Transcriptome

The transcriptome is the set of all RNA transcripts, including coding and non-coding, in an individual or
a population of cells. The term can also sometimes be used to refer to all RNAs, or just mRNA,
depending on the particular experiment. The term transcriptome is a portmanteau of the words transcript
and genome; it is associated with the process of transcript production during the biological process of
transcription.

The early stages of transcriptome annotations began with cDNA libraries published in the 1980s.
Subsequently, the advent of high-throughput technology led to faster and more efficient ways of obtaining
data about the transcriptome. Two biological techniques are used to study the transcriptome, namely
DNA microarray, a hybridization-based technique and RNA-seq, a sequence-based approach.[1] RNA-seq
is the preferred method and has been the dominant transcriptomics technique since the 2010s. Single-cell
transcriptomics allows tracking of transcript changes over time within individual cells.

Data obtained from the transcriptome is used in research to gain insight into processes such as cellular
differentiation, carcinogenesis, transcription regulation and biomarker discovery among others.
Transcriptome-obtained data also finds applications in establishing phylogenetic relationships during the
process of evolution and in in vitro fertilization. The transcriptome is closely related to other -ome based
biological fields of study; it is complementary to the proteome and the metabolome and encompasses the
translatome, exome, meiome and thanatotranscriptome which can be seen as ome fields studying specific
types of RNA transcripts. There are quantifiable and conserved relationships between the Transcriptome
and other -omes, and Transcriptomics data can be used effectively to predict other molecular species,
such as metabolites.[2] There are numerous publicly available transcriptome databases.

Etymology and history

The word transcriptome is a portmanteau of the words transcript and genome. It appeared along with
other neologisms formed using the suffixes -ome and -omics to denote all studies conducted on a genome-
wide scale in the fields of life sciences and technology. As such, transcriptome and transcriptomics were
one of the first words to emerge along with genome and proteome.[3] The first study to present a case of a
collection of a cDNA library for silk moth mRNA was published in 1979.[4] The first seminal study to
mention and investigate the transcriptome of an organism was published in 1997 and it described 60,633
transcripts expressed in S. cerevisiae using serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE).[5] With the rise of
high-throughput technologies and bioinformatics and the subsequent increased computational power, it
became increasingly efficient and easy to characterize and analyze enormous amount of data.[3] Attempts
to characterize the transcriptome became more prominent with the advent of automated DNA sequencing
during the 1980s.[6] During the 1990s, expressed sequence tag sequencing was used to identify genes and
their fragments.[7] This was followed by techniques such as serial analysis of gene expression (SAGE),
cap analysis of gene expression (CAGE), and massively parallel signature sequencing (MPSS).
Transcription
The transcriptome encompasses all the ribonucleic acid (RNA) transcripts present in a given organism or
experimental sample.[8] RNA is the main carrier of genetic information that is responsible for the process
of converting DNA into an organism's phenotype. A gene can give rise to a single-stranded messenger
RNA (mRNA) through a molecular process known as transcription; this mRNA is complementary to the
strand of DNA it originated from.[6] The enzyme RNA polymerase II attaches to the template DNA strand
and catalyzes the addition of ribonucleotides to the 3' end of the growing sequence of the mRNA
transcript.[9]

In order to initiate its function, RNA polymerase II needs to recognize a promoter sequence, located
upstream (5') of the gene. In eukaryotes, this process is mediated by transcription factors, most notably
Transcription factor II D (TFIID) which recognizes the TATA box and aids in the positioning of RNA
polymerase at the appropriate start site. To finish the production of the RNA transcript, termination takes
place usually several hundred nuclecotides away from the termination sequence and cleavage takes
place.[9] This process occurs in the nucleus of a cell along with RNA processing by which mRNA
molecules are capped, spliced and polyadenylated to increase their stability before being subsequently
taken to the cytoplasm. The mRNA gives rise to proteins through the process of translation that takes
place in ribosomes.

Types of RNA transcripts

Almost all functional transcripts are derived from known genes. The only exceptions are a small number
of transcripts that might play a direct role in regulating gene expression near the prompters of known
genes. (See Enhancer RNA.)

Gene occupy most of prokaryotic genomes so most of their genomes are transcribed. Many eukaryotic
genomes are very large and known genes may take up only a fraction of the genome. In mammals, for
example, known genes only account for 40-50% of the genome.[10] Nevertheless, identified transcripts
often map to a much larger fraction of the genome suggesting that the transcriptome contains spurious
transcripts that do not come from genes. Some of these transcripts are known to be non-functional
because they map to transcribed pseudogenes or degenerative transposons and viruses. Others map to
unidentified regions of the genome that may be junk DNA.

Spurious transcription is very common in eukaryotes, especially those with large genomes that might
contain a lot of junk DNA.[11][12][13][14] Some scientists claim that if a transcript has not been assigned to
a known gene then the default assumption must be that it is junk RNA until it has been shown to be
functional.[11][15] This would mean that much of the transcriptome in species with large genomes is
probably junk RNA. (See Non-coding RNA)

The transcriptome includes the transcripts of protein-coding genes (mRNA plus introns) as well as the
transcripts of non-coding genes (functional RNAs plus introns).

Ribosomal RNA/rRNA: Usually the most abundant RNA in the transcriptome.

Long non-coding RNA/lncRNA: Non-coding RNA transcripts that are more than 200
nucleotides long. Members of this group comprise the largest fraction of the non-coding
transcriptome other than introns. It is not known how many of these transcripts are
functional and how many are junk RNA.
transfer RNA/tRNA
micro RNA/miRNA: 19-24 nucleotides (nt) long. Micro RNAs up- or downregulate
expression levels of mRNAs by the process of RNA interference at the post-transcriptional
level.[3]
small interfering RNA/siRNA: 20-24 nt
small nucleolar RNA/snoRNA
Piwi-interacting RNA/piRNA: 24-31 nt. They interact with Piwi proteins of the Argonaute
family and have a function in targeting and cleaving transposons.[16]
enhancer RNA/eRNA:[3]

Scope of study
In the human genome, all genes get transcribed into RNA because that's how the molecular gene is
defined. (See Gene.) The transcriptome consists of coding regions of mRNA plus non-coding UTRs,
introns, non-coding RNAs, and spurious non-functional transcripts.

Several factors render the content of the transcriptome difficult to establish. These include alternative
splicing, RNA editing and alternative transcription among others.[17] Additionally, transcriptome
techniques are capable of capturing transcription occurring in a sample at a specific time point, although
the content of the transcriptome can change during differentiation.[6] The main aims of transcriptomics
are the following: "catalogue all species of transcript, including mRNAs, non-coding RNAs and small
RNAs; to determine the transcriptional structure of genes, in terms of their start sites, 5′ and 3′ ends,
splicing patterns and other post-transcriptional modifications; and to quantify the changing expression
levels of each transcript during development and under different conditions".[1]

The term can be applied to the total set of transcripts in a given organism, or to the specific subset of
transcripts present in a particular cell type. Unlike the genome, which is roughly fixed for a given cell line
(excluding mutations), the transcriptome can vary with external environmental conditions. Because it
includes all mRNA transcripts in the cell, the transcriptome reflects the genes that are being actively
expressed at any given time, with the exception of mRNA degradation phenomena such as transcriptional
attenuation. The study of transcriptomics, (which includes expression profiling, splice variant analysis
etc.), examines the expression level of RNAs in a given cell population, often focusing on mRNA, but
sometimes including others such as tRNAs and sRNAs.

Methods of construction
Transcriptomics is the quantitative science that encompasses the assignment of a list of strings ("reads")
to the object ("transcripts" in the genome). To calculate the expression strength, the density of reads
corresponding to each object is counted.[18] Initially, transcriptomes were analyzed and studied using
expressed sequence tags libraries and serial and cap analysis of gene expression (SAGE).

Currently, the two main transcriptomics techniques include DNA microarrays and RNA-Seq. Both
techniques require RNA isolation through RNA extraction techniques, followed by its separation from
other cellular components and enrichment of mRNA.[19][20]
There are two general methods of inferring transcriptome sequences. One approach maps sequence reads
onto a reference genome, either of the organism itself (whose transcriptome is being studied) or of a
closely related species. The other approach, de novo transcriptome assembly, uses software to infer
transcripts directly from short sequence reads and is used in organisms with genomes that are not
sequenced.[21]

DNA microarrays
The first transcriptome studies were based on microarray
techniques (also known as DNA chips). Microarrays consist of
thin glass layers with spots on which oligonucleotides, known as
"probes" are arrayed; each spot contains a known DNA
sequence.[22]

When performing microarray analyses, mRNA is collected from a

control and an experimental sample, the latter usually
representative of a disease. The RNA of interest is converted to
cDNA to increase its stability and marked with fluorophores of
two colors, usually green and red, for the two groups. The cDNA DNA microarray used to detect gene
is spread onto the surface of the microarray where it hybridizes expression in human (left) and
mouse (right) samples
with oligonucleotides on the chip and a laser is used to scan. The
fluorescence intensity on each spot of the microarray corresponds
to the level of gene expression and based on the color of the fluorophores selected, it can be determined
which of the samples exhibits higher levels of the mRNA of interest.[7]

One microarray usually contains enough oligonucleotides to represent all known genes; however, data
obtained using microarrays does not provide information about unknown genes. During the 2010s,
microarrays were almost completely replaced by next-generation techniques that are based on DNA
sequencing.

RNA sequencing
RNA sequencing is a next-generation sequencing technology; as such it requires only a small amount of
RNA and no previous knowledge of the genome.[3] It allows for both qualitative and quantitative analysis
of RNA transcripts, the former allowing discovery of new transcripts and the latter a measure of relative
quantities for transcripts in a sample.[16]

The three main steps of sequencing transcriptomes of any biological samples include RNA purification,
the synthesis of an RNA or cDNA library and sequencing the library.[16] The RNA purification process is
different for short and long RNAs.[16] This step is usually followed by an assessment of RNA quality,
with the purpose of avoiding contaminants such as DNA or technical contaminants related to sample
processing. RNA quality is measured using UV spectrometry with an absorbance peak of 260 nm.[23]
RNA integrity can also be analyzed quantitatively comparing the ratio and intensity of 28S RNA to 18S
RNA reported in the RNA Integrity Number (RIN) score.[23] Since mRNA is the species of interest and it
represents only 3% of its total content, the RNA sample should be treated to remove rRNA and tRNA and
tissue-specific RNA transcripts.[23]
The step of library preparation with the aim of producing short cDNA fragments, begins with RNA
fragmentation to transcripts in length between 50 and 300 base pairs. Fragmentation can be enzymatic
(RNA endonucleases), chemical (trismagnesium salt buffer, chemical hydrolysis) or mechanical
(sonication, nebulisation).[24] Reverse transcription is used to convert the RNA templates into cDNA and
three priming methods can be used to achieve it, including oligo-DT, using random primers or ligating
special adaptor oligos.

Single-cell transcriptomics
Transcription can also be studied at the level of individual cells by single-cell transcriptomics. Single-cell
RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) is a recently developed technique that allows the analysis of the
transcriptome of single cells, including bacteria.[25] With single-cell transcriptomics, subpopulations of
cell types that constitute the tissue of interest are also taken into consideration.[26] This approach allows
to identify whether changes in experimental samples are due to phenotypic cellular changes as opposed to
proliferation, with which a specific cell type might be overexpressed in the sample.[27] Additionally,
when assessing cellular progression through differentiation, average expression profiles are only able to
order cells by time rather than their stage of development and are consequently unable to show trends in
gene expression levels specific to certain stages.[28] Single-cell trarnscriptomic techniques have been
used to characterize rare cell populations such as circulating tumor cells, cancer stem cells in solid
tumors, and embryonic stem cells (ESCs) in mammalian blastocysts.[29]

Although there are no standardized techniques for single-cell transcriptomics, several steps need to be
undertaken. The first step includes cell isolation, which can be performed using low- and high-throughput
techniques. This is followed by a qPCR step and then single-cell RNAseq where the RNA of interest is
converted into cDNA. Newer developments in single-cell transcriptomics allow for tissue and sub-
cellular localization preservation through cryo-sectioning thin slices of tissues and sequencing the
transcriptome in each slice. Another technique allows the visualization of single transcripts under a
microscope while preserving the spatial information of each individual cell where they are expressed.[29]

Analysis
A number of organism-specific transcriptome databases have been constructed and annotated to aid in the
identification of genes that are differentially expressed in distinct cell populations.

RNA-seq is emerging (2013) as the method of choice for measuring transcriptomes of organisms, though
the older technique of DNA microarrays is still used.[1] RNA-seq measures the transcription of a specific
gene by converting long RNAs into a library of cDNA fragments. The cDNA fragments are then
sequenced using high-throughput sequencing technology and aligned to a reference genome or
transcriptome which is then used to create an expression profile of the genes.[1]
Applications

Mammals
The transcriptomes of stem cells and cancer cells are of particular interest to researchers who seek to
understand the processes of cellular differentiation and carcinogenesis. A pipeline using RNA-seq or gene
array data can be used to track genetic changes occurring in stem and precursor cells and requires at least
three independent gene expression data from the former cell type and mature cells.[30]

Analysis of the transcriptomes of human oocytes and embryos is used to understand the molecular
mechanisms and signaling pathways controlling early embryonic development, and could theoretically be
a powerful tool in making proper embryo selection in in vitro fertilisation. Analyses of the transcriptome
content of the placenta in the first-trimester of pregnancy in in vitro fertilization and embryo transfer
(IVT-ET) revealed differences in genetic expression which are associated with higher frequency of
adverse perinatal outcomes. Such insight can be used to optimize the practice.[31] Transcriptome analyses
can also be used to optimize cryopreservation of oocytes, by lowering injuries associated with the
process.[32]

Transcriptomics is an emerging and continually growing field in biomarker discovery for use in assessing
the safety of drugs or chemical risk assessment.[33]

Transcriptomes may also be used to infer phylogenetic relationships among individuals or to detect
evolutionary patterns of transcriptome conservation.[34]

Transcriptome analyses were used to discover the incidence of antisense transcription, their role in gene
expression through interaction with surrounding genes and their abundance in different chromosomes.[35]
RNA-seq was also used to show how RNA isoforms, transcripts stemming from the same gene but with
different structures, can produce complex phenotypes from limited genomes.[21]

Plants
Transcriptome analysis have been used to study the evolution and diversification process of plant species.
In 2014, the 1000 Plant Genomes Project was completed in which the transcriptomes of 1,124 plant
species from the families viridiplantae, glaucophyta and rhodophyta were sequenced. The protein coding
sequences were subsequently compared to infer phylogenetic relationships between plants and to
characterize the time of their diversification in the process of evolution.[36] Transcriptome studies have
been used to characterize and quantify gene expression in mature pollen. Genes involved in cell wall
metabolism and cytoskeleton were found to be overexpressed. Transcriptome approaches also allowed to
track changes in gene expression through different developmental stages of pollen, ranging from
microspore to mature pollen grains; additionally such stages could be compared across species of
different plants including Arabidopsis, rice and tobacco.[37]
Relation to other ome fields
Similar to other -ome based technologies,
analysis of the transcriptome allows for an
unbiased approach when validating
hypotheses experimentally. This approach also
allows for the discovery of novel mediators in
signaling pathways.[18] As with other -omics
based technologies, the transcriptome can be
analyzed within the scope of a multiomics
approach. It is complementary to
metabolomics but contrary to proteomics, a
direct association between a transcript and
metabolite cannot be established.

There are several -ome fields that can be seen General schema showing the relationships of the genome,
as subcategories of the transcriptome. The transcriptome, proteome, and metabolome (lipidome).
exome differs from the transcriptome in that it
includes only those RNA molecules found in a
specified cell population, and usually includes the amount or concentration of each RNA molecule in
addition to the molecular identities. Additionally, the transcritpome also differs from the translatome,
which is the set of RNAs undergoing translation.

The term meiome is used in functional genomics to describe the meiotic transcriptome or the set of RNA
transcripts produced during the process of meiosis.[38] Meiosis is a key feature of sexually reproducing
eukaryotes, and involves the pairing of homologous chromosome, synapse and recombination. Since
meiosis in most organisms occurs in a short time period, meiotic transcript profiling is difficult due to the
challenge of isolation (or enrichment) of meiotic cells (meiocytes). As with transcriptome analyses, the
meiome can be studied at a whole-genome level using large-scale transcriptomic techniques.[39] The
meiome has been well-characterized in mammal and yeast systems and somewhat less extensively
characterized in plants.[40]

The thanatotranscriptome consists of all RNA transcripts that continue to be expressed or that start getting
re-expressed in internal organs of a dead body 24–48 hours following death. Some genes include those
that are inhibited after fetal development. If the thanatotranscriptome is related to the process of
programmed cell death (apoptosis), it can be referred to as the apoptotic thanatotranscriptome. Analyses
of the thanatotranscriptome are used in forensic medicine.[41]

eQTL mapping can be used to complement genomics with transcriptomics; genetic variants at DNA level
and gene expression measures at RNA level.[42]

Relation to proteome
The transcriptome can be seen as a subset of the proteome, that is, the entire set of proteins expressed by
a genome.
However, the analysis of relative mRNA expression levels can be complicated by the fact that relatively
small changes in mRNA expression can produce large changes in the total amount of the corresponding
protein present in the cell. One analysis method, known as gene set enrichment analysis, identifies
coregulated gene networks rather than individual genes that are up- or down-regulated in different cell
populations.[1]

Although microarray studies can reveal the relative amounts of different mRNAs in the cell, levels of
mRNA are not directly proportional to the expression level of the proteins they code for.[43] The number
of protein molecules synthesized using a given mRNA molecule as a template is highly dependent on
translation-initiation features of the mRNA sequence; in particular, the ability of the translation initiation
sequence is a key determinant in the recruiting of ribosomes for protein translation.

Transcriptome databases
Ensembl: [2] ([Link]
1ab)
OmicTools: [3] ([Link]
Transcriptome Browser: [4] ([Link]
ArrayExpress: [5] ([Link]

See also
Functional genomics
Gene expression
List of omics topics in biology
Metabolome
Serial analysis of gene expression
Transcriptomics technologies
Translatome
Transpogene
Weighted gene co-expression network analysis

Notes
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References
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Further reading
^ Subramanian A, Tamayo P, Mootha VK, Mukherjee S, Ebert BL, Gillette MA, Paulovich A,
Pomeroy SL, Golub TR, Lander ES, Mesirov JP. (2005). Gene set enrichment analysis: a
knowledge-based approach for interpreting genome-wide expression profiles. Proc Natl
Acad Sci USA 102(43):15545-50.
^ Laule O, Hirsch-Hoffmann M, Hruz T, Gruissem W, and P Zimmermann. (2006) Web-
based analysis of the mouse transcriptome using Genevestigator. BMC Bioinformatics 7:311
^ Assou, S.; Boumela, I.; Haouzi, D.; Anahory, T.; Dechaud, H.; De Vos, J.; Hamamah, S.
(2010). "Dynamic changes in gene expression during human early embryo development:
From fundamental aspects to clinical applications" ([Link]
8/document). Human Reproduction Update. 17 (2): 272–290. doi:10.1093/humupd/dmq036
([Link] PMC 3189516 ([Link]
gov/pmc/articles/PMC3189516). PMID 20716614 ([Link]
4).
^ Ogorodnikov, A; Kargapolova, Y; Danckwardt, S. (2016). "Processing and transcriptome
expansion at the mRNA 3′ end in health and disease: finding the right end" ([Link]
[Link]/pmc/articles/PMC4893057). Eur J Physiol. 468 (6): 993–1012.
doi:10.1007/s00424-016-1828-3 ([Link]
PMC 4893057 ([Link] PMID 27220521
([Link]

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