International Treaties
in the Nairobi Final Act. The Convention’s text was opened for signature on 5th
June 1992 at the United Nations Conference on Environment and Development
(UNCED) held in Rio de Janeiro and entered into force on 29th December 1993.
The convention is the first comprehensive global agreement which addresses all
aspects relating to biodiversity. The Convention on Biological Diversity which
has near universal membership of 193 countries as its parties, sets out
commitments for maintaining the world’s ecological underpinnings, while
pursuing economic development. The Convention has three main goals:
a) Biological diversity
b) Sustainable use of its components, and
c) Fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from genetic resources.
A Nagoya (Japan) Protocol on access and benefit sharing was adopted in 2010
after six years of intense negotiations under the aegis of Convention on Biological
Diversity to further develop the access and benefit sharing framework provided
by the Convention. India has made significant positive contributions in these
negotiations. The objective of this Protocol is the fair and equitable sharing of
benefits arising from the utilization of genetic resources. The Protocol has entered
into force on 12th October 2014. India signed the Protocol on 11th May 2011,
and ratified it on 9th October, 2012.

The convention reminds decision-makers that natural resources are not infinite
and sets out a philosophy of sustainable use. While past conservation efforts
were aimed at protecting particular species and habitats, the Convention
recognizes that ecosystems, species and genes must be used for the benefit of
humans. However, this should be done in a way and at a rate that does not lead to
the long-term decline of biological diversity.

Five cycles of national reporting for Convention on Biological Diversity have

been completed, and India’s first, second, third, fourth and fifth national reports
are available on Convention on Biological Diversity’s website.

9.3.5 Conservation of Biodiversity

Conservation of biodiversity is protection, upliftment and scientific management
with three basic objectives:
To maintain essential ecological processes and life supporting systems.
To preserve the diversity of species.
To make sustainable utilisation of species and ecosystems.

9.3.6 Methods of Conservation of Biodiversity

Apart from a handful of the major farm animals such as cows, buffaloes, goats,
chickens, and camels, India has an amazingly wide spectrum of animals native
to the country. It is home to Asiatic Lions, Bengal and Indo-chinese tigers,
leopards, clouded leopards, snow leopards, various species of deer, including
Barasingha, Chital, Hangul, the Indian Elephant, the Great Indian Rhinoceros,
and many more amongst others. Since India is home to a number of rare and
threatened animal species, wildlife management in the country is essential to
146 preserve these species.
The need for conservation of wildlife in India is often questioned because of the Biodiversity Convention and
Conservation of Animals
apparently incorrect priority in the face of direct poverty of the people. However,
Article 48 of the Constitution of India specifies that, “The state shall endeavor to
protect and improve the environment and to safeguard the forests and wildlife of
the country” and Article 51-A states that “it shall be the duty of every citizen of
India to protect and improve the natural environment including forests, lakes,
rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for living creatures”.

There are two types of conservation methods namely ex-situ and in-situ
conservations. You will find the details of both these methods of conservation in
the following sections.
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Name three types of biodiversity.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2) List the bio-geographical regions in India.

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

3) Name three basic objectives of biodiversity conservation.

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

9.4 EX-SITU CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

Ex-situ conservation is the off-site preservation of components of biological
diversity outside their natural habitats. The part of the population from a threatened
habitat is removed and placed in a new location, which may be a wild area or
within the care of humans like zoo, captive breeding house, etc.
147
Biodiversity, Conservation
and International Treaties
9.4.1 Advantages of Ex-Situ Conservation
It gives longer life time and breeding activity to animals.
Genetic techniques can be utilised in the process.
Genetic diversity can be measured.
Health of individuals can be monitored and medical assistance can be given.
Selective breeding programme can be put into place.
Conservation sites can be used for education.

9.4.2 Disadvantages of Ex-Situ Conservation

Does not save a species from extinction.
The favourable conditions may not be maintained always.
Expensive with cryogenic storage and modern reproductive systems.
This technique involves only few species.
Animals can be exposed to various diseases.
Captive population have limited genetic diversity.

9.4.3 Strategies for Ex-Situ Conservation

There are several strategies which can be utilized for ex-situ conservation of
animals:
Adoption of different ex-situ methods of conservation.
Advanced technology in the service of endangered species.
Animal reintroduction.
Animal translocation.
Identification of species to be conserved.
Long-term captive breeding and propagation for the species which have lost
their habitats permanently.
Short-term propagation and release of the animals in their natural habitat.

9.4.4 Examples of Ex-Situ Conservation for Animals

Conservation Breeding of Asiatic Lion at Gir National Park, Junagarh,
Gujarat
Conservation Breeding of Crocodiles at Nanadankanan Zoological Park,
Odisha
Conservation Breeding of Brow Antlered Deer at Alipore Zoo, ............
Conservation Breeding of Pigmy at Besistha (Guwahati), Assam
Conservation Breeding of Red Panda at Darjeeling Zoo, ............
Conservation Breeding of Snow Leopard at Darjeeling Zoo, ............

148
Check Your Progress 2 Biodiversity Convention and
Conservation of Animals
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Write the advantages of ex-situ conservation.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2) Write the disadvantages of ex-situ conservation.

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

9.5 IN-SITU CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY

In-situ conservation is the on-site conservation that means the conservation of
species in their natural habitats. It is the process of protecting an endangered
animal species in its natural habitat, either by protecting or restoring the habitat
itself or by defending the species from predators.

9.5.1 Advantages of In-Situ Conservation

A cheap and convenient way of conserving biological diversity.
Biodiversity is permanently protected.
Facilitates scientific research on the site.
Involves promotion of natural system or environment to take care of its own
self.
Natural and cultural heritage is well protected.
Offers a way to preserve a large number of organisms simultaneously, known
or unknown to us.

9.5.2 Disadvantages of In-Situ Conservation

Diseases may threaten the organisms.
Endangered habitats may be fragmented, so area may not be enough for
survival of species.
Genetic diversity may have already been dramatically decreased.
Involves minimizing or excluding human activity.
149
Biodiversity, Conservation Poachers and ecotourists may cause damage to species.
and International Treaties
Requires large area which is often difficult because of growing demand for
space by human beings.

9.5.3 Examples of In-Situ Conservation

Protected Areas: Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at
least the exploitatiom of resources is limited. The protection and management of
biodiversity through in-situ conservation involve certain specific areas known
as protected areas which include Biosphere reserves, Community reserves,
Conservation reserves, National parks and wildfile sanctuaries. In these areas,
hunting, firewood collection, timber harvesting etc. are prohibited so that the
wild plants and animals can grow and multiply freely without any hindrance.
Some protected areas are: Cold desert (Ladakh and Spiti), Hot desert (Thar),
Saline Swampy area (Sunderban and Rann of Kutch), Tropical moist deciduous
forest (Western Ghats and North East) etc (Table 9.1).

Table 9.1: Protected Areas of India (as on January 2018)

Areas Number Total Area Coverage %

(square of Country
kilometer)

Community Reserves 46 72.61 0.002

Conservation Reserves (CRs) 76 2567.95 0.08

National Parks (NPs) 103 40500.13 1.23

Wildlife Sanctuaries 544 118931.80 3.62

Total Protected Areas (TPAs) 769 162072.49 4.93

(Source: Wildlife Institute of India, Dehradun)

Biosphere Reserves: Biosphere reserves or natural reserves are multipurpose

protected areas with boundaries circumscribed by legislation. Biosphere reserves
cover very large areas, often more than 5000 km2. Currently, there are 18
Biosphere Reserves in India, which are used to protect species for a long time.
These are scientifically managed allowing only the tourists to visit. Ten largest
biosphere reserves based on area in descending order are presented in Table 9.2.

Table 9.2: Ten Largest Biosphere Reserves in India

Sl. Name State Established Area Endangered

No. sq km Species

1) Great Rann of Gujarat 2008 12454 Wild ass

Kutch

2) Gulf of Mannar Tamil Nadu 1989 10500 Dugong

3) Sundarbans West Bengal 1984 9630 Bengal tigers

150
Biodiversity Convention and
4) Cold Desert Himachal 2009 7770 Snow leopards Conservation of Animals
Pradesh

5) Nanda Devi Uttarakhand 1988 5860 Snow

National Park & Leopards,
Biosphere Himalayan
Reserve Black Bears

6) Nilgiri Biosphere Tamil Nadu, 1986 5520 Nilgiri tahr,

Reserve Kerala and Lion-tailed
Karnataka macaque

7) Dihang-Dibang Arunachal 1958 5112 Mishmi Takin,

Pradesh Musk Deer

8) Pachmarhi Madhya 1999 4982 Giant squirrel,

Biosphere Pradesh flying squirrel
Reserve

9) Seshachalam Andhra 2010 4755 Slender Loris

Hills Pradesh

10) Simlipal Odisha 1994 4374 Asian

elephants,
Bengal tigers,
Gaur

National Parks (NPs) : According to Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972, a National

Park (NP) should be an area with enough ecological, geo-morphological and
natural significance, with rich fauna and flora. These are the small reserves meant
for the protection of wildlife and their natural habitats. There are 103 existing
NPs in India covering an area of 40500 square kilometre, which is 1.23 per cent
of the geographical area of the country (National Wildlife Database, April 2016).
The activities like grazing forestry, cultivation and habitat manipulation are not
permitted in these areas (Table 9.3).

Table 9.3: Ten Largest National Parks (NP) in India

Sl. Name Place State Established Area Endangered

No. (sqkm) Species

1) Hemis High Leh Jammu & 1981 4400 Asiatic ibex,

Altitude Kashmir Bahral,
National Snow
Park leopards,

2) Desert Jaiselmar Rajasthan 1992 3162 Black bear,

National Park Bengal fox,
Great Indian
bustard

3) Simlipal Mayurbhanj Odisha 1980 2750 Bengal

National tigers,
Park Indian
151
Biodiversity, Conservation
and International Treaties
bison,
Leopards

4) Gangotri Uttarkashi Uttarakhand 1989 2390 Himalyan

National Park barbet,
Musk deer,
Snow
leopards

5) Namadapha Changlang Arunachal 1983 1807 Bengal

National Park Pradesh Tigers,
Snow
leopards,

6) Khangchendzonga North Sikkim 1977 1784 Black bear,

National Park Sikkim Red panda,
Snow
leopards

7) Guru Ghasidas Surguja & Chattisgarh 1981 1440 Bengal

(Sanjay) Koria Tigers,
National Park Sambar
deer,
Spotted deer

8) Gir Forest Junagarh Gujarat 1965 1412 Asiatic lion,

National Park Chital,
Leopards

9) Sundarbans North & West Bengal 1984 1330 Bengal

National Park South Tigers,
Parganas Crocodile,
River
terrapins

10) Jim Corbett Nainital Uttarakhand 1936 1318 Bengal tigers,

National Park Leopards, Wild
elephants

Wildlife Sanctuaries: These are the areas where only wild animals (fauna) are
present. The activities like harvesting of timbers, collection of forest products,
cultivation of lands etc. are permitted as long as these do not interfere with the
project. Ten largest wildlife sanctuaries area wise in descending order have been
given in Table 9.4.

Table 9.4: Ten Largest Wildlife Sanctuaries in India

Sl. Name Place State Established Area (sq Endangered

No. km) Species

1) Great Indian Solapur Maharashtra 1979 8496 Indian

Bustard Bustard
Sanctuary
152
Biodiversity Convention and
2) Kutch Great Gujarat 1986 7506 Chinkara, Conservation of Animals
Desert Rann of Flamingo,
Wildlife Kutch Python,
Sanctuary Tiger, Wild
donkeys,

7) Nagar Guntur Andhra 1978 3568 Bonnet

junasagar- Kurnool, Pradesh/ macaque. Hy
Srisailam Nalgonda, Telangana ena, Jungle
Tiger Mahboon cat, Leopard,
Reserve nagar, Python, Sloth
(Rajiv Prakasam bear, Spotted
Gandhi deer, Tiger
Wildlife
Sanctuary)

8) Karakoram Leh- Jammu & 1987 1800 Tibetan ante

Wild Ladakh Kashmir lope, Medici
Sanctuary nal plants

9) Sasan-Gir Junagarh Gujarat 1965 1412 Asian lions,

Wildlife Blackbucks,
Sanctuary, Crocodiles,
Pythons, Sloth
bears

10) Kaimur Kaimur Bihar 1978 1342 Bengal tigers,

Wildlife Leopards,
Sanctuary Sloth bears,
Chitals, Sam
bar deers,
Nilgiris

Before we proceed, please complete activity 1.

Activity 1 (Web Browsing): Browse the literature and collect different ex-
situ and in-situ conservation methods used for conservation of wildlife in any
other country of your choice. Write your findings.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
153
Biodiversity, Conservation Check Your Progress 3
and International Treaties
1) Write the advantages of in-situ conservation.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2) Write the disadvantages of in-situ conservation.

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

9.6 LET US SUM UP

We discussed the concept of biodiversity, distribution, types, advantages,
threats, need for conservation, strategies and methods of conservation of
biodiversity.

You were also introduced to the aspects related to origin and scope of
Biodiversity Convention and India's contribution in it.

You also got an insight on the ex-situ conservation of biodiversity particu-

larly in reference to its advantages, disadvantages, various strategies and
some examples of conservation projects.

Similarly, various aspects of in-situ conservation of biodiversity viz. ad-

vantages, disadvantages, examples like protected areas, biosphere etc. were
dealt in this unit.

9.7 KEYWORDS
Biodiversity: It is the variability among living organisms from all sources in-
cluding inter-alia, and the ecological complexes in which they exist.

Biosphere reserve: Biosphere reserves or natural reserves are multipurpose pro-

tected areas with boundaries circumscribed by legislation. Biosphere reserves
cover very large areas, often more than 5000 km2. They are used to protect
species for a long time.
Biosphere: Biosphere is the zone of planet earth where the life occurs or
organism lives.
Conservation reserve: An area of land which are specially set aside under law
154 to protect some environmental value.
Conservation: The prevention of decay, injury, waste or loss of the components Biodiversity Convention and
Conservation of Animals
of the species is conservation. It is also known as preservation.
Convention: It is an accord or agreement or protocol.
Diversity: Is the state or fact of being diverse; difference; unlikeness.
Fauna: Refers to animals
Flora: Refers to plants
Preservation: Is the act of care or maintenance or protection of something.
Protected area: Protected areas are those in which human occupation or at least
the exploitation of resources is limited.

Reserve: Keeping or retaining for future use of a particular person, commodity

or purpose

Sanctuary: Is a shelter or hiding place or safe house or nature reserve for a

particular or a group of birds, wildlife etc.

9.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY/ FURTHER READINGS

Forest Protection Act, 1980
Mitra, P.P. (2016). Wild Animal Protection Laws in India, Lexis Nexis, Gurgaon.
Mitra, P.P. (2019). An Introduction to Animal Laws in India, Thomson Reuters,
Gurgaon.
Patel, BHM, Prasanna, S.B. and Gouri, M.D. (2015). Animal Welfare and
Management, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi
Wildlife Protection Act (WLPA), 1972
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link] community_
reserves_of_India
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]
[Link]/Database

155
Biodiversity, Conservation
and International Treaties 9.9 SELF ASSESSMENT EXCERCISES
1) Describe different types of biodiversity.
2) Write the factors which threaten the biodiversity.
3) Discuss various strategies to be utilized for ex-situ conservation of wild
animals.

9.10 ANSWERS/HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Genetic biodiversity, Specific biodiversity and Ecosystem biodiversity.
2) Biogeographical regions includes Coastal lands, Deccan peninsula, Desert,
Gangetic plains, Himalayas, Islands, North eastern zone, Semi-arid zone,
Trans Himalayas and Western ghats

3) Basic objectives include maintaining essential ecological processes and life

supporting systems, preserve the diversity of species and make sustainable
utilisation of species and ecosystems.

Check Your Progress 2

The advantages of ex-situ conservation include: longer life time and breeding
activity to animals, genetic techniques can be utilised in the process, genetic
diversity can be measured, health of individuals can be monitored and medical
assistance can be given, selective breeding programme can be put into place
and conservation sites can be used for education.

Disadvantages of ex-situ conservation include: does not save a species from

extinction, the favourable conditions may not be maintained always,
expensive with cryogenic storage and modern reproductive systems, this
technique involves only few species and animals can be exposed to various
diseases.

Check Your Progress 3

1) Advantages of in-situ conservation include: a cheap and convenient way of

conserving biological diversity, biodiversity permanently protected,
facilitates scientific research on the site, involves promotion of natural system
or environment to take care of its own self, natural and cultural heritage
well protected and offers a way to preserve a large number of organisms
simultaneously.

2) Disadvantages of in-situ conservation include: diseases may threaten the

organisms, endangered habitats may be fragmented, so area may not be
enough for survival of species, genetic diversity may have already been
dramatically decreased, involves minimizing or excluding human activity,
poachers and ecotourists may cause damage to species and requires large
space which is often difficult because of growing demand by humans.

156
Biodiversity Convention and
UNIT 10 INTERNATIONAL TREATIES Conservation of Animals

Structure
10.1 Learning Outcomes
10.2 Introduction
10.3 Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES)
10.3.1 How CITES Works?
10.3.2 Ratification
10.3.3 Regulation of Trade
10.3.4 The CITES Species
10.3.5 Wildlife Conservation in India
10.4 Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
10.4.1 Migration
10.4.2 Role of CMS
10.4.3 National Reporting
10.5 International Whaling Commission (IWC)
10.6 Let Us Sum Up
10.7 Keywords
10.8 Bibliography / Further Reading
10.9 Self Assessment Exercises
10.10 Answer / Hints to Check your Progress

10.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES

a) Knowledge and Understanding: When you have studied this unit, you
will be able to:

Understand the role of CITES, CMS and IWC in the conservation of

wildlife, migratory species and Whales.

b) Practical and Professional Skills: When you have studied this unit, you
will be able to:

Discuss the relation between International Conventions, National

Legislations and conservation of wildlife, migratory species and whales.

10.2 INTRODUCTION
Dear Learner,
In the previous unit, you learnt about the Biodiversity Convention. This unit will
help you understand about the different International Treaties on conservation of
wildlife. International wildlife trade is estimated to be worth billions of dollars.
The trade is diverse, ranging from live animals to a vast array of wildlife products
derived from them, including food products, exotic leather goods and medicines.
Levels of exploitation of some animal species are high and the trade in them,
together with other factors, such as habitat loss, is capable of heavily depleting
their populations and even bringing some species close to extinction. 157
Biodiversity, Conservation The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and International Treaties
and Flora (CITES), Convention of Migratory Species (CMS) and International
Whaling Commission (IWC) are major conventions which control trading of
several fauna and flora from one zone to other zone in the entire globe. Let us
discuss them briefly in the following sections.

10.3 CONVENTION ON INTERNATIONAL TRADE

IN ENDANGERED SPECIES OF WILD FAUNA
AND FLORA (CITES)
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES), also known as Washington Convention is a multilateral treaty
between governments to protect endangered animals and plants. Its aim is to
ensure that international trade in specimens of wild animals (fauna) and plants
(flora) does not threaten the survival of the species in the wild, and it accords
varying degrees of protection to more than 35,000 species of animals and plants.
It was drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members
of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The convention
was opened for signature in 1973 and CITES entered into force in 1975. It is an
international agreement to which States and regional economic integration
organizations adhere voluntarily. States that have agreed to be bound by the
Convention (‘joined’ CITES) are known as Parties. Although CITES is legally
binding on the Parties – in other words they have to implement the Convention –
it does not take the place of national laws. Rather, it provides a framework to be
respected by each Party, which has to adopt its own domestic legislation to ensure
that CITES is implemented at the national level. There are many animals (fauna)
which can be grouped in CITES and these include African lion, cheetahs,
elephants, great apes, rhinoceros, snakes etc. Similarly, some of the plants (flora)
include medicinal and ornamental plants/trees.

10.3.1 How CITES Works?

The international trade of selected species takes place under CITES regulations.
All import, export, re-export and introduction from the sea of species covered by
the Convention has to be authorized through a licensing system. Each Party to
the Convention must designate one or more Management Authorities in-charge
of administering that licensing system and one or more Scientific Authorities to
advise them on the effects of trade on the status of the [Link] species covered
by CITES are listed in three Appendices, according to the degree of protection
they need as follows:

Appendices I and II: Appendix I lists species that are the most endangered
among CITES-listed animals and plants. They are threatened with extinction
and CITES prohibits international trade in specimens of these species except
when the purpose of the import is not commercial, for instance for scientific
research. Appendix II lists species that are not necessarily now threatened
with extinction but that may become so unless trade is closely controlled.
It also includes so-called “look-alike species”, i.e. species whose specimens
in trade look like those of species listed for conservation reasons.
International trade in specimens of Appendix-II species may be authorized
by the granting of an export permit or re-export certificate. No import permit
158
is necessary for these species under CITES (although a permit is needed in International Treaties
some countries that have taken stricter measures than CITES requires).
Permits or certificates should only be granted if the relevant authorities are
satisfied that certain conditions are met, above all that trade will not be
detrimental to the survival of the species in the wild.

Appendix III: Appendix III is a list of species included at the request of a

Party that already regulates trade in the species and that needs the
cooperation of other countries to prevent unsustainable or illegal
exploitation. International trade in specimens of species listed in this
Appendix is allowed only on presentation of the appropriate permits or
certificates.

Species may be added to or removed from Appendix I and II, or moved between
them, only by the Conference of the Parties, either at its regular meetings or by
postal procedures. But species may be added to or removed from Appendix III at
any time and by any Party unilaterally.

A specimen of a CITES-listed species may be imported into or exported (or re-

exported) from a State party to the Convention only if the appropriate document
has been obtained and presented for clearance at the port of entry or exit. There
is some variation of the requirements from one country to another and it is always
necessary to check on the national laws that may be stricter, but the basic
conditions that apply for Appendices I and II are described below:

10.3.2 Ratification
In the case of bilateral treaties, ratification is usually accomplished by exchanging
the requisite instruments, while in the case of multilateral treaties, the usual
procedure is for the depositary to collect the ratifications of all states, keeping all
parties informed of the situation. The institution of ratification grants states the
necessary time-frame to seek the required approval for the treaty on the domestic
level and to enact the necessary legislation to give domestic effect to that treaty.
The ratification of international treaties is always accomplished by filing
instruments of ratification as provided for in the treaty. In most democracies, the
159
Biodiversity, Conservation legislature authorizes the government to ratify treaties through standard legislative
and International Treaties
procedures by passing a bill.

10.3.3 Regulation of Trade

All import, export, re-exports and introduction from the sea of species covered
by the Convention has to be authorized through a licensing system. According to
Article IX of the Convention, Management and Scientific Authorities, each Party
to the Convention must designate one or more Management Authorities in-charge
of administering that licensing system and one or more Scientific Authorities to
advise them on the effects of trade on the status of CITES-listed species.

10.3.4 The CITES Species

Over 38,700 species – including roughly 5,950 species of animals and 32,800
species of plants – are protected by CITES against over-exploitation through
international trade and are listed in the three CITES Appendices. The species are
grouped in the Appendices according to how threatened they are by international
trade. They include some whole groups, such as primates, cetaceans (whales,
dolphins and porpoises), sea turtles, parrots, corals, cacti and orchids. But in
some cases, only a sub-species or geographically separate population of a species
(for example the population of just one country) is listed. The table below shows
the approximate numbers of species that are included in the CITES Appendices
(as of 26 November 2019):

Table 10.1: Approximate numbers of species included in the CITES

Appendices

Group Appendix I Appendix II Appendix III

Mammals 325 spp. (incl. 21 523 spp. (incl. 20 46 spp. + 11 sspp.

popns) + 13 sspp. popns) + 9 sspp. (incl.
(incl. 1 popn) 4 popns)
Birds 155 spp. (incl. 2 1279 spp. (incl. 1 27 spp.
popns) + 7 sspp. popn) + 5 sspp.

Reptiles 98 spp. (incl. 7 777 spp. (incl. 6 79 spp.

popns) + 5 sspp. popns)

Amphibians 24 spp. 173 spp. 4 spp.

Fish 16 spp. 114 spp. 24 spp. (incl. 15

popns)

Fauna Total 687 spp. + 32 sspp. 5056 spp. + 15 sspp. 202 spp. + 14
sspp.

Flora 395 spp. + 4 sspp. 32364 spp. (incl. 109 9 spp. + 1 var.
popns)

Grand total 1082 spp. + 36 sspp. 37420 spp. + 15 sspp. 211 spp. + 14
sspp. + 1 var.
160
Note: The abbreviation “spp.” is used to denote species; “sspp.” for subspecies; International Treaties
“var.” for varieties; “popns” for populations (Source: CITES, 2020).

10.3.5 Wildlife Conservation in India

India is a party to five major international conventions related to wildlife
conservation:
1) Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES)
2) Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
3) International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources
(IUCN)
4) International Whaling Commission (IWC) and
5) United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization-World
Heritage Committee (UNESCO-WHC).
The Government of India ratified the CITES in 1976 and the Additional Director
General of Forests (WL) / Director Wildlife Preservation, Ministry of
Environment, Forest and Climate Change, has been designated as the Management
Authority of CITES-India. The enforcement of the provisions of CITES is carried
out by the Regional Deputy Directors, Wildlife Crime Control Bureau, who have
also been designated as the Assistant CITES Management Authority for India.
Apart from the Regional Deputy Directors, the Customs Authorities, State Forest
Departments are also involved in the enforcement of the Convention. An
amendment to the Wild Life (Protection) Act, 1972 has been proposed for
integrating the provisions of CITES in the national law for effective
implementation of the Convention. Indian delegation has actively participated
in the meetings of the CITES from time to time and persuaded specific agendas
in recent times:

Example 1: India expressed the need to establish a self-sustaining funding

mechanism for Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE) programme
in Asia. A drafting group comprising China, Germany, India, Kenya, South Africa,
Thailand, Uganda and United States (chair) was formed for improving the wording
in Annexure 2 of the document on Trade in Elephant Specimens.

Example 2: India has shown willingness to work with the Nepal Government
and other national authorities in monitoring the trade of shahtoosh wool derived
from Tibetan antelopes and its illegal poaching.

India is a member of World Heritage Convention under the aegis of the UNESCO.
Currently, six natural World Heritage Sites have been recognized by  UNESCO
in India, viz.,
1) Kaziranga National Park – Assam
2) Keoladeo National Park (formerly known as Bharatpur Bird Sanctuary) –
Rajasthan
3) Manas National Park –Assam
4) Nanda Devi National Park– Uttarakhand
5) Sundarbans National Park - West Bengal 161
Biodiversity, Conservation 6) Valley of Flowers National Park – Uttarakhand
and International Treaties
Further, a serial cluster of 39 sites from Western Ghats spread over four States
have also been inscribed as World Heritage Sites.
Before we proceed, please complete activity 1.
Activity 1 (Web Browsing): Visit CITES website and collect more details
about ‘Monitoring the Illegal Killing of Elephants (MIKE)’. Write the salient
features of MIKE programme.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) Name different committees in CITES.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
162
2) How many species of animals and plants are protected by CITES? International Treaties

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

10.4 CONVENTION ON MIGRATORY SPECIES

(CMS)
10.4.1 Migration
Migration is a natural phenomenon by which individuals of given species move
between sites. This can occur at different times of the year, at different stages of
their lives, or in search of appropriate conditions for breeding and raising their
young and in some cases involves very long distances.

The Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals -

more commonly abbreviated to just the Convention on Migratory Species (CMS)
- came into being after the German Government assumed responsibility for
organizing an international conference to agree the text for an international treaty.
The negotiations came to a successful conclusion in 1979 at Bonn (also known
as the Bonn Convention).The CMS or Bonn Convention aims to conserve
migratory species throughout their range. The Convention came into force in
1979 and India is a signatory to the convention since 1983.  

The CMS provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of
migratory animals and their habitats. This brings together the States through
which migratory animals pass, the Range States, and lays the legal foundation
for internationally coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory
range. The CMS Parties strive towards strictly protecting these animals,
conserving or restoring the places where they live, mitigating obstacles to
migration and controlling other factors that might endanger them. Besides
establishing obligations for each State joining the Convention, The CMS promotes
concerted action among the Range States of many of these species. Migratory
species that need or would significantly benefit from international co-operation
are listed in Appendix II of the Convention. For this reason, the Convention
encourages the Range States to conclude global or regional agreements.

In this respect, the CMS acts as a framework Convention. The agreements may
range from legally binding treaties (called Agreements) to less formal instruments,
such as Memoranda of Understanding, and can be adapted to the requirements
of particular regions. The development of models tailored according to the
conservation needs throughout the migratory range is a unique capacity to CMS.

10.4.2 Role of CMS

The CMS is the only global and UN-based inter-governmental organization
established exclusively for the conservation and management of terrestrial, aquatic
163
Biodiversity, Conservation and avian migratory species throughout their range. Other global conventions,
and International Treaties
such as the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), the UN Convention on
the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) and its implementing Fish Stocks Agreement
(FSA), the Ramsar Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially
as Waterfowl Habitat, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered
Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) or the World Heritage Convention
share some objectives with CMS. However, these conventions do not provide
the special instruments necessary for migratory species conservation. The CMS,
by contrast, does address the fact that migratory species cross jurisdictional
boundaries. It does this by providing the forum through which countries that
would otherwise have diûerent level of protection come together to agree on
common priorities and conservation measures.
In summary, CMS provides:
A specialized, comprehensive forum of experts on transboundary migratory
species;
Global and regional instruments and other measures tailored and adaptable
to taxa’s needs;
Support for integrated implementation of biodiversity protection;
Support for research, conservation and capacity-building projects;

10.4.3 National Reporting

The National Reporting Process is an integral part of the overall implementation
process of the CMS family instruments. National Reports are the official
documents by which countries report to the decision-making bodies of the CMS
family and/or its instruments on the measures they have undertaken to implement
the priorities of the instruments. National Reports provide an official record of
national implementation of each instrument over time and collectively they draw
the picture of the overall implementation of the [Link] National Reporting
process is essential for the effective functioning of the instruments, and when
properly carried out, can provide substantial benefits both to the instrument and
to the country concerned.

The reporting process holds immense value for the countries themselves by
charting their own progress and identifying their future implementation priorities.
It also helps countries to assess implementation and to plan other countries.
National Reporting provides information to increase awareness of national
activities, help mainstream biodiversity issues across sectors and encourage and
further investments in the national implementation of CMS and its instruments.

More information and links for the CMS activities are available at: http://
[Link]/species/[Link] (including links to the agreement texts,
information on meetings, conservation plans, etc).

10.5 INTERNATIONAL WHALING COMMISSION

(IWC)
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) is the global body charged with
the conservation of whales and the management of whaling. The IWC currently
has 88 member governments from countries all over the world. The main duty of
164
the International Whaling Commission is to keep under review and revise as International Treaties
necessary the measures laid down in the schedule to the Convention which governs
the conduct of whaling throughout the world. These measures, among other things,
provide:
Complete protection of certain species.
Designate specified areas as whale sanctuaries.
Limit the number of whales which may be taken.
Prescribe open and closed seasons and designate areas for whaling.
Prohibit the capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied by
calves.
India has been a member of the International Whaling Commission since 1981
and has played a pro-active and prominent role in bringing about a moratorium
on commercial whaling and supporting the Commission in its efforts towards
whale conservation. All the Cetacean species (whales, dolphins, etc.) have been
included in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 thereby giving
them the highest degree of protection. Apart from this, India has always been
supporting the conservation of whales through the establishment of the South
Pacific Sanctuary.

The Commission’s role has expanded since its establishment in 1946. In addition
to regulation of whaling, today’s IWC works to address a wide range of
conservation issues including bycatch and entanglement, ocean noise, pollution
and debris, collision between whales and ships, and sustainable whale watching.

(Please visit [Link] for more details on IWC, whales conservation

and management and other publications)
Before we proceed, please complete activity 2.
Activity 2: The CMS Factsheet on ‘Migratory Species and Infrastructure’
documented the following (Source: The CMS Factsheet on ‘Migratory Species
and Infrastructure’

[Link]
oct2020_part1.pdf):

Why Does Infrastructure Matter? Infrastructure provides a range of socio-

economic benefits. Estimates suggest that by 2030, over US$90 trillion will
be required for infrastructure development to achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals and to reduce climate risks in line with the Paris
Agreement. Yet, unsustainable practices when developing infrastructure often
have significant negative impacts on migratory species and their habitats.

Types of Infrastructure
Linear infrastructure: e.g. railways, roads, pipelines, fences,
telecommunications cables, canals
Energy infrastructure (may include linear infrastructure): e.g. power
plants, hydroelectric dams, wind turbines
Urban/social infrastructure: e.g. buildings, leisure infrastructure
165
Biodiversity, Conservation
and International Treaties Transport infrastructure (may include linear infrastructure): e.g. airports
Water infrastructure: e.g. wastewater treatment plants, dams
Marine infrastructure: e.g. ports, sea defences, underwater pipelines
Talk to your friends or colleagues about ‘Impacts of Infrastructure
Development on Migratory Species’. Compare their responses to the discussion
given in the CMS Factsheet and write your observations:
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
Check Your Progress 2
Note: a) Use the spaces given below for your answers.
b) Check your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1) What is meant by migration?
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

2) What is role of CMS in the conservation of migratory species?

.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
166
3) Write the measures taken by International Whaling Commission on conduct International Treaties
of whaling.
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................
.......................................................................................................................

10.6 LET US SUM UP

The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna
and Flora (CITES) is a multilateral treaty between governments to protect
more than 35,000 endangered animals and plants.

The details covered in the unit include the working model of CITES, different
animal and plant species covered, ratification modalities, regulation of trade
and strategies of wildlife conservation in India with reference to various
International treaties.

Migration is a natural phenomenon by which individuals of given species

move between sites.

The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS) is the only global and UN-
based inter-governmental organization established exclusively for the
conservation of migratory species.

The International Whaling Commission (IWC) is the global body charged

with the conservation of whales and the management of whaling.

In addition to regulation of whaling, today’s IWC works to address a wide

range of conservation issues including bycatch and entanglement, ocean
noise, pollution and debris, collision between whales and ships, and
sustainable whale watching.

10.7 KEYWORDS
Agreement: A negotiated and typically legally binding arrangement between
parties as to a course of action.

Convention: A meeting or formal assembly, of representatives or delegates, for

discussion of and action on particular matters of common concern.

Endangered: An endangered species is a species that is very likely to become

extinct in the near future, either worldwide or in a particular political jurisdiction.
Fauna: The animals of a particular region, habitat or geological period
Flora: The plants of a particular region, habitat or geological period
Migration: Migration is a natural phenomenon by which individuals of given
species move between sites.
167
Biodiversity, Conservation Migratory Species: Species that move from one habitat to another during
and International Treaties
different times of the year, as they cannot live in the same environment all year
round due to seasonal limitations in factors such as food, sunlight and temperature.

Resolution: In law, resolution is a written motion adopted by a deliberative body;

an official decision that is made after a group or organization has voted.

Treaty: A formal and binding written agreement entered into by actors in

international law, usually sovereign states and international organizations but
can include individuals and other actors.

10.8 BIBLIOGRAPHY / FURTHER READING

CITES (2020). The CITES species. [Link]
Manual for the National Focal Points for CMS and its instruments (2013).
Bonn, Germany. UNEP/CMS Secretariat website [Link]
Mitra, P.P. (2016). Wild Animal Protection Laws in India, Lexis Nexis, Gurgaon.
Mitra, P.P. (2019). An Introduction to Animal Laws in India, Thomson Reuters,
Gurgaon.
Patel, B.H.M., Prasanna, S.B. and Gouri, M.D. (2015). Animal Welfare and
Management, New India Publishing Agency, New Delhi.
Tiwari, S.K. (1997). Encyclopaedia of Indian Wildlife Sanctuaries and National
Parks. Anmol Publisher, Delhi.
Web Resources
Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals
[Link]
Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and
Flora (CITES)
[Link]
International Whaling Commission (IWC)
[Link]

10.9 SELF ASSESSMENT EXERCISES

1) What is CITES? Discuss in brief the salient features of CITES.
2) Explain the role of CMS in the conservation of migratory species.
3) Discuss the role of IWC in the conservation of whales and management of
whaling.

10.10 ANSWER / HINTS TO CHECK YOUR

PROGRESS
Check Your Progress 1
1) Plants Committee, Animals Committee, Standing Committee
2) 5,950 animals and 32,800 plants are protected by CITES
168
Check Your Progress 2 International Treaties

1) Migration is a natural phenomenon by which individuals of given species

move between sites at different stages of their lives, or in search of appropriate
conditions for breeding and raising their young.

2) The CMS is the only global and UN-based inter-governmental organization

established exclusively for the conservation of migratory species. The CMS
provides: a specialized, comprehensive forum of experts on transboundary
migratory species; global and regional instruments and other measures
tailored and adaptable to taxa’s needs; support for integrated implementation
of biodiversity protection, and; support for research, conservation and
capacity-building projects.

3) The measures include: complete protection of certain species, designate

specified areas as whale sanctuaries, limit the number of whales which may
be taken, prescribe open and closed seasons and designate areas for whaling,
and prohibit the capture of suckling calves and female whales accompanied
by calves.

169