The Caliphate -Expansion of Islam
Caliphal state: It is an Islamic State, especially one ruled by a single
religious and political leader. In other words it is the political-religious state
comprising the Muslim community and the lands and peoples under its
dominion in the centuries following the death of Prophet Muhammad in 632
C.E. These states or nations were led by a supreme religious and political
leader that lasted for about 1400 years in the history of Islam.
The title Caliph is awarded to a person considered a political-religious
successor to the Islamic Prophet Muhammad and a leader of the entire
Muslim world.
Muhammad had left no details as to who should succeed him. Thus the
death of Prophet Muhammad created confusion in the Muslim community.
There was a pressing need of a person of authority to take charge of the
political state as well as to guide a newly formed religious community of the
Muslims. Ultimately, after a heated discussion, the prominent Arabs elected
Abu Bakr, the father-in-law of the prophet, as their leader called Caliph or
Khalifa.
After the death of Prophet Mohammad, three major caliphates succeeded
each other;
1. Rashidun Caliphate. (632-661)
2. Umayyad Caliphate (661-750)
3. Abassid Caliphate (750-1258)
1. Rashidun Caliphate. (632-661): . (Early Conquests)
Abu Bakr and the later three Caliphs, Umar, Usman and Ali are considered
as Rashidum or ‘Rightly guided’.
Abu Bakr (AD 632-634)
Abu Bakr's period of Caliphal leadership was marked by an attempt to deal
with the threat of disintegration as many tribes such as those of the Bedouins
broke away from the Islamic state. Many of such tribes declared their
independence and started pursuing their own version of Islam. Though the
1
Arab tribes continued to acknowledge Muhammad as the Prophet, they
refused to send taxes to the Caliph. Thus Abu Bakr wage a war called
Riddha (return or apostasy) against them to re-establish control over them.
Abu Bakr succeeded in crushing the rebellions by the end of AD 633. In A.D
634 the Arabs fought for the first time as a single army against the Byzantine
forces in the battle of Ajnadayn. Despite many internal problems, Abu Bakr
continued Prophet Muhammad's expansionist policy. He sent Muslim forces
into Syria and Iraq which paved the way for their conquest later. On his
death bed, Abu Bakr appointed Umar Bin Khattab as his successor.
Umar (AD 634-644)
Under Caliph Umar, the early raids blossomed into full-fledged campaigns of
conquest. Since the period of Umar’s Caliphate witnessed the unification of
Arabia as well as the beginning of Arab conquest in several part of the
Middle East, he is considered as the real builder of the Arab Empire.
The Arab targeted at asserting their authority first in Arabia and then the
entire South West Asia and North Africa. In South West and North Africa,
there was conflict between Byzantine and Sassanid Empires ruled by the
Persian for supremacy of power.
The Arab followed a double-pronged attack on both these kingdoms.
Firstly, war against the Sassanid dynasty (Persians)
In 636, the Arabs defeated the Persians (Sassanid dynasty) at Qadisiyya.
Thereafter, the Arabs continued to push back the Persians.After the battle of
Nihavand in AD 642, the Persians could no more offer resistance and the
remaining territory of Persia was left open to conquest. Thereby, Hira and
Iraq which were under the control of the Sassanid dynasty was brought
under their control by the Arabs.
Iran which was also a quasi-independent kingdom under the Sassanid
sphere of influence also posed a threat to the Arab kingdom. By 650CE, the
entire Western Iran came under the control of the Arabs.
The last Sassanid king of Persia fled to Khurasan and was killed there in AD
651.
2
Secondly, war against Byzantine empire
The outwardly powerful Byzantine Empire had been weakened by a series of
wars..In AD 636, the Arabs won a decisive victory over the Byzantines in the
ravines of the Yarmuk River, a tributary of the Jordan. The first substantial
territory to fall in the hands of the Arabs was Syria and Egypt which were
under the control of the Byzantine Empire by 641 CE.
Thirdly, control over the North Africa
North Africa could be brought under the Arab control with the capture of
Tripoli in 643 CE.
Thus by the seventh century, the Arab Empire came to comprise of the entire
Arabian Peninsula, Syria, Palestine, Iraq, Iran, Egypt and part of North
Africa.
Significance of Umar’s Reign:
After the conquests, Umar was faced with problem of governing these
territories along with controlling the migrant Arabs. However, he was able to
solve these issues with some strategic policy of proper allocation of
geographical settlement, peace treaty and proper administration.
Another significant policy of Umar was not to force people of the conquered
areas to accept Islam. He extended this policy even to the Middle Eastern
Christians, Jews and the Zorostrians. The Arabs also did not alter the social
and administrative structures of these areas. The old landowners, chiefs and
village headman were allowed to retain their authority.
Under his Caliphal regime, Umar projected the military and religious authority
of the Caliph. He declared himself as Amir- al- Muminin (commander of
the faithful) and assumed the role of commander of the Arabian troops.
In religious perspective, Umar systematized the Islamic rituals. Prayer was to
be performed in the mosque collectively. Umar is also credited for having
introduced a New Islamic Era which began from the death of Muhammad’s
migration to Medina, that is 622CE.
3
Usman (Uthman) AD 644-656
After Umar's assassination, a six member committee chose Usman as the
Caliph. Usman belonged to a powerful Meccan clan of Umayyads.
Usman attempted to retain the unity of the kingdom by appointing members
of his own clan, the Umayyads to the governorships. Most of the important
government positions were given to the members of the Umaayad clan.
In religious matters too, Usman tried to have his way by promulgating a
standardized edition of Quran.
Under Usman, not much territorial expansion was undertaken by the Arabs
after 650 CE, except establishing complete control over Iran.
By the time of the death of Usman, the taxation system of Arabs had taken
definite shape. Arabs collected Land tax (Kharaj) and poll tax (zizya).
One distinct feature during the reign of Usman was the reorganization of
administration over the Arab conquered areas. There was division of
provincial, urban and local administration and were replaced by newly
appointed bureaucracy.
The discontented Egyptians murdered Usman in AD 656.
Ali AbiTalib AD 656-661
The notables of Medina selected Ali AbiTalib as the Caliph to succeed
Usman. However, Ali’s accession to the position of Caliph was opposed by
several groups, leading to a civil war within Arabia. The opposition first
came from the Ummayads and other faction led by Meccan aristocrats
such as Talha and Zubayr. But this faction was defeated in the battle of
Camel in 656 CE.
However, the most determined opposition came from Mauwiya, who was the
governor of Syria and a cousin of Usman. To subdue Muawiya, Ali
undertook a military campaign from his capital Kufa (shifted from Medina) to
Syria and fought the battle in 657CE at a place called Siffin in North
Mesopotamia. There was no clear sign of victory on either side. Later, Ali
withdrew from Siffin. This angered a group of his supporters known as
Kharijis. They thought that Ali had made a compromise with Mauwiya and
had gone in favour of the Umayyads.
4
The events following the war at Siffin created a permanent political and
sectarian division of the Muslim Umma.
i) Those group who considered Ali was endowed with divine qualities of
leadership connected to the family of Muhammad came to be known as
Shiah (meaning “Party” here refers to “Party of Ali”) and
ii) another opposite group who opposed Ali’s leadership led by Kharijis.
In AD 661, Ali was murdered by a Kharijis. And was succeeded by the
Ummayad Caliphs.
2. Umayyad Caliphate(661-750)
Muawiya and his sucessors:
After the death of Ali at the hands of the Kharijis, Mauwiya declared himself
as Caliph and his claim was accepted by the then dominant Ummayad
section. All the successors to Mauwiya belonged to Ummayad clan.
Muawiya brought a great change in the status of Caliph (Khalifa), His reign
began the monarchical rule based on dynastic principles in Islam. He
declared that he was the first Muawiya king of Islam and the commander of
the faithfuls. In order to centralize the authority of the Caliph, Mauwiya set
up new moral principles and political idoms to ensure loyalty to the Caliph.He
changed the seat of Caliphate from Madina to Damascus.
Under the leadership of Muawiya and his successors, the Muslims
conquered distant lands in North Africa like Tunis and Morocco and
spread Islam there .Then they crossed the straits of Gibraltar into Spain.
In AD 711, they defeated Roderick, the last Visigothic king, and advanced to
the Pyrenees Mountains (Europe) and into France.
5
The expansion of the Muslims to the east.
In AD 712, they conquered the province of Sindh in India but were unable
to push further into the great Indian sub-continent. Likewise in 751, the
Muslims defeated the Eastern Chinese at Talas in Central Asia but again
they were unable to advance further towards China. By AD 750, Islam ruled
over vast territories stretching from the Pyrenees (in Europe), Sindh in India
and from Morocco to the frontiers of China.
But in the second quarter of the 8th century, the power of Umayyads
declined. The last Umayyad Caliph was defeated and killed by Abu Muslim
in AD 750. The Umayyads were thus replaced by the Abbasidas.
3. Abassid Caliphate (750-1258) or Abbasid Revolution.
The Abbasid takeover of the Caliphate has been termed as Abbasid
revolution. Talking about the character of the revolution, Berkey is of the
opinion that ideologically, the Abbassid movement was directed towards the
restoration of an ideal society associated with the Arab Prophet Muhammad.
In order to get support from the entire Muslim community, the Abbasids
abandoned the practice of making distinction between Arabs and non-Arabs.
This policy of assimilation had brought positive result to further spread of
Islam and development of trade and commerce.
Under the Abassids, army and administration was organized on new
principles. The military superiority of Arabs in the army was reduced and new
forces were recruited that were organized in a manner that they remain loyal
to the dynasty rather than to their respective tribes.
However, the Abbasid regime was marked by constant struggle among
various groups for power. The political opposition was often mired in
religious tones, creating social and religious ferment in the Islamic empire.
Al-Mansur (AD 745-775)
It was during the rule of Al-Mansur that the changes brought about by the
Abbasid revolution were visible. The Arabs quickly lost the political and
social superiority that they had retained under the Umayyads. In order to
protect and restore the old order of Islam, the Abassids led the revolution,
resulting to the appointment of a new Caliph, Al- Mansur.
6
Al Mansur transferred the seat of power of Islam from Syria to Baghdad
(Southern Iraq). Baghdad became the chief metropolitan centre after the
Abbasid rulers built several palaces and buildings.
Harun Al Rashid (AD 786-809)
Harun became Caliph when he was in his early 20s. He began his reign by
appointing very able ministers who carried on the work of the government so
well that they greatly improved the condition of the people.
It was under Harun that Baghdad, the capital city, flourished into the most
splendid city of its period.
Harun was a lover of art and learning. He was a scholar. He was himself a
good poet. He had diplomatic relations with China and with Charlemagne
(King of the Franks and the Holy Roman Emperor).
In 802, Nicephorus captured the throne of the Eastern Roman Empire.
The reign of Harun Rashid is widely regarded as the apex of Abbasid power
and achievements, but it was during his reign that the signs of its weakness
became visible.
Successors of Harun
Al-Mamun ,The Caliph Al-Mutsam ,(AD 833-842) In AD 836,
Al Mutasm AD 847, Al-Mutakkil , Al-Mutamid and Al-Muqtadir.
By the end of the Abbasid regime, different dynasties assert power
independently into their hands, leading to the fragmentation of the Abbasid
Caliphate.
1. Qarmaitan revolts disrupted trade and communications in Syria,
southern Arabia, and Bahrayn.
2. In the West the Fatmid anti-caliphates was established in Tunisia
and quickly began to encroach upon Abbasid territory in Egypt.
3. Meanwhile, the Beouin Hamdanin dynasty was established in Syria
and northern Iraq.
4. The Shi'ite Buyid dynasty came into power in western Persia.
In AD 945 the control of the Abbasid seat of power passed into the hands of
shi'ite dynasty.
7
Break up of the Caliphate and the Rise of the Sultanate
During the ninth century, the Abbasid caliphate uprooted Ummayads and
established its throne and transferred its capital to Baghdad. After Harun al
Rashid, the last strong caliph of Abbasid. This Empire began to decline due
to the following reasons –
Weakening of Baghdad’s control over distant land − The successors of
Harun al Rashid were weak and could not maintain the empire.
Rising conflict between Pro-Iranian and Pro-Arab − Several new
dynasties began to appear during this period like the Tahirids, Samanids
and the Tulundis etc.
Ghaznavid Sultanate:
From the 10 to the 13th century there was no individual political authority in
Islamic society. Simultaneously, the Turkish sultanate was rising in the 10th
and 11th centuries.
Turks were the nomadic tribes of central Asian grasslands of Afghanistan
(North-east of the Aral sea up to the borders of China). They were skilled
riders and warriors. They joined the Abbasid, Samanid and Buyid
administration as a slave and soldiers. Later they rose to high military
capabilities.
The Turkish Sultanate of Gaznavid was established in 961by Alptegin and
became more strong and consolidated its dynasty during the reign of
Mahmud of Ghazni. The centre of their power was in Khurasan and
Afghanistan.
It was during the reign of Mahmud of Ghazni that the Turks has entered
deep into India, as far as Mathura, Kannauj and somnath. In 1001 A.D, he
defeated the Hindu Shahi in the battle of Peshwar. This laid the foundation of
Turkish rule in India, which later came to known as Delhi sultanate.
Seljuk Turks:
The Saljug Turks enter Turan (Central Asia) as a soldiers in the armies of
Samanids and Qarakhanids dynasties. However, later they established
themselves as a powerful group under the leadership of two brothers,
Tughril and Changhri Beg.
8
After Mahmud’s death, the Seljug Turks conquered Khurasan in 1037,
came to power. They continued to expand their empire in Asia. They
established their first Capital at Nishapur (Iran).
The Seljuk Empire stretched from Western China to the Mediterranean and
included modern day Turkmenistan, Iran, Iraq, syria, Jordan, Yemen, Turkey,
Amenia, Azerbaijan and parts of Uzbekistan, Saudi Arabia and Palestine
