POLITICAL SCIENCE- VI

UNIT-I
INTERNATIONAL ORGANIZATION
 An international organization, sometimes referred to as an international institution or an intergovernmental
organization, is a stable group of standards and guidelines intended to control how nations and other
participants in the international system should behave.
 Organizations, like the United Nations, the World Health Organization, and NATO, may be created through
a treaty or be a legal entity governed by international law.
 The International Telecommunication Union was the earliest and oldest international organization, having
been constituted via a treaty, creating a permanent secretariat, and having a global membership, founded in
1865.
 The League of Nations was the first all-encompassing international body that dealt with many topics. This
concept was adopted by the UN following World War II.
 International organizations are an association or union of nations founded or recognized by them for the
purpose of accomplishing a common aim," according to Pitman B. Potter's definition.
 He made a distinction between conventional or customary organizations and bilateral and multilateral
organizations.
 Examples include the International Labor Organization (ILO), International Criminal Court (ICC), Bank for
International Settlements (BIS), Council of Europe (COE), Organization for Security and Co-operation in
Europe (OSCE), and United Nations (UN).
 International organizations have a significant impact on international affairs, exerting influence in areas such
as global governance, peacekeeping, dispute resolution, and mediation.
 They also aid in addressing important worldwide concerns or challenges, such as resource depletion, climate
change, global monetary policies, global health policy, and administration of "global commons”.
 Nearly all of the political and economic concerns of the twenty-first century are now largely influenced by
international organizations.
 The independence, impartiality, and neutrality of international organizations are their most crucial qualities.
 According to Bentham’s definition, international law is a collection of rules governing relations between
states. It is a mark of how far international law has evolved that this original definition omits individuals and
international organizations—two of the most dynamic and vital elements of modern international law.
 According to J.G. Starke- Although strictly speaking the structure and working of these bodies and
associations are primarily the concern of the department of political science known as international
organization or administration; their activities nonetheless impinge upon the field of international law.
 According to Quincy Wright- International Organization is the Art of creating and administering general
and regional organization comprising independent state to facilitate cooperation in common purpose and
objectives.
 According to Jacob and Atherton- International Organization is an association of sovereign states. They
have governmental function to perform but they do not have the powers normally assumed by government
Features-
International organizations are, by design, much like States, governed by international law. However, there
are a few differences between the two topics in particular-
1. Sovereignty- An international organization is composed of sovereign States, whereas a State is a sovereign
element.
2. Territory- In terms of the law, states have a defined area over which they exercise control over international
organizations, however these latter don't have a defined area but are nonetheless able to direct an area.
International organizations, unlike States, do not manifest based on general international law but rather
through a show that incorporates its constitution.
3. Competence- A State have a common skill. It can bind itself through political, financial, social, and
specialized links to achieve its goals. An international organization, however, has express authority and is
constrained to the goals outlined in its Charter.
4. Immunity- States have immunity by virtue of their status as sovereign states, and broad international law
recognizes their immunity. However, international organizations are only immune to the extent necessary to
carry out their mandates.
5. Equality- According to international law, all States are equal, regardless of how big or little they are.
International organizations don't face a similar situation.
Role of International Organization-
1. Expertise in particular areas: One of the main reasons states want to create or take part in independent
international organizations is that these organizations have authority over and the ability to delegate
responsibility for those areas where knowledge, expertise, information, time, and resources are not always
readily available. Actions taken by international organizations are legitimate and have an impact on the
legitimacy of state activities.
2. Political neutrality without conflicts of interest: More effectively than any other arrangement,
international organizations offer a forum for depoliticized and focused unbiased talks. They outline the
precise conditions of continuing interactions between States and work to strike a balance in the exchanges
between stronger and weaker nations, as well as between knowledge and interests. This is so that international
organizations can participate in global affairs as independent and impartial actors, which enhances the
effectiveness and validity of their individual or group judgments. International organizations play a crucial
role in fostering global collaboration.
3. However, facilitating discussions, putting agreements and conventions into effect, resolving disputes,
providing technical support and financial assistance, and creating norms remain to be the primary objectives
of international organizations. Particular international organizations address a particular issue or problem
that the global community faces.
4. Peaceful dispute resolution: Resolving conflicts amicably is one of the main ways that international
organizations can support and advance international law. Without such a mechanism, the world would be at
state of war between all people and where life would be nasty and brutish. Without such a system, the world
would remain in a perpetual state of anarchy. All of these organizations are signatories to the UN Charter,
which mandates that all member nations should use peaceful measures to resolve their international issues in
order to protect international peace, security, and justice. Therefore, the UN Charter calls for a Pacific
resolution of the conflict through the use of the Security Council and the creation of the ICJ.
5. Legislative duties: International organizations carry out a variety of specialized legislative and regulatory
duties, which include creating treaties, norms, and frameworks for cooperation. It does not, however, function
as a global parliament. For instance, the United Nations Security Council's (UNSC) decisions are enforceable
against all of the organization's members. The World Health Organization (WHO), International Labor
Organization (ILO), and International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) all carry out specific legislative
and regulatory duties.
Types of International Organizations
 International organizations can differ in terms of their roles, membership makeup, and size. They could be
categorized in several ways. For example, they can be categorized as ad hoc, temporary, or permanent
organizations, or according to the scope of their jurisdiction, such as universal (global) or regional
organizations, or according to the nature of their authority, such as judicial, conciliatory, governmental
administrative, coordinative, or legislative organizations.
 Following consideration of the aforementioned aspects, particularly the criteria for membership and
objectives, international organizations can be categorized into the following four types:-
1. General Membership and General-Purpose Organizations- These organizations are accessible to all
States and have a worldwide scope. They perform a number of different tasks, including maintaining peace
and security, fostering socioeconomic cooperation, defending human rights, and fostering the development
and exchange of artistic, academic, and scientific endeavors. The League of Nations and the United Nations
Organization are two examples of these organizations.
2. General Membership and Limited Purpose Organizations- Due to their dedication to a single function
while remaining accessible to all States in the international community, these organizations are also known
as functional organizations. Examples of such organizations are the United Nations' specialized agencies,
such as the World Health Organization, International Labor Organization, and International Bank for
Reconstruction and Development.
3. Limited-Membership and General-Purpose Organizations- These organizations are referred to as
regional organizations since they are accessible to the States of a given region. They are designed to fulfil a
variety of security, political, and socioeconomic duties. The Organization of American States (OAS), the
African Union (AU), and the Arab League are a few examples of these organizations.
4. Limited Membership and Limited Purpose Organizations- There are organizations that are accessible to
the States in a specified region and created to carry out particular or constrained functions. Examples of such
organizations are the Warsaw Treaty Organization and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) (the
Warsaw Pact).

Structure of Organization-
1. Headquarter- The headquarters' location was decided upon or fixed by the international organization.
Although there may be branches in other regions, the central office would serve as the organization's
headquarters.
2. Membership- Founder members and subsequent members are the two categories of membership. The same
laws and facilities are available to both members.
3. Objectives- A global group establish some goals. Achieving these goals would be one of the primary
responsibilities of international organizations.
4. Organ- A minimum of one primary organ will be used by the international organization to govern itself.
Subsidiary organs may also be included.
a. Plenary Body- This is the organization's policy-making body. Every member of this body is seated. the
General Assembly, Assembly, etc. are examples of the plenary body names. The body's primary duties
include budget control, convention adoption, etc.
b. Executive Body- The executive body is a compact group made up of a few elected or appointed members.
For instance, the UN Security Council comprises 10 elected members and 5 appointed permanent members.
c. Secretariat- The permanent administrative body is called the Secretariat. Coordinating the organization's
officials is the secretariat's primary duty. This body has a head, such as a secretary general or director general,
who is chosen by either the plenary body or the executive body.
5. Decision Making- The multinational organization has a voting procedure in place for all decisions. The
voting may be on unanimous or majority basis.
6. Expulsion and Suspension of Membership- Depending on the organization, the international organization
may have the option of expulsion. International organizations may suspend membership for any reason.
7. Amendment- The convention of the international organization may be modified in accordance with its rules
and regulations.

LEAGUE OF NATIONS
 An international diplomatic organization called the League of Nations was created after World War I.
 It served as a model for the United Nations, where international conflicts were settled by diplomatic means
as opposed to open hostilities.
 Before it ceased operations during World War II, the League of Nations had an uneven track record of
accomplishment.
 The Fourteen Points of US President Woodrow Wilson, which envisioned a group that would settle a dispute
between members, are where the League of Nations had its start.
 The 14 points of Wilson include-
1. Abolition of secret diplomacy;
2. Free navigation at sea for all nations in war and peace;
3. Removal of economic barriers between states;
4. All-round reduction of armaments;
5. Impartial adjustment of colonial claims in the interests of the populations concerned;
6. Evacuation of Russian territory;
7. Restoration of Belgium;
8. Liberation of France and restoration of Alsace and Lorraine;
9. Readjustment of Italian frontiers along the lines of nationality;
10. Self-government for the peoples of Austria-Hungary;
11. Romania, Serbia and Montenegro to be evacuated and Serbia to be given access to the sea;
12. Self-government for the non-Turkish peoples of the Turkish Empire and permanent opening of the
Dardanelles;
13. An independent Poland with secure access to the sea;
14. A general association of nations to preserve peace.
 At the Versailles Conference on April 28, 1919, the Treaty of Versailles endorsed and confirmed the League.
In 1920, Geneva hosted the League's first official meeting.
 The first global intergovernmental organization whose major goal was to promote peace in the globe was the
League of Nations.
 It was established on January 10, 1920, following the Paris Peace Conference that put an end to World War
I, and it went out of business on April 20, 1946.
 The Treaty of Versailles' Part I, the Covenant of the League of Nations, was signed on June 28, 1919, and it
went into force on January 10, 1920, along with the rest of the Treaty.
 On January 16, 1920, the League's Council convened for the first time, and on November 15, 1920, the
League's Assembly convened for the first time. President Woodrow Wilson of the United States won the
Nobel Peace Prize in 1919 for his work as the League's chief architect.
 The Treaty of Versailles and the other peace accords that brought about World War I to an end were intended
to be enforced by the League of Nations. Additionally, it was designed to encourage transparent diplomacy
and nonviolent conflict resolution.
 According to the organization's covenant, its main objectives were to prevent wars by collective security and
disarmament as well as to resolve international conflicts through discussion and arbitration.
 Other issues it was concerned about included working conditions, fair treatment of indigenous people, drug
and human trafficking, the arms trade, world health, detainees, and the safety of minorities in Europe.
 The implementation of economic sanctions and a form of quarantine of the offending state was seen as a
deterrence against attack even if the League lacked its own armed forces.
 The League never used a unified voice throughout practices. The United States refused to ratify the Versailles
Treaty and never joined the League, while both Germany and the Soviet Union were excluded.
 The isolationist factions in the US government believed that if America got involved in world politics, it
would lose its independence.
 Britain, France, Italy, and Japan were the League of Nations' four permanent powers, while four additional
members were selected at random from the remaining member states to serve on the council.
 The initial four were Belgium, Brazil, Spain, and Greece; nevertheless, Brazil was the first country to quit
the League after it forced Italy to end its exclusive occupancy of Corfu in 1923.
 This was due to a goal that was scored against a member of the League's own principal council.
 The Treaty of Versailles and the other peace accords that brought about World War I to an end were intended
to be enforced by the League of Nations. Additionally, it was designed to encourage transparent diplomacy
and nonviolent conflict resolution.
Preamble of the Covenant-
 The Preamble of the Covenant laid down the objectives for the creation of the League which were to promote
international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security.
 These objectives shall be obtained by the acceptance of obligations not to resort to war; by the prescription
of open, just and honorable relations between nations, by the firm establishment of the understandings of
international law as the actual rule of conduct among Governments, and by the maintenance of justice and a
scrupulous respect for all obligations in the dealings of organized peoples with one another. Preamble also
stated that the High Contracting Parties agree to this Covenant of the League of Nations.
Functions of League of Nations- The league of nations is accountable for the following:
1. A cut in national weaponry to their absolute minimum.
2. To uphold the interests of all league participants.
3. To amicably resolve international conflicts
4. To establish a culture of peace in the context of global change
5. Preservation of world peace and security
Successes-
 ILO: The most effective was the International Labor Organization. The ILO's objectives include establishing
maximum working hours and minimum pay, as well as making sure that its member countries offer old age
and unemployment benefits.
 Refugee organization: It assisted POW (prisoner of war) in Russia in finding homes outside of the country.
It aided Jews who were fleeing Nazi persecution in 1933 to settle in other nations where they would be safe.
 Health organization: It performed a decent job identifying the origins of various epidemics. Specifically, it
was effective in stopping the spread of the Russian Typhus Epidemic to the rest of Europe.
 The Mandates Commission: It was tasked with overseeing the administration of regions assigned to member
countries as Mandates.
 International Disputes: The League had some success in this area of international disputes. When Greece
conquered Bulgaria, it made Greece pay compensation to the latter. But none of these conflicts posed a threat
to international peace.
Failures-
 The League of Nations came to be seen as a tool of the allied powers, particularly France and Britain,
designed to carry out unfair peace agreements that didn't satisfy all countries.
 A provisional body called the Conference of Ambassadors was established to settle conflicts. But it persisted
long after the League was established. The legitimacy and authority of the League of Nations were harmed
by this.
 The peace accords signed by the League of Nations failed to prevent any transgressions of the boundaries set
after World War I. Additionally, it did not take a strong stance against the hostility shown by Italy, Germany,
and Japan. For instance, during its invasion of Abyssinia, it merely placed light limitations on Italy's trade.
 A truly representative organization was not the League of Nations. It had a small number of members, and
the USA declined to join. As a result, the League's operations were not adequately funded.
 It was also created to defend a flawed agreement that had biases and was prone to failure. The self-
determination principle was violated by the peace treaties that were signed. For instance, following the peace
treaties, millions of Germans lived in Poland and Czechoslovakia outside of Germany. Similar to this, Greece
now had a large Turkish population.
 Only Germany was required to disarm as part of the Treaty of Versailles. Other significant powers were not
disarmed by the League's efforts. This served as Hitler's justification for leaving the World Disarmament
Conference. He soon criticized the League of Nations and made Germany quit it as well.
 The principles of security and peace of the League of Nations were ignored by the spread of militarism,
communism, capitalism.
 The League of Nations had not any armed force. To implement its decisions, it depended on the armies of
the members states.
 The autocratic governments of Italy, Germany, Spain and Portugal did not follow the principles of the League
of Nations.
 Due to non-cooperation of the superpowers, the League of Nations could not succeed in its objective.
Aims and Objectives-
 The League of Nations was an intergovernmental organization that existed from 1920 to 1946 and is
sometimes referred to as the "predecessor of the United Nations."
 Its mission was to "promote international cooperation and to achieve international peace and security."
 Governments from all around the world gathered at a single table to negotiate peaceful resolutions to political
conflicts and crises once the League of Nations was established.
 This was in stark contrast to how interstate relations had historically been managed: by the use of a web of
alliances, and frequently enough, through the use of simple force.
 However, a terrible war that claimed millions of lives, levelled cities, and left people all across the world
scrambling for survival had just ended. An alternative strategy was needed.
 The Covenant of the League of Nations, which established the League of Nations and outlined its goals and
operations, was included in Part I of the Treaty.
 The Covenant included a wide range of organizational issues, including as the requirements for membership,
the selection of a Secretary-General, the construction of the League of Nations Secretariat in Geneva, and
the organization's financial situation.
 Other articles of the Covenant addressed issues related to the League, such as disarmament, political and
social mandates, as well as defining member state obligations and rights to encourage international
collaboration.
 The League's primary goal was to uphold peace through collective security. The League's member states
would act jointly to impose economic or military sanctions on the aggressor country if one state attacked
another.
 The League also sought to promote cross-border collaboration in order to address economic and social issues.
 According to preamble of Covenant- The high contracting parties-
o In order to promote international co-operation and to achieve international peace and security by the
acceptance of obligations not to resort to war,
o By the prescription of open, just and honorable relations between nations,
o By the firm establishment of the understandings of international law as the actual rule of conduct among
governments, and
o By the maintenance of justice and a scrupulous respect for all treaty obligations in the dealings of organized
peoples with one another,
o Agree to this covenant of the league of nations.
 The following were the objectives or purposes of the League of Nations-
o To uphold global security and peace.
o To peacefully resolve international conflicts
o To encourage moral and just relations between the world's countries.
o To compel its members to abstain from going to war.
o To develop strategies for weaponry reduction.
o To retaliate militarily and economically against any nation.
o To enhance social and economic circumstances across nations. The International Labor Organization, one of
the United Nations' specialized organizations, was founded with the intention of achieving this goal.

Membership of the League-

 The League of Nations had two different types of members. According to Article 1 of the Covenant, it must
include both initial members and subsequent members, or those who were to be admitted later.
 The States that were listed in the Covenant's Annex as "Signatories of the Treaty of Peace" or "States invited
to accede to the Covenant," and which did accede to the Covenant on or before March 20, 1920, were
considered the League's original members.
 The names of thirty-two States were listed in the Annex. Three of them did not ratify the Covenant- Ecuador,
the Hedjaz, and the USA.
 Thirteen States accepted an invitation to join the Covenant. 42 States joined the League as its founding
members as a result.
 Provisions for the upcoming members were outlined in Article 1 paragraph 2 which stated that- Any fully
self-governing State, Dominion, or colony not listed in the Annex may become a Member of the League if
its admission is approved by two-thirds of the Assembly provided that it shall give effective guarantees of
its sincere intention to observe its international obligations, and shall accept such regulations as may be
prescribed by the League in regard to its military relations.
 21 States were admitted as subsequent members to the League.
 In 1920, admittance requests from Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, Liechtenstein, and Ukraine were rejected.
 There were three methods for leaving the League-
1. By voluntarily withdrawal from the League after giving two years' notice of its desire to do so, provided that
at the time of its withdrawal, all of its international responsibilities and all of its obligations under the
Covenant have been met (Article 1 para 3).
2. In addition, any member of the League may be removed from the League if it violates the League's Covenant
by a decision of the Council that is supported by the representatives of all other League members present
(Article 16, para 4).
3. By voicing its opposition to amendments (Article 26 para 2). It should be highlighted that the League's
interests suffered as a result of the restrictions regarding withdrawal of membership.
 The League initially had sixty-two members, but over time, the number of members was lowered to thirty-
two.
 Even several very strong States left the League. Germany, which entered the League in 1926 and left it in
1933, Japan, which had been condemned for its intervention in Manchuria, and Italy which left the League
in 1937 following its conquest of Ethiopia, all did so for various reasons.
 Due to its hostilities against Finland in December 1939, the USSR violated Article 16 and was thus excluded
from the League.
Organs of League of Nation-
 It had three main organizational divisions-
A council.
A secretariat with headquarters in Geneva and a General Secretary
An assembly.
 There were numerous commissions and agencies under the League of Nations. Any action shall require the
unanimous consent of the Council and the Assembly.
 The three organs of the League are explained as follows-
1. The Secretariat- The task of creating the agenda for the Assembly and Council fell on the employees of the
Secretariat. The staff also made the meeting minutes public. In essence, the Secretariat's employees served
as the League's volunteer corps. In the League's existence between 1920 and 1946, three Secretaries General
served as its Secretariat of the League. The general secretaries were-
Sir James Eric Drummond, 7th (1920–1933) (UK)
Joseph Avenol (1933–1940) (France)
Senter Sean (Ireland) (1940-1946)
Paul Hymans served as the first president of the League. He was a Belgian politician. The General Secretary's
job was to compile yearly reports on the League's operations.
 The Secretariat consisted of the Secretary General and such secretaries and staff as may be required (Article
6 Para 1).
 Para 2 of Article 6 laid down that the first Secretary-General shall be the person whose name was mentioned
in the Annex and thereafter the Secretary-General shall be appointed by the Council with the approval of the
majority of the Assembly.
 The secretaries and the staff of the Secretariat were appointed by the Secretary-General with the approval of
the Council.
 Two Deputy Secretary-General and two under-Secretaries were appointed to assist the Secretary-General.
 The Secretariat was established in Geneva-the seat of the League.
 Functions of the Secretariat was to assist all organs of the League by providing services of different kinds,
viz ., clerical, research, drafting, publication, coordination, registration of treaties, keeping of records,
arrangements of meeting etc.
 It had a staff of seven hundred persons, working through eleven 'Sections' and numerous services and offices.
2. The Council- The League's Council was tasked with handling any situation that would jeopardize
international peace. Four permanent members (representing Italy, France, Japan, and the United Kingdom)
and four non-permanent members (chosen by the Assembly for a three-year term) made up the League's
Council upon its founding.
Spain, Greece, Belgium, and Brazil were represented by the four non-permanent members. The US lost its
membership seat because the US Senate opposed the signing of the Treaty of Versailles, which was scheduled
to make it the fifth non-permanent member.
The number of non-permanent members increased to six on September 22nd, 1922, and to nine on September
8th, 1926.
After some time, Germany became the League's fifth non-permanent member, bringing the total to 15.
Germany and Japan later withdrew from membership.
The Council met at least five times annually on average. There were 107 public sessions held by the League
between 1920 and 1939.
 The Council could take a decision by means of the following kinds of votes-
a. The unanimous vote of all members of the League represented at the meeting (Article 5)
b. The vote of a simple majority of the members of the League represented at the meeting
c. The vote of all the members of the League excluding the representatives of the parties to a dispute
d. The vote of a simple majority of all the members of the Council.
 Exclusive functions of the Council included the-
1. Nomination of additional permanent members of the Council
2. Formulating plans for the reduction of armaments
3. To advise how the evil effects of manufacture of munitions and implements of war by private enterprise can
be prevented.
4. Advising upon the means by which the members of the League were to preserve as against external
aggression, the territorial integrity and existing political independence of other members
5. Supervision of the mandate system; minorities treaties and other agreements
6. To direct the work to the Secretariat, arrange for international conferences, receive reports from the
subsidiary organs of the League, determine which reports should be submitted to the Assembly and to deal
with disputes among League members. Safeguarding the peace of the World was the primary responsibility
of the Council.
3. The Assembly- Each member state was represented in the League's Assembly, which had one vote.
Typically, the Assembly met just once a year in the month of September.
At its 68th session in September 1932, the League Council was presided over by Eamon de Valera. In 1938,
he also served as the League's Assembly President. Carl Joachim Hambro served as the Assembly's president
in 1939 and 1946.
Between 1930 and 1931, Nicolae Titulescu presided over the League for two periods.
 The functions of the Assembly were not adequately laid down in the Covenant. It was provided under Article
3 para 3 that the Assembly may deal at its meetings with any matter within the sphere of action of the League
or affecting the peace of the World.
 Out of the many functions performed by the Assembly and the Council-
a. Some were exclusively reserved for the Assembly
b. Others were reserved for the Council of the League
c. Others again, required the cooperation of these two organs.
d. With regard to others the Assembly's competence was either concurrent with or alternative to that of the
Council.
Exclusively reserved functions included the admission of new members (Article 1) by a two-thirds majority;
election of non-permanent members of the Council (Article 4), apportioning the expenses of the League
among the members, appointment of committees by simple majority, supervising the work of the Council
and setting of its own procedure. Prevention of war and to find a peaceful solution of international disputes
was the matter which could be dealt with either by the Assembly or the Council.
 Decision in the Assembly was taken by at least four kinds of votes depending upon the nature of the matter.
 These were-
a. Unanimous vote of all the members of the League represented at the meeting (Article 5)
b. The vote of a simple majority of the members of the League represented at the meeting, which applied to all
matters of procedure including the appointment of committees of investigation (Article 5)
c. A vote of a two-thirds majority
d. A majority vote, but including the votes of all the members represented in the Council.
 Other Bodies-
 The Permanent Court of International Justice and other organizations that were established to address urgent
international concerns were handled by the League of Nations.
 The League was said to have failed, yet several of its agencies and commissions had a lot of success in their
respective jurisdictions. They are as follows-
1. The Disarmament Commission
2. The Health Organization
3. The International Labor Organization
4. The Mandates Commission
5. The Permanent Central Opium Board
6. The Commission for Refugees
7. The Slavery Commission.
 The Disarmament Commission- The committee was able to secure an early agreement from Italy, France,
Britain, and Japan to restrict the growth of their navies. The commission helped to facilitate the Kellogg-
Briand Pact in 1928, although the UK rejected the idea of signing it in 1923. The armaments commission
ultimately fell short of expectations.
 The Health Organization- To eradicate leprosy, yellow fever, and malaria, the Health Committee was
established. By launching a global campaign against mosquitoes, the committee was able to stop the spread
of typhus throughout Europe.
 The International Labor Organization- Albert Thomas was the brains behind this body. The organization
was successful in persuading several nations to adopt a 40-hour workweek schedule. Additionally, it helped
put an end to child labor.
Situated in Geneva and among its different committees were representatives of the government, employers,
and labor.
Promoting appropriate working practices with regard to matters like working hours, women's rights, child
labor, and employer liability was the main goal.
 The Mandates Commission- The commission was tasked with overseeing the League's mission. Plebiscites
were also held by the mandate commission to resolve territorial issues.
 The Permanent Central Opium Board- The main goal of creating this board was to control the production,
sale, and exchange of opium and related goods.
 The Commission for Refugees- The chairman of the Commission for Refugees was Fridtjof Nansen. The
commission was tasked with resettling and repatriating nearly 400,000 former prisoners and refugees, the
majority of whom had been uprooted following World War 1.
 The Slavery Commission- To end the slave trade and slavery worldwide, the Slavery Commission was
founded. In particular in Opium, the commission campaigned against drug trafficking and forced prostitution.
To put an end to the slave trade in Africa, the commission was successful in freeing over 200,000 slaves in
Sierra Leone and raiding slave dealers.
 Permanent Court of Justice- The International Labour Organization and the Permanent Court of
International Justice were two mostly independent organizations that were closely linked to the LON.
Originating in The Hague and offered nations involved in disputes a service for arbitration.
11 judges and 4 deputy judges, chosen for 9 years by the Council and Assembly, make up the staff.

 Mandates- Article 22 of the Covenant of the League of Nations created mandates. Following World War-I,
the League was given control over these once colonial possessions of the German and Ottoman Empires.
Woodrow Wilson and Jan Smuts were influential persons for the establishment of Mandate system. There
were three categories for Mandates-
1. ‘A’ Mandate- In this territory, "their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized,
subject to the supply of administrative advice and aid by a "Mandatory" until such time as they are competent
to stand alone." The preferences of these populations must be given top priority when choosing the
Mandatory. The majority of these belonged to the previous Ottoman Empire (Turkish Empire- Southeast
Europe and Western Asia).
2. ‘B’ Mandate- This territory "had reached the point where the Mandatory must be in charge of the
administration of the territory under circumstances that will ensure:
o Conscience and religious freedom.
o The upkeep of morals and public order
o Atrocities like the trafficking in slaves, guns, and alcohol are prohibited.
o Equal opportunities for trade and commerce with other League Members.
o The prevention of the establishment of fortifications or military and naval bases, and of the military training
of indigenous for reasons other than politics and the defense of territory.
o It included German Central African area.
3. ‘C’ Mandate- The government of this region can be best managed under the rules of the Mandatory because
of its small size, sparse population, distance from centers of civilization, geographical proximity to the
Mandatory's realm, and other factors. This included German South West Africa and Pacific.
 Settlement of Disputes-
 In order to achieve the main objective of maintaining peace and security the Covenant made elaborate
provisions for the settlement of disputes between States.
 The Covenant under Article 12 Para 1 laid down that in the event of a dispute arising between the members
of the League they will submit the matter either to arbitration or judicial settlement or to inquiry by the
Council.
 Article 13 Para 1 stated that matters suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement should be
in accordance with Article 13 Para 2 which enumerated that such disputes as involving the interpretation of
a treaty, questions of international law, questions of facts bearing upon the breach of an international
obligation or the reparation to be made for such breach.
 Members of the League agreed that they will carry out in full good faith any award or decision that may be
rendered, and they will not resort to war against a member of the League which complies therewith.
 In the event of any failure to carry out such an award or decision, the Council shall propose what steps should
be taken to give effect thereto.
 If any dispute arises between the members of the League and which is not submitted to arbitration or judicial
settlement, members agreed that they will submit the matter to the Council. (Article 15 Para 1).
 Any party to the dispute may affect such submission by giving notice of the existence of the dispute to the
Secretary General, who will make necessary arrangements for a full investigation and consideration thereof.
 The Council shall endeavor to affect a settlement of disputes, and if such efforts are successful, a statement
shall be made public giving such facts and explanations regarding the dispute and the terms of settlement
thereof as the Council may deem appropriate.
 If the dispute is not settled, the Council either unanimously or by a majority shall make and publish a report
containing a statement of the facts of dispute and the recommendations which are deemed just and proper in
regard thereto.
 It was stated in the Covenant that members shall in no case resort to war until three months after the award
by the arbitrators or the judicial decision or the report by the Council.
 Any member which resorted to war in disregard of the above provisions shall ipso facto be deemed to have
committed an act of war against all members of the League.
 They also agreed to immediately take action such as severance of all trade or financial relations, the
prohibition of all intercourse between their nationals and the nation of the Covenant-breaking State, and the
prevention of all financial, commercial or personal intercourse between the nationals of the Covenant
breaking State and the nationals of any other State (Article 16 Para 1).
 In the event of a dispute arising between a member of the League and a State which is not a member of the
League or between non-members of the League, non-members shall be invited to accept the obligations of
membership in the League for the purposes of such disputes upon such conditions as the Council may deem
just (Article 17 Para 1).
 If such invitation is accepted, the provisions of Article 12 to 16 shall be applied with such notifications as
may be deemed necessary by the Council.
 The Council, after the invitation being given, shall immediately institute an inquiry into the circumstances
of the disputes and recommend such action as may deem best and most effectual in the circumstances (Article
17 Para 2).
 If a State so invited refuses to accept the obligations of membership in the League for the purposes of such
dispute and resorts to war against a member of the League, sanctions laid down under Article 16 shall be
applied against a State taking such action.
 If both the disputant parties are not members, they both shall be invited and if they refuse to accept the
obligations of membership in the League for the purpose of such dispute, the Council may take such measures
and make such recommendations so as to prevent hostilities and which may result in the settlement of the
dispute.
 Non-Intervention in the Domestic Jurisdiction of a State- The principle of non-intervention in the
domestic jurisdiction was stated under Article 15 Para 8 which lays down that if the dispute between the
parties is claimed by one of them and is found by the Council, to arise out of a matter which by international
law is solely within the jurisdiction of that party, the Council shall so report and shall make no
recommendation as to its settlement.
The above implies that the Council was competent to decide the question as to whether the matter out of
which the dispute had arisen was solely within the domestic jurisdiction of the party which made the claim,
and this act of the Council implied the decision of the dispute.
 Registration of Treaties- Article 18 of the Covenant provided that every treaty or international engagement
entered into hereafter by any member of the League shall be forthwith registered with the Secretariat and
shall as soon as possible be published by it. No such treaty or international engagement shall be binding until
so registered.
The Secretariat of the League performs the functions of publication of treaties in the League of Nations
Treaty Series (LNTS).
 Disarmament under the League of Nations- The Covenant stressed the need to reduce national armaments
and armed forces by stating under Article 18 Para 1 that the maintenance of peace requires the reduction of
national armaments to the lowest point consistent with national safety and the enforcement by common action
of international obligations.
 The Covenant further provided under Article 18 Para 2 that at least in every ten years the Council of the
League after taking into account of the geographical situation and circumstances of each State, shall
formulate plans for such reduction for the consideration and action of the several governments.
 Article 18 Para 3 provided that plans shall be subject to reconsideration and revision at least every ten years.
 It was also laid down under Para 4 of Article 18 that after these plans have been adopted by the several
governments, the limits of armaments therein fixed shall not be receded without the concurrence of the
Council.
 It is to be noted that the above provisions of the Covenant as to disarmament were too ambiguous to serve
any useful purpose.
 Its provisions were further weakened by the fact that the Covenant neither refrained the members from the
use of force in their international relations nor it prohibited war altogether.
 The result was that there was no basis for implementing disarmament measures.
Codification under the League of Nations-
 The Covenant of the League was the first instrument which handled the problem of codification properly.
 The Council of the League, in 1924, appointed a committee of sixteen jurists to report on those questions
which were ripe for codification and to report as to how their codification could best be achieved.
 The Committee, after examining the reports of sub-committees, gave a report in April 1927 wherein it stated
that the following seven topics were ripe for codification-
1. Nationality
2. Territorial Waters
3. Responsibility of States for Damage done in their Territory to the Person or Property of Foreigners
4. Diplomatic Privileges and Immunities
5. Procedure of International Conferences and Procedure for the Conclusion and Drafting of Treaties
6. Piracy
7. Exploitation of the Products of the Sea.
 In 1927, the Report of the Committee was considered by the Assembly of the League and also the Council's
observations thereon, and decided that a Conference should be held at the Hague for the purpose of codifying
the subjects mentioned.
 It is to be noted that the Conference fell short of the expectations that had preceded its convening in view of
its limited success.
 No further attempts of codification were made under the League. Perhaps its enthusiasm for codification
wilted after the failure of the 1930 Conference.

Collective Security and the League of Nations

 Collective security system received legal status for the first time under the Covenant of the League of
Nations.
 Collective security, system by which states have attempted to prevent or stop wars.
 Under a collective security arrangement, an aggressor against any one state is considered an aggressor against
all other states, which act together to repel the aggressor.
 Collective security is one of the most promising approaches for peace and a valuable device for power
management on an international scale.
 Cardinal Richelieu proposed a scheme for collective security in 1629, which was partially reflected in the
1648 Peace of Westphalia.
 In the eighteenth century many proposals were made for collective security arrangements, especially in
Europe.
 The Covenant under Article 10 provided that the members of the League undertake to respect and preserve
as against external aggression, the territorial integrity and political independence of all members of the
League.
 In case of any such aggression, the Council shall advise upon the means by which the obligation shall be
fulfilled.
 Further, Article 11 provided that any war or threat of war, whether immediately affecting any of the members
of the League is not hereby declared a matter of concern for the whole League and the League shall take any
action that may be deemed wise and effectual to safeguard the peace of nations.
 The Covenant further provided under Article 12 that members of the League agreed to settle disputes
between them either through arbitration or judicial settlement or inquiry by the Council.
 They shall not resort to war until three months after the award by the arbitrators or the judicial decision, or
the report by the Council.
 Article 13 laid down that member agreed that in case of any dispute between members which they considered
suitable for submission to arbitration or judicial settlement shall submit the same to arbitration or judicial
settlement.
 If the disputes are not submitted to arbitration or judicial settlement that would be submitted to the Council.
The Council was required to make efforts to settle the dispute.
 Article 16 provided that if any member of the League resorted to war in disregard of the above provisions it
shall ipso facto be deemed to have committed an act of aggression against all members of the League.
 In such cases, the Council was to recommend to the several governments concerned that what effective
military members of the League shall severally contribute to the armed forces to be used to protect the
Covenant.
 The above provisions of the Covenant clearly show that the principle of collective security system evolved
and the principle of collective responsibility emerged to thwart the act of aggression or illegal use of force.
 Introduction of the collective security system under the Covenant was indeed a landmark in the history of
international relations. For the first time members agreed to take action against a State which resorted to war
violating the provisions of the Covenant.
 However, the system was not effective and it did not work in actual working mainly because members failed
to abide by their solemn obligations which they undertook under the Covenant.
 Although collective security system was inadequate under the Covenant of the League of Nations a number
of efforts were made to strengthen the system in the inter-war period.
 The Draft Treaty of Mutual Assistance of 1923, Geneva Protocol of 1924, Locarno Pact of 1925 and the
Kellogg Briand Pact of 1928 (Pact of Paris) and the Anti-War Treaty of Non-Aggression and Conciliation
(1933) tried to strengthen the collective security system as envisaged in the Covenant.
 Basic assumptions
 Organski (1960) lists five basic assumptions underlying the theory of collective security-
1. In an armed conflict, member nation-states can agree on which nation is the aggressor.
2. All member nation-states are equally committed to contain and constrain the aggression, irrespective of
its source or origin.
3. All member nation-states have an identical freedom of action and ability to join in proceedings against
the aggressor.
4. The cumulative power of the cooperating members of the alliance for collective security is adequate and
sufficient to overpower the might of the aggressor.
5. In the light of the threat posed by the collective might of the nations of a collective security coalition, the
aggressor nation will either modify its policies or be defeated.