Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 1

Extension Teaching Methods

General Introduction

Teaching and Learning:

Since the ‘60s there has been an increasing trend in the growth of interest in teaching and
learning in higher education in both high-income and low-income countries.

There are three main causes

1) growth in subject matter leading to new demands on teachers & students

(effect of scientific research)

2) Social changes leading to an increase in number of students and new

demand for higher education.

3 Advances in theories of learning and technology combining new methods

of learning and greater independence to students.
e.g. distance education - universities of the air

Generally, change in teaching - learning approaches has taken place over the last two to
three decades from teacher cantered to student centered teaching through the introduction
of participation concept. The work of Freire (1970, 1993) has valuable contribution in this
line. He gives an analogical explanation of the ‘banking concept’ to the education of the
‘old days’. That is to say students’ mind is filled with information and knowledge of the
teacher.
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Chapter 1 Theories of Learning

Teaching and learning are events occurring simultaneously or one after the other.
Learning takes place during or after teaching. In this chapter students base themselves on
the three theories of learning to define and explain the concept of learning.

However, there are several questions associated with learning.

a) Do people learn before teaching?

b) Do they learn in the absence of the teacher? if yes, how ?

c) Why do people want to learn?

To answer these questions, it is better to look at the psychology of learning. On this line,
one can distinguish three theoretical approaches to learning.

1.1 The behaviorist

• The underlying idea of these theorists is people learn to react to a stimulus.

• In the reaction process, there are three elements involved:

a) antecedent conditions - something lacking leading to new behavior

b) required behavior - developed through learning
c) the consequences of the behavior - solution obtained through learning

Thus, we have; problem------------ behavior change---------- solution

In this approach to learning, there is always reinforcing stimulus leading to change in

behavior and this behavior positively supports the life of humans.

For example, I) An employee of a factory gets bonus payment for his excellent
performance in this fiscal year.

II) A farmer gets special attention by development agents for his

appropriate use of technological packages.

1.2 Cognitive theorists

Cognitive learning refers to understanding, applying, analyzing and interpreting

information to make necessary decisions in the learning process.

- They reject the behaviorists point of view by arguing that learners do not simply react
mechanically to stimuli rather they associate meaning to stimuli.

- Organisms (learners) select out specific information, process it and act upon it in
different ways and circumstances.

- More emphasis is given to prior knowledge & information related to the new
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learning.

In general, cognitive theorists emphasize two important notions;

1) humans “ reorganize” their existing knowledge to solve their problems

2) There is ‘latent learning’ - the effect of learning is realized later

In general supporters of this theory contend that ‘do not teach students but create an
environment in which they learn.

1. 3 Motivation theorists

Another view point, contrast to the above approaches, is the “theory of motivation”. They
argue that people need to be motivated to learn.

Definition: Motivation is a desire for something.

For example. Why did you come to AUA?

Questioning students is important to find out motivating factors. Pooling opinion of

students is helpful for the teacher to find out the expectation of students from a course and
act in line with it to motivate them further.

Combining the above theories, the following definitions can be given.

Definitions: Learning is the process of acquiring and mastering knowledge and

skills to contribute to solving societal problems. It is also the process
of gathering, analyzing, interpreting and acting upon information to
influence goal directed behavior.

Dictionary Definitions

Leaning is defined as:

1) The acquiring of knowledge & skill

2) Knowledge or skill acquired by instruction or study
3) Modification of a behavioral tendency by experience (e.g. exposure to
conditioning).

Conclusion: There is no conventional definition for learning.

Education is the field of study that mainly deals with methods of teaching and learning in
schools.

Teaching is the act, practice or profession of imparting knowledge.

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Chapter 2 Principles of Adult learning

2.1 Teacher - student relations

A good teacher- student relations contribute to a productive learning environments

characterized by:

a) A climate where students feel positive about themselves, their peers, and
the classroom ,
b) Structures & processes where students’ needs are satisfied,

To make the social learning more affective, the classroom structures that support the
lesson and its activities have to be complimentary to one another.

Task structures Participation structures

The lesson and its activities

Goal structures Reward

Structures

The four class room structures organizing life (Richard, 1994)

Task structures indicate the classroom role expected from a student during group work
(participation), lecturing (listening).

Goal structures imply the objectives that students have to achieve in different ways. There
are three types of goal structures: cooperative, competitive and individualistic. In
cooperative goal structure, students prefer to work together to achieve their common goal
whereas in competitive goal structures, they are competing to achieve their goals, i.e. the
failure for some implies success for others. In individualistic goal structures, each
student’s goal is independent of the others.

Reward structures can also be cooperative, individualistic or cooperative. These structures

indicate the feedback of students on their classroom performance (not course
performance).

A teacher makes follow-up whether these structures are properly functioning in the
classroom or not.

A good students-teacher relations by mobilizing these structures contribute to productive

learning environments.

c) A setting where students acquire necessary group

To realize the above important characteristics in learning environments, a class has to be

considered as a social system with varied personalities.
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Individual --------- personality -------- needs

Academic
learning
Group --------- climate ---------- intentions behavior
Social learning

Institutions---------Role---------- Expectations

A class as a social system

Schmucks identifies six group processes in classroom climate.

a) Expectations
Well patterned expectation positively influence class room climate and
learning

b) Leadership
Power sharing and its influence/ impact on group interaction and cohesiveness

c) Attraction
The degree to which people in the class room has respect for one another and
friendship patterns within class room.

d) Norms
Shared expectation between students & teachers

e) Communications
Verbal & non-verbal communication. Open, lively & high degree of
participant involvement facilitates positive learning.

f) Cohesiveness
The feelings and commitments students and teachers have to the class room group
as a whole.

2.2 Characteristics of Adult Learners

Adult learning occurs best when it:

• Is self-directed

Adults can share responsibility for their own learning because they know their
own needs.

• Fills an immediate needs

Motivation to learn is highest when it meets the immediate needs of the learner.
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• Is participatory

Participation in the learning process is active, not passive

• Is experiential

The most effective learning is from a shared experience; learners learn from each
other, the teacher often learns from the learner.

• Is reflective

Maximum learning from a particular experience occurs when a person takes time to
reflect back upon it, draw conclusions and derive principles for application to similar
experiences in the future.

Provides feedback
Effective learning requires feedback that is corrective but supportive

Shows respect for the learner

Mutual respect and trust between the teacher and learner help the learning process.

Provides a safe atmosphere

A cheerful, relaxed person learns more easily than the one who is fearful,
embarrassed or angry.

Occurs in a comfortable environment

A person who is hungry, tired, cold, ill or otherwise physical uncomfortable
cannot learn with maximum effectiveness.

2.3 Learning Environments for Adults

1. The physical environment

Often effective teaching is held back because of purely physical factors. It is important to
ensure that the students are warm enough, that the ventilation of the class room is
adequate etc.

The teacher must help the students by providing as good a working area as the resources
will permit. The class room must be checked by the teacher before it is used.

2. The social environment

A majority of adult students have a wish for social contact within the class. In this the
teacher can act as a catalyst in order that the class members may get to know each other.
Good relations among class members will go a long way towards predicting a good
working environment in which education can take place.

Not only must there be student involvement within the group but also teacher
involvement with the students.. As student social needs have to be served within the class
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it is preferable to aim at processes of group learning rather than a two-way relationship

between teacher and individual.

With increasing success in the matter of social environment of the class, the group may
well need expression of its existence as an entity. This can usually he achieved by shared
tea breaks or class parties or outings. Joint ventures as projects or exhibitions or
instruction given by team teaching can provide an environment in which students from
different classes get to know each other.

To give students with in an institution responsibilities of ten proves the most successful
way of achieving a feeling of personal commitment and sense of belonging. In most
instances the students should elect a council from among themselves to act on their
behalf. Such a student council must be given responsibilities worthy of adults.
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Chapter 3 Nature and Learning Styles of Adults

3.1 Levels of learning

Knowing levels of learning helps to set teaching objectives.

In general, there are three levels of learning in formal system.

a) Elementary / primary Lower levels

b) High school /secondary

c) University / tertiary higher level

What differences do you observe among the three?

For the sake of simplicity, let’s consider (a) & b) as lower & (c) higher levels and see the
basic differences in terms of the following parameters.

Parameter Lower higher

1. Materials Cheaper expensive

required for teaching

2. Lesson objective Students recall Students analyze,

e.g. parts of a plant evaluate, interpret
or human body & criticize

3. Lesson Presentation more of directive highly interactive

4. Timing less time for More time

a session, why? for a session, why?

5. Knowledge Simple& basic abstract & applied

level e.g. measuring e.g. problem-Solving
something

3.2 Learning Styles

Learning Style refers to a psychological traits that determine individuals’ characteristics

and preferred ways of gathering, interpreting, organizing and thinking about information.
Some students prefer to work independently, while others do better in groups. Some
students prefer to absorb information by reading, others by active manipulation. No one
style of learning has been shown to be better than any other, and no single style leads to
better learning. Because of the fact that, all people have not the same abilities, and all of
us do not learn in the same way.

Understanding learning styles is useful for three reasons:

- help to understand and explain the differences you observe among students
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- to develop a range of teaching strategies to build on the different strengths

individual students bring to the classroom
- to help students expand their repertoire of learning strategies

Abstract versus concrete: Some people learn easily with the help of abstract concepts
while others learn more effectively through concrete sensorial experiences.
In relation to the management of minerals in the soil for example, some Dutch farmers
prefer to work with complex calculations and parameters in order to compare and
determine nutrient loses and soil conditions over the years. Other farmers find it difficult
to relate to such abstract figures and prefer other indicators. To get an idea about changes
in the nutrient status they may for example look at the colur of the grass, study the
presence of particular weeds, observe the physical condition of the land, taste the crop etc.
According to their preference, these farmers may value different types of support from
communication workers.

Diverging versus converging. Some people tend to jump to conclusions quickly on the
basis of certain experiences (i.e. they converge easily) whereas others tend to diverge into
all sorts of alternative explanations that require further testing and elaboration, and find it
difficult to arrive at solid inferences. Such people run different risks (changing too quickly
versus not changing at all) and may want or require different forms of support.

Holistic versus reducationistic; perhaps partly overlapping with the previous dimension,
some learners are more inclined to learn about parts whereas other have a greater affinity
with looking at ‘wholes’. Taking mineral management as an example some farmers are
inclined to focus on the mineral aspects of the farm only, while others immediately forge
linkages with other levels and domains of farming practice.

Individual versus group: some people have a clear preference for learning with others
while others are less inclined to involve others in their learning process. Some farmers,
for example, like to discuss problems and experiences in a study group or group meeting,
while others tend to avoid group sessions and prefer to figure things out by themselves. In
some instances this seems to be associated with having a co-operative versus a
competitive outlook on the issue at hand.

External versus internal motivation: Depending in part on the issues at hand, people
may experience an internal drive to learn about something, or feel more or less forced by
others to engage in it. In other words they may have or develop a real interest in a topic
and be enthusiastic to learn more about it or they may learn mainly because they fear
negative consequences if they do not. Again, communication workers are wise to develop
specific strategies and support for the different groups.

3.3 Characteristics of ‘good’ and ‘bad’ teaching

The term ’ good teaching’ contrasts the notion of ‘bad teaching’

Many educational research findings confirm that most intelligent teachers do not satisfy
the interest of students, i.e. there is ‘bad teaching.’

Teaching is the profession of imparting knowledge to a particular group.

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It requires artistic way of presenting information.

Thus, we can make distinction between the art of presenting information or knowledge
and the knowledge itself.

In teaching, more emphasis is given to the art than the knowledge because knowledge is
not adequate unless it is revealed properly.

Good teaching is thus realized when knowledge imparted by the teacher produces
desirable effect on the skills of the target groups.

There are several characteristics of good teaching.

Let us consider situations before and during teaching.

A) Before teaching

- A teacher keeps the logical sequence of topics within and across chapters. A teacher
moves from very simple to most complex concepts to take students through imperceptible
levels to apply these concepts for problem solving.

e.g. 1. teach about soil science before soil conservation techniques

2. teach about livestock diseases before they practice how to treat

- introducing students with the objectives of the course (or parts in the course) so
that they know what is expected from them or how to behave in the class.

- informing students the assessment criteria to be used. This motivates students to

work towards the requirements for evaluation.

- identifying relevant course materials e.g. literature, video cassette, slides, etc. In
our teaching situation, it could be difficult to find these materials. It is either difficult to
produce or your teachers are not dedicated to produce them.

B) During teaching

- Introducing the topic. This is however becoming very controversial as it

causes repetition.
- Motivating students to practise and appreciate group work

- Formulating a continuous evaluation component on attitude, knowledge and

methods in use to make necessary adjustments.

- Theoretical concepts followed by exercises whenever deemed necessary to

equip students with required skills.
e.g. teaching how to use OHP followed by exercises.
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- Selecting appropriate examples for clarification

- Using cases to make difficult concepts clearer

In general, there are five competency areas for a teacher to effect in ‘good’ teaching.

The teacher is then seen as :

- Communicator
- Expert on the theory of learning & instruction
- Instructional designer
- Expert in teaching methodology
- User of instructional media & materials

3.4 Problems of Teaching and Learning in Ethiopia

There are several problems associated with educational system of Ethiopia.

Among these, the following are important.

1) Limited Facilities - hinders students’ enrollment in higher institutions.

2) Financial limitation to invest on in-service training for teacher. This is seriously
affecting teaching skills.
3) Greater differences in teaching methods across levels
4) Weak links among training institutions (colleges and universities) prohibiting
experience sharing

Moreover, research indicates that the content of the curriculum of agricultural colleges in
the country is irrelevant in relation to local needs. There is little relationships between the
curricula and the real problems of farmers.

In such situations, there is double crises.

1) investing scarce capital on formal system of education.

2) the curriculum is less relevant to solve agricultural problems i.e. it is dominated by
theory, less integrated with practical (vocational).

Considering these, the government of Ethiopia has recently come up with two policy
options:

1) strengthening the non-formal education system

2) introducing new education policy that favors optimal integration of
practical education into the formal system.

The second policy option encourages teachers to introduce the new and useful teaching
methods which is fundamentally different from the old one.

In the old system of teaching, the influence of theories in the content of courses made
students passive learners expecting more information from the teacher.
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S
S
S
S
T S

S
teacher - centered

When teaching is teacher centered, more information is expected from the teacher. He is
considered as the sole source of knowledge and information. Students’ ideas are less
important. The teacher does not create good opportunity in which students criticize or
evaluate the whole teaching system.

In the new system of teaching, the optimal integration of practical (problem - based
learning) into the content is making students active learners in the class. This is because
the idea of students is important for the teacher to deal with concrete problem-based
learning.

If we compare the formal and non-formal setting, the latter system of education favors the
new teaching method much more than the former since the content of the course in the
latter case is directly connected with daily life problem of farmers.

S S

T
S

S
S S

student-centered

Conclusion: The teaching methods and learning styles are highly influenced by national
educational objectives which are determined by the existing education policy.
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Chapter 4 Teaching planning process

All effective instruction/teaching requires careful planning. Teaching/learning planning

process progresses through several stages. These are presented as follows:

4.1 Identifying target groups

All effective instruction requires careful planning. The first step in planning is to identify
learners. Your learners may be, for example, students, farmers or members of an
organization. You must know your students to select the best medium and content to meet
the objectives. The audience can be analyzed in terms of:

1. General characteristics: such as age, grade level, job or position, and cultural or
socio- economic factors.
2. Competencies: such as knowledge, skills and attitudes
3. Learning style

4.2 Formulating objectives

It is important to formulate clear objectives in order to:

- have guidelines and criteria to make decisions about the next steps in the
planning process (subject matter, methods, media, assessment)
have a clear idea about what has to be assessed and evaluated at the end
of the course
- inform students about what is expected in terms of learning outcomes;
this can help them to organize their work
- have a clear idea about the teachers’ skills, knowledge and attitudes

Therefore, ‘teaching is traveling with destination’.

A. Levels of objectives

One can distinguish between:

AIMS: very general objectives of the whole program of the faculty or

university

GOALS: objectives of a particular study-program (e.g. for

irrigation/water management)

OBJECTIVES: objectives of one course (unit) of lessons (e.g.

irrigation/water management I)

CONCRETE OBJECTIVES: objectives of one lesson (one teaching unit)

B. Distinction among aims, goals and objectives

There is distinction among aims, goals and objectives. Aims are broad general statements
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of intent. Goals are more specific intent. Goals explain how aims are to be achieved.
Although goals are more specific than aims, they are still general statements

e.g. What is the course for? ( aim)

How can we achieve all this ? (goal).

Objectives provide specific statements of what students will be able to do at the end of
instruction. So, if aims are general statements of intent, and goals state how that intent
may be realized, then objectives provide statements which enable one to assess whether or
not that intent has been realized.

To conclude, aims, goals and objectives are therefore highly interlinked.

Objectives contain three elements.

1. A description of what the student should be able to do or produce after

instruction.
2. A statement of conditions under which students should be able to do this.
3. A statement of the criteria, or standards of performance that will be used
to judge what has been done.

Generally, objectives describe what students will be able to do to demonstrate mastery of

their topic.

C. Stating objectives

Defining teaching objectives is a somewhat difficult and frustrating task. Use the
following suggestions as a guide:

- begin each objective with a verb (knows, understands, appreciates etc.)

- state each objective in terms of student performance (rather than teacher
performance)
- state each objective as a learning product.
- state each objective so that it includes only one learning outcome
- state each objective in terms of student behavior, preferably in
observable behavior
- consult reference materials for help in identifying the specific types of
behavior

D. Taxonomy of Instructional objectives

We distinguish between three domains of instructional objectives:

1. Cognitive skills: Learning involves an array of intellectual capabilities that may

be clarified either as verbal/ visual information or intellectual skills. They usually
involve memorization or recall of facts.
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2. Affective skills: Involves feelings and values. Affective objectives range from, for
example, stimulating interest in subject matter, to encourage healthy social
attitudes, to adopting as set of ethical standards.
3. Motor skills: Learning involves manual and other physical skills

4.3 Selecting and Sequencing the Subject Matter

For both formal and non-formal settings, the effectiveness in selecting subject matter is
determined by:

a) availability of relevant materials -

b) experience in teaching - less experienced teachers hardly select relevant topics

Selecting and sequencing subject matter can be seen in terms of three dimensions:
familiarity, difficulty and development.

Familiarity:

- start teaching about students own experiences before teaching about government farms
- ask about own experiences on the subject before starting a course on the subject

Difficulty:

- teach the less difficult before the more difficult

- teach difficult subjects slowly and speed up later on

Development:

- introduce subjects at the most appropriate time in the personal development of students
- teach problem solving techniques before how to do research independently

Generally, the nature of the target group largely determines the selection of subject matter
but the sequence is more or less independent of the target group.

In order to fulfil the above conditions revising the content of the lesson is helpful.
Content is always revised:

in relation to the objective of a lesson

in relation to forthcoming lessons
the time available to handle the course effectively but this is usually difficult to
estimate; even most teachers find this difficult
in relation to experiences of previous years of teaching
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Time of revision can be:

1) before the start of teaching

2) during teaching
3) at the end of teaching

4.4 Select Methods, media and materials

Once you have identified your audience and stated your objectives, you have established
the beginning points (audience’s present knowledge, skills and attitudes) and ending
points (objectives) of instruction. Your task is now to build a bridge between these two
points by choosing appropriate methods and media formats. There are three options:

1. Select available materials

2. Modify existing materials
3. design new materials

4.5 Utilize Media and Materials

Having either selected, modified or designed your materials, you then must plan how the
materials will be used to implement your methods. First preview the materials and
practice the implementation. Next, prepare the class and ready the necessary equipment
and facilities. Then conduct the instruction using the utilization techniques.

4.6 Require learner participation

To be effective, materials-based instruction should require active mental engagement by

learners. There should be activities within the lesson that allows learners to process the
knowledge or skills and to receive feedback on the appropriateness of their efforts before
being formally assessed.

4.7 Evaluate and Revise

After instruction, it is necessary to evaluate its impact and effectiveness. To get a total
picture, you must evaluate the entire instructional process. Often the only form seen in
education is the paper-and–pencil test, claimed to be used for assessment of student
achievement. The purpose is evaluating learner achievement and evaluating media and
methods. Moreover, learner achievement evaluation can be done by observing the behave
in action. Class discussions, individual interviews and observation of students’ behavior
should be used to evaluate instructional media and methods.
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Chapter 5: Teaching Methods

Some of the extension teaching methods are lecturing, group discussion, practical
teaching and individual supervision by the teacher.

In this chapter, we will specifically look into when to use each method and how the
different methods can be used effectively.

5.1 Lecturing

‘Lecturing is more than dictating’

When to use the lecturing method

• To introduce new subject

• To structure information
• To put a subject into its context
• To distinguish between main-issues and side –issues

Advantages and disadvantages of lecture

A. Advantages

• Useable with large groups of audience

• Easy to organize as compared to other teaching methods
• Within a short time many subjects can be taught
• Can be used just almost everywhere

A. Disadvantages

• Minimal contact between the teacher and participants, no participation, on feedback

• Not effective to reach higher level objectives (e.g. synthesis, valuing, analysis)

In conclusion, a well organized lecture has three interdependent parts: introductory part,
the core part and closing part. The teacher should give a hint when he is close to the end
of the lecture by trying to summarize the lecture, telling students what to do at home and
which material to refer.

Styles of Lecturing

Based on their styles of lecturing, research shows that there are five characteristics of
lecturers.

a. Oral lectures

- Usually talking and rarely use any other means of communication

- No blackboard or transparencies are used
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b. Visual lecturers

- Use visual aids properly to provide full notes

- Most likely write down full notes while preparing their lectures
- Use diagrams to show relationships and processes

c. Exemplary lectures

- Confident, well structured and able presenters

- Combine oral and visual techniques of presentation
- Have no difficulty in selecting and structuring their materials
- Rarely use the blackboard to provide full notes

d. Amorphous Lecturers

- Are confident but ill-prepared and vague

- Less likely tell students the objectives of the lecture

e. Eclectic lecturers

- Use variety of techniques but lack confidence

- Have difficulty in selecting and structuring materials

5. 2 Group Discussion

It is a verbal interaction between two and more participants in a learning situation.

Discussions may form part of forum (discussion combining experts and laymen), panel
(discussion among experts), question and answer session, syndicate, etc. The role of the
lecturer is changing in group discussion from imparting knowledge or information to
facilitation of the discussion process. During facilitation he/she will not take a dominant
position but act as a mediator among members to keep on the discussion going.

Students learn best when they are actively involved in the process. Researchers reported
that, regardless of the subject matter, students working in small groups tend to learn more
of what is taught and retain it longer than when the same content is presented in other
instructional formats. Students who work in groups also appear more satisfied with their
classes.

5.1.1 Advantages of Group Discussion

• Sharing knowledge and experience

• Merging many viewpoints
• Involving in the learning process
• Improves communication skills
• Students get clarity on confusion principles and theoretical concepts from lectures

In non-formal setting where discussion is taking place outside of formal training

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institutions group discussion is applicable in problem solving, planning and strategy

formulation. Moreover, it is helpful extension teaching method in technology transfer
process during which farmers and stakeholders evaluate the performance of agricultural
technologies. It is an effective method in pooling the opinion of farmers to know better on
their traditional criteria for assessment. Generally, the effectiveness of group discussion in
problem-solving as well as technology evaluation is highly determined by the skills of the
facilitator in motivation discussants to contribute.

In a formal system group discussion avoids the limitation of lecturing that prohibits
logical and reflective thinking. Reflective thinking means the condition in which students
critically look into the concepts under discussion and relate these concepts to their own
circumstances to test and estimate the extent of its applicability in practical world. This is
difficult to happen. Tradition, lack of resources and experiences are some of the important
factors.

The most popular size of the group discussion is six. This is after the experiment of
Donald Philips known as the Philips 6-6 technique in which the group discusses for six
minutes. Depending on situations the size can vary. But it is logical to range from 6-25 as
far as the size does not greatly limit the participation of the members. Discussion is often
used as an extension of lecturing. In itself it may not be effective unless students have at
least little information before the discussion. The purpose of the discussion is therefore to
enable students to gain deeper understanding on a subject.

Decreasing the group size is often seen as a strategy to involve students actively.
Nevertheless, this does not work in practice and much important is the environment in
which the tutor keeps students during the discussion. Silent members of the group may be
induced to contribute by pausing occasionally for a buzz sessions during which neighbors
discuss more fully. This encourages shy students to contribute through commenting or
questioning their neighbors.

In order to make teaching effective through group discussion, the teacher and students can
have certain roles. These are initiating, seeking information, giving information,
elaboration, controlling, encouraging, setting standards, harmonizing, coordination and
consensus testing.

Research indicates that the most frequent speakers tend to be popular and are almost
universally accepted as being more influential in getting a solution than the less frequent
speakers. Even the best solution obtained by less frequent speakers (taciturn) will not be
accepted unless supported by the talkative. This is usually true irrespective of the target
groups in teaching.

5.2.2 Role of the facilitator in group discussion

Group discussion has great contribution in group work. The following tasks have of
crucial importance for the facilitator of group work. The facilitator has to:

• Keep the groups working productively

• Distribute and control materials
• Act as judge in disagreements between group members
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 20

• Give advice or comments where required

• Check that the groups are not getting lost or diverging from the planned activities
• Check during the course of activities that the objectives and rules of work have been
understood

Brainstorming in group discussion

Brainstorming is a spontaneous and none-evaluative technique of generating innovative

and creative ideas by the facilitator and the group. A small group of persons is given a
problem and asked to produce as many solutions as possible within a given period. It aims
at creativity and encouraging thinking on new lines, so that all aspects of a problem are
considered.

Brainstorming can be done in two ways.

1) Asking individuals by making roundabouts if the group size is small

2) Asking for volunteers if the size is large. For instance, your size is large.

The problem solving skills of participants can be improved by introducing brainstorming

at the first stage of discussion. Brainstorming involves the free flow of ideas from the
participants about the problem posed in an attempt to generate the greatest possible
number of diverse ideas and views, some of which may lead to new solutions. It
encourages this diversity. In a brainstorming exercise it is always necessary to avoid
commenting or criticizing the ideas of the other participants which you think are
irrelevant in relation to the topic. Make a list of ideas on the blackboard so that other
members will be stimulated to contribute to the list.

The stages of grouping, organizing and evaluation of the ideas generated will follow the
brainstorming exercise. During these three stages, comments and critics are important to
encourage the groups to value the ideas to solve the problem posed. Dialogue and
arguments are inherent in group discussions.

5. 2. 3 Debriefing in group discussion

At the end of the session the facilitator may need to do debriefing. Debriefing is done
based on the results of the group work to ensure that new concepts have come out of the
discussion. The debriefing can also lead the facilitator to make a sort of evaluation
whether the exercise has to be repeated to deepen the learners’ understanding or has
already produced the desired result.

5. 3 Practical Teaching

“The lecturer is more than a teaching machine”.

It connotes a teaching situation in which the learning capacity of students can be directly
or in directly measure.

5.3.1 Advantages of Practical Teaching

Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 21

Practical teaching stresses training of skills. Generally, the main advantages in practical
teaching are:

A) The acquisition and development of practical skills (e.g. how to apply chemicals on
the farm)

B) To teach students how to interpret data (e.g. reporting fieldwork)

C) Developing skills of problem solving strategies (e.g. exercising on how to organize

thoughts for action).

D) Students will relate theory to real-world and test its validity (e.g. applying concepts)

NB: All these objectives fit more into the psychomotor domain but still it has affective
domains.

Practical teaching involves learning by doing.

Look at the differences between the three concepts of learning \

- Learning for knowing- theoretical concepts

- Learning by doing- developing a technology or a solution
- Learning for being – applying the solution

Practical teaching is organized for learning by doing (self-directed) and for being (to
master skills and demonstrate to others).

5.3.2 Preparing practical teaching

The following are some of the guidelines for practical teaching.

- Identifying what students already know

- Preparing guidelines for students (e.g. Procedures to be followed)

- Explaining the main activities in the guidelines (e.g. what to do when.)

- Stating the main question students should answer at the end of practical (e.g.
preparation from students side)

In extension teaching, practical is emphasizing on developing and improving the research

capabilities of students.

There are two steps in practical teaching

a) Closed nature-the teacher initiates and demonstrates the different phases

b) Open nature-students will handle the different phases independently
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 22

3.4 Individual supervision

“A supervisor is a partner.”

What to supervise?

In addition to classroom teaching, university education as well as field level extension

work requires supervision.

5.4.1 Classroom supervision

Supervising in higher education concerns the students study process: thesis writing,
homework, practical and study of literature. Supervision implies that students greatly
value the importance of self-study and independent learning.

With regard to independent learning, supervision enables students:

• To search for literature as part of thesis writing, problem solving projects and research
• To discover the main lines or topics in a text, a book or an article
• To evaluate and value facts and results

Since most students in higher education will have higher level jobs in the future, it is
important for them to learn how to solve problems, to write reports, to make decisions, to
work independently, to handle difficulties and cope up with disappointments and delicate
questions and to organize their activities.

A supervisor as a facilitator or a resource person should be approachable by students for

asking questions and explaining difficult concepts.

Advantages and disadvantages of individual supervision

Advantages

• Time consuming
• Danger of personality clashes
• More timid and shy students can fail to take benefits
• Inadequate supervising disrupts teaching system and frustrates students’ learning

5.4.2 Some features of effective supervision

The following points are worth important to use supervision as an effective teaching
method.

1. Giving adequate feedback

2. Adjusting to student’s study habits, learning needs, and capabilities
3. Giving clear ideas about expectations from the student’s work
4. Having regular meeting and talks to monitor the student’s progress and difficulties
5. Motivation students and showing interest about the topic or theme
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 23

5. 4. 3 Field supervision

Individual or face-to-face methods are probably the most universally used extension
teaching methods in both developed and developing countries. The extension agent meets
a farmer at home or on the farm and discusses issues of mutual interest, giving
information and advice to the farmer. Individual supervision is the most important in all
extension work although group discussion is a useful method in enabling farmers to
exchange knowledge and experiences on certain newly introduced innovations.

The personal influence of the extension agent can be critical in helping a farmer through
difficult decisions, and can also be instrumental in getting the farmer to participate in
extension activities. A farmer is often likely to listen to the advice of the extension agent
and will be grateful for this individual attention.

Farm visits as one of supervision techniques has the following benefits:

• Familiarize the extension agent with the farmer and his family
• Enable him to give advice or information to the farmer
• Build up the agent’s knowledge of the area, and of the kinds of problems which
farmers face
• Permit him to explain a new recommended practice or follow up and observe results
to date
• Arouse general interest among farmers and stimulate their involvement in extension
activities

In supervising a farmer, methods of establishing rapport and of initiating conversation

differ from culture to culture. Small talk in order to break the ice is often an important
first step, and gives both sides a chance to relax and to get to know each other a little
before more serious matters and discussed. Time must be spent in greeting the farmer and
his family and an informal chat will not be wasted. Similarly local customs should be
followed as regards accepting hospitality. Supervision will be sound if these preconditions
are well handled. In supervision, preparing a checklist largely supports the process by
indication the plan to be followed and stating the activities to be done in a logical order.
In this case supervision is synonymous to practical teaching in which you use guidelines
for tracing the process. Generally, supervision as extension teaching method is employed
to monitor innovation processes and thereby evaluate the application of newly introduced
technologies by the farming community. It also provides the extension agents a good
opportunity to explore and document information on the existing agricultural knowledge
systems.

In addition to checklist, field notes and diary (farm recording if possible) are important to
assess new knowledge, information and experiences and to state difficulties from the real
field situation.
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 24

Chapter 6 Media Use in Teaching - Learning processes

6.1 Principle of Media Selection

This chapter begins with the assertive statement “A teacher should activate all senses.”
The chapter presents about the different media often used in university and extension
teaching. Wherever learning takes place the principle of teaching and learning remains the
same i.e. all raise the question “ how can communication be effective in transferring
information and knowledge?”. Generally when selected and used properly, teaching aids
can help in the following ways:

A The interest of the audience can be maintained if the mode of presentation is varied. It
could be difficult to concentrate for long on what someone is saying but referring to a wall
chart or illustrating with slides, for example, can help to maintain the attention of
audience.
B. When information is presented in more than one sense (sight and touch, for instance),
more is taken in, better understood and easily remembered.
C. Difficult processes and concepts can be explained easily and clearly with the help of
diagrams and charts. For example, an extension agent can teach a farmer about the life
cycle of an insect using drawings or pictures of the insect.
D. Pictures can have a more immediate impact on farmers’ emotions than words.

A university lecturer or an extension agent needs to select the appropriate media in

teaching. Of course a good selection is reflected with most experienced teacher although
in most situations scarcity of resource determines the decision and selection.

Determining which to use is still subjective given the above discussion about the
importance of varying aids. Following are some of the commonly used teaching aids. I
will give the weak and strong points in using each medium in which the weak points may
reflect some of the disadvantages and the strong points emphasize on the potential
advantages in using the aids. To improve the weak points suggestions are given as a
guide.

6.2 Importance of Audio-visual Aids in Teaching and Learning

Teaching is a reciprocal communication between and among pupils and teachers.

Learning is essentially a social process. Teaching is only instrumental to learning and it
uses everything for the guidance of the learner into profitable educational experiences.

Audio-visual aids influence the effectiveness of teaching by lessening some of the

learners difficulties, eliminating some hindrance in the communication process and
expediting teaching. Thus creative use of a variety of media increases the probability that
the audience will learn more, retain better, recall lessons learned and improve their
performance of the skills they are expected to develop. This is because audio visual
materials evoke the maximum response of the whole organism to the situations in which
the learning is done.

Audio visual aids are resources for learning. Research findings indicate that human beings
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 25

learn more easily and faster by audio-visual processes than by verbal explanation alone.
This is because audio-visual materials permit teachers and students to interact and to use
their environment to their own best advantage. But audio-visual devices misused will
contribute less to education than to confusion. Before using audio-visual materials,
analysis of the audience is necessary in order to know their needs, capabilities, their
special interests and motivation, and their styles of learning. One has to evaluate also the
strengths and weaknesses of the instructional media to see whether the media match with
the instructional objective. From among alternative learning experiences (e.g. learning by
doing, learning by observing) one chooses that offering best promise to achieve for the
students the sought outcome, and the audio-visual materials that can perform better that
particular learning experience chosen.

In short if appropriate media are used. Teaching and learning can be simplified with a best
result and fast concept building on the subject matter or idea taught or communicated.

6.3 Advantages and disadvantages of media

Some extension situations may require a personal visit to a farmer. The cost of an
individual visit is high and organizations are now concentrating on group visits backed up
by media.

Communications media

Advantages Disadvantages
* Can reach large audiences. * The cost of equipment is initially high.
* Relatively inexpensive per person reache * Maintenance and repairs may be
* Can reach the isolated. expensive and difficult.
* Only a small staff required. * Not easy to obtain good feed back
* Can give out timely news. from the audience.
* Can reach people every day in their own
homes.

Personal visits

Advantages Disadvantages
* Personal contact can sometimes be very • Visits to farmers can be very expensive
effective in motivating farmers. and can only be done at intervals.
* Good feedback can be obtained • Often only the more advanced farmers
are visited.
• Many staff are required to give good
Coverage

Every personal visit should always be backed up by using communications media as it

makes the visits more cost-effective. However as farmers become more motivated and as
the communications media improve face-to-face communications can be reduced. In
situations where the farming community is well motivated the use of media alone is
effective.
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 26

Sometimes farming people rely almost exclusively on media for their information. The
radio or television gives them weather or market news and also information about
outbreak of insect pests. The commercial media inform them of good buys in machinery,
fertilizer, stock, seed, buildings etc. The farming press and magazines provide more
detailed information and articles about farming enterprises. The radio may even broadcast
farm family serial programmes which creates interest and may provide some knowledge
and motivation.

6.4 Relative effectiveness of various aids

Visual media are particularly important since research suggests that most of what we learn
is through our eyes, rather than through our ears touch or sense of smell. Thus as the
Chinese apparently said one picture is worth a thousand words. What people remember
some days after being presented with a message is much more important than what they
recall immediately afterwards. Research shows that a combination of words and visuals
after a three day time lapse is some six times more effective just words

Recall after 3 hours Recall after 3 days

Words only 70% 10%
Visuals only 72% 20%
Words and Visuals 85% 65%

The theoretical effectiveness of various learning aids is shown in the Figure below. The
real experience is most effective, followed by viewing, while the spoken word tends to be
least effective. Yet, in spite of these facts, much of our teaching and extension is still done
by lecture and talk.

Figure: Theoretical effectiveness of various aids in learning

Most effective __ __ Practical work

__ __ Demonstration
__ __ Television or slides
__ __ Still pictures
__ __ Books and print
Least effective __ __ Lecture

The quality of the teaching of course, is of vital importance for example an interesting
lecture may be more effective a poorly run demonstration.

6.5 Classification Audio-visual Aids

The audio-visual aids may be classified into three categories as follows:

Audio aids

1. tape recorder
2. public address system
3. telephone
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 27

Visual aids: – non-projected

1. chalk board
2. bulletin board
3. picture and photograph
4. poster
5. flip chart
6. diagram map, chart and graph
7. specimen, model

Visual aids: – projected

1. slides
2. filmstrip
3. opaque projection
4. overhead projection

Audio-visual aids – non-projected

1. drama, talking doll

Audio-visual aids – projected

1. motion picture (cinema)

2. video

Audio Aids

1. Tape recorder

A tape recorder is an equipment for recording sound on magnetic tape by electro-

magnetic process, which may be played back when needed. Tape recorder is suitable
for use in meeting, training program, campaign, recording radio program etc.

Advantages

- facilitates on-the-spot recording of sound

- helps in duplication and dissemination of sound
- the recorded tape can be immediately played back without any processing
- facilitates editing of sounds by adding, deleting and adjusting tapes back and forth
- helps in synchronization of sound with picture
- preservation of recorded sound in tapes for future use
- easy to operate
- low operational cost, as the same tape may be used over and over again

A tape recorder for extension work should have the following features:

- simple with minimum number of buttons and knobs

Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 28

- light weight and easy to carry

- battery operated, but can also be used on AC/DC power supply
- moderate in cost

2. Public address system

Public address system is a set of equipments to amplify sound so that it is audible to a

large audience over a distance. It is useful for extension programs involving a large
number of people such as mass meeting, training program, field day and campaign et.

Test the microphone before use. Place it at a distance of 25 centimeters from the
person or instrument producing sound. The distance should be maintained to get a
good clear sound.

3. Telephone

Telephone is a system of equipments through which people can communicate both

ways to distant places. It provides for instant interpersonal communication, in which
the communicator and the communicatee change their roles while giving and
receiving information. By using telephone people can keep contact with the outside
world, without physically moving out. This improves speed of information and
involves considerable saving of time, money and labour.

Non-projected visual aids

1. Blackboard /chalkboard

Chalk board is a board for writing for chalk. Chalk board is probably the simplest,
cheapest, most convenient and widely used visual aid. Wooden board, coloured in black is
mostly used, hence it is also known as blackboard.

Strong points:
• sketches and designs may be developed during a teaching session
• cheap medium
• corrections can easily be made
• students can exercise on the board
• blackboards are at disposal in classrooms

Weaknesses:

• while writing the teacher turns his back to the audience

• diagrams and graphs cannot be prepared in advance nor can they be kept in store for
later use
• space planning on the blackboard may be difficult to be determined in advance
• fixed blackboards are difficult teaching instruments for transportation

Some hints for use:

Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 29

• use blackboard for rather simple presentations

• make your hand writing visible and readable
• do not talk while writing on the blackboard
• clean the board clearly (on green boards use water)
• write key statements other than a long paragraph
• use different colors to show differences in sketching
• allow students to make short notes but don’t make hotchpotch
• take care not to cover students while copying notes
• use small part of the blackboard to state key issues of the lesson you plan to cover in
one teaching period

2. Picture and photograph

Picture is a representation made by drawing. Photograph gives accurate idea of an object.

A good picture may tell a story without using a single word. Colur pictures and
photographs have more appeal.

Pictures and photographs are used in various ways in extension work such as training
programs, publications, exhibits, filmstrips, news papers etc.

Advantages
- arouses interest
- facilitates introducing new topic
- clarifies complex ideas
- conveys message even to illiterate person
- leaves an impression in the mind
- increases the credibility of message
- easy to get and of moderate cost

3. Flip charts

Flip chart is a visual aid in which the messages are written or drawn on thick paper and
presented step-by-step by the extension agent to synchronize with talk. This produces a
dramatic effect on the audience.

Flipcharts consist of a series of large paper sheets fastened at the top end so that they can
be flipped over each other. Sometimes these sheets are blank pages on which instructional
materials are written during the training. However, they can also be designed in advance
and be arranged sequentially to communicate a message.

Strong points:

• easily moveable everywhere

• independent from outside energy sources
• easily useable by untrained people
• marked charts may be hang up within the room and remain visible for the rest of the
lesson
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 30

Weaknesses:

• difficult to correct
• unsuitable for big rooms like LTH-1 and others
• great amount of (expensive) paper is necessary
• rarely possible to teach farmers using charts

Practical hints on use:

• text and picture of the foreseen chart should be sketched beforehand

• write down on the chart in small writing comments for the lecturer
• check on rough paper whether your ink is full and visible
• as it can be used repeatedly try to store the charts safely
• mention the value of the notes students put on the charts

4. Poster

Posters help to focus attention on a particular message. They are commonly used in
extension (agriculture, health, education, social issues, etc.)

A principle of developing and using posters, displays and calendars, is that all pictures,
drawings and illustrations must be checked to make sure their message is clearly
understood by the intended target group.

Posters can be divided into 2 main categories:

• motivational
• instructional

Motivational
• "behave like this - do this - this is good for you / your family / your land"
• This can be done by showing a comparison. For example to motivate people to
practice family planning: a large family with lots of kids who are thin and have old
clothes and look unhappy and a family with 2 children who are nicely dressed, carry
school books in their hand and the whole family looks happy. This poster should
already show -visually not verbally- some reference to a family planning method.

Instructional
• how to do it
• step by step, showing the process of how to do/make it (e.g. steps in building a pit
latrine)
• flowchart

Steps in poster development

1 idea about a topic
2 identify target group
3 decide on objective of the medium (what message should it carry?)
4 draft poster
5 pre-test on colleagues
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 31

6 pre-test on (part of) intended target group

7 revise poster
8 again pre-test on (part of) target group (not the same group as before!)
9 revise poster
10 produce

5. Diagram, map, chart and graph

Diagram, map, chart and graph are visuals where information is summarized and
presented. For example, diagram is line drawing of an object, a map is an information
diagram of an area, a chat contains information in tabular form and a graph a
diagrammatic representation of the relationship between variables.

These visual aids are presented in a higher level of education and intelligence of audience
is required to understand and absorb information. The rural audience would need some
assistance to get message from them. However, these types of visuals are very convenient
for presenting large amount of information in comprehensive and meaningful way.

Strong points:

- help in visualizing the broad concept

- give proper perspective on an area (map)
- show proper sequence and relationship (chart)
- help in making comparisons (graph)

Weaknesses:

- abstract and symbolic visuals may be difficult to understand

- require good amount of planning and preparation

Some hints for use:

- fix the visuals on bulletin board or suitable hard background and display them in a
well lighted place.
- Make arrangement for explaining the visuals to the audience
- Watch the reaction of the audience
- Keep visuals up-to-date

6. Specimen and model

Specimen is a sample which represents the whole. Model is a miniature of reproduction or

copy of an object. In extension work when it is not possible to expose the audience to the
real life situation, these may be used to communicate a reliable idea of the original.

Strong points:

- arouse the interest of the audience

- involve a number of sense organs
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 32

- give three-dimensional idea of an object

- communicate massage when it is physically impossible or impractical to present
the real object
- do not require replacement too often
- save time and many
-
Weaknesses:
- require good amount of planning and preparation
- moderately costly

Some hints for use:

- arrange and display all items in proper sequence

- use display rack and place the material at eye level
- explain the visuals so that the intended message is clearly communicated to the
audience

Projected Visual Aids

1. Overhead projector

In overhead projection, a picture or written material is projected over the head of the
speaker on the screen. This is accomplished by an Overhead projector. Drawing,
diagram, lettering etc. are made on transparent sheets and are put on the glass platform of
the overhead projector, through which strong light is passed.

Strong points:

• projection can be easily interrupted

• continuous eye contact with the audience
• complex ideas may be clearly presented
• sheets can be presented in a chosen order and synchronized with the talk
• enable the audience to take notes

Weaknesses:

• danger of presenting too much information in a short time

• lecturers get easily addicted to the medium and tend to use it almost always
• if the user is not cautious, it is easily vulnerable to damage

Practical hints for using it:

• prepare sheets carefully by using key-words and short sentences

• write clearly but not too much
• use the right colors (black, dark blue, deep red and deep green)
• switch off the projector when you don’t use it
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 33

2. Slide projector

Slide is a transparent mounted picture which is projected by focusing light trough it.
Slides of 35mm. films mounted on individual cardboard frames are common and are used
in extension program. Slides can displayed or projected using slide projector.

Strong points:

• It is easy to produce slides from the field using camera

• The medium can be used in a flexible way in terms of choice of slides, order of
presentation and time of projection
• Slides have long durability as they have coverage at the margins
• They are relatively cheaper and can be sequenced alternately

Weak points:

• Not all lecturers give clear explanation of what the slides represent
• Fast speakers can hardly be effective in transferring their messages using slides
• Slides are vulnerable to damage

Practical hints for use:

• Make sure that the picture quality is satisfactory and the letters are readable in case of
using a text
• Select and sequence slides in a logical order to make the presentation clearer. You
may use a lighted selection box to arrange.
• Make sure that you know how to operate with the machine and ask for assistance in
case you are uncertain.

3. Opaque Projector

In opaque projection a projector is used to project opaque materials. Pictures, drawings,

diagrams directly from the book, magazine etc. or drawn on sheets of paper can be
projected. The size of the projected material should be around 25cm.x25cm.

Strong points:

- Stimulates attention and arouse interest of the audience

- Clarifies information
- Saves time and labor
- Equipment is easy to operate

Weak points:

- Projected picture are not of superior quality

- The opaque projector is bulky and difficult to carry
Because of these, opaque projector has limited use in extension work.
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 34

Non-projected Audio-visual Aids

1. Drama and Talking Doll

Drama is a theatrical performance around a theme by some people who have rehearsed for
it. This media requires adequate preparation and rehearsing.

Talking doll is an innovation and may be used to create general awareness of a group of
people. Its use is, however, restricted to the availability of an expert, who can not project
own voice, but also able to manipulate the movement of the doll to synchronize with the
voice.

Projected Audio-visual Aids

1. Motion picture

Motion picture is the projected image of a positive print of a sound film, taken by movie
camera, which produces synchronized movement of picture with sound. The film consist
of a series of still picture, each of which shows the objects in slightly different position,
which when projected in rapid succession produces the optical illusion of a continuous
picture in which objects appear to move.

Strong points:

- Attracts audience and arouse their interest

- Present facts in a realistic and interesting way
- Exposes the audience to a new practice in a short time
- Provides experiences normally difficult to get
- Helps in changing attitude
- Can reach illiterate people also
- May be shown according to convenience over and over again

Weak points:

- Production of sound films is costly and highly technical job

- Projection equipment are also costly
- A good deal of preparation and technical skill are needed in having a film show
- Maintenance, storage and transportation of film and equipments need care and
skill

Practical hints for use:

- Present the film after the main extension program is over

- Before starting the film, introduce the topic to the audience and emphasize on the
important points
- Have the film show without ant interruption
- After the show, discuss with the audience and check up whether they have got the
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 35

message or not

2. Video

Video is an electronic audio-visual system for preparing video tapes of programs and
events, which could be projected through a receiving set with moving images and
synchronized sound. The main objective is to get good quality video tapes with pictures
and sound recorded on them, which can be viewed as and when needed.

Strong points:

- It may be viewed through a single receiving set or integrated with television

network for broadcast to millions of people
- It increases the viewer’s control over learning, as programs can be viewed
repeatedly with pauses and replays
- It provides for interaction and analysis of program with the instructor and fellow
viewers
- It can simulate and present real life situations effectively
- Video is less costly and more easy to handle when compared to motion picture

Weak points:

- The application of video technology in extension requires suitably trained

personnel
- The equipment and materials are costly and need careful handling
- Video tapes have less storage life in comparison to motion picture

Practical hints for use: the same steps can be followed as the motion picture.

3. Computers and Multimedia

Increasingly, teachers are using computers and multimedia to make their teaching more
efficient, effective, powerful and flexible. Computers can help in transforming course
notes into overheads, create high-quality complex illustrations, and do real time
calculations and processing.

Experts portray a future in which access to academic programs will no longer be restricted
by geography or availability of instructors, rooms or students. Texts will be supplemented
by electronic information on internet. With the advent of networking, students will be
able to collaborate in a worldwide learning community.

Strong points:

- More efficient, effective and powerful

- Increases the amount of material in the course. For example, providing more
illustrations.
- Treat course content in a different ways. For example, instead of using lecturing in
presentation, showing multimedia.
- Present demonstrations that can be done with other teaching materials
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 36

Disadvantage

- they are costly and needs skill to operate

Practical hints for use:

- Prepare lecture notes on computer
- Connect the computer with multimedia
- Project computer images onto a large screen
- Explain what is displayed on the screen and check up whether they have got the
message or not

6.6 Micro - teaching

Here the students are going to practice micro-teaching. The lessons covered in the
previous chapters on lesson planning and methods of teaching will be helpful.

Use the following format to plan your micro teaching exercise.

Lesson matrix for your micro teaching

Topic What you want to teach

Venue The place where teaching is to be organized

Date

Duration For how long (your micro teaching can form part of an assumed training program)

Target groups Whom do you want to teach (extension agents, farmers, women’s group, etc.)

Starting What do you think or assume about the knowledge and skill level of your target
situation group

Objectives What you want your target groups to do after an instruction or a lesson

…you will be able to:

Knowledge

Skills …you will be able to:

Attitude …you will be able to:

Time Outline the content Select teaching methods Choose teaching aids
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 37

Example of Micro-Teaching

Target group: Women at Laga Ambo

Topic: Improved Practices in Potato Production

Objective: By the end of the lesson, you (women at Laga Ambo) will be able to
describe improved ways of producing potato.

Content: Land preparation

Sowing/input application
Weeding
Harvesting
Marketing (grading, storage, transport, price)

Media: poster, video show (if access to light)

Method: Brainstorming
Lecture
Discussion

Time: 30 minutes

Steps in Micro Teaching

Identifying targets
Choosing a topic
Setting objectives
Defining and sequencing content
Choosing media
Choosing methods
Revising the plan
Estimate time required roughly
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 38

Chapter 7. Evaluating Teaching

“Use evaluation to improve situations but not simply to prove performance.”

General

Evaluation is a very broad concept. We can talk of evaluation of programs, development

projects, policies (impact assessment) and performance of people in different
circumstances and work conditions. The purpose is similar in each case. It is to improve
situations but not to blame or punish or insult people for their poor performance. Leaders
in almost all situations are responsible for assessing and evaluating the people whom they
work with. So too are teachers responsible for the assessment and evaluation of students
in their classrooms and an aspect of their work that some find unpleasant. How well
students perform on tests, the grades they receive and the judgments their teachers make
about their potential have important long-term consequences.

7.1 Concepts of assessment and evaluation

Assessment and evaluation are functions carried out by teacher to gather information
needed to make wise discussions that are important for student lives. The term assessment
usually refers to the full range of information gathered and synthesized by teachers about
their students and their classrooms. Information can be gathered on students in informal
ways such as observation and verbal exchange. It can also be gathered formally through
homework, tests and written reports. Generally, the range of information can vary from
informal feedback provided by students about a particular lesson to more formal reports
resulting from course evaluations and standardized tests.

Whereas assessment focuses on gathering and synthesizing information, the term

evaluation usually refers to the process of making judgments, assigning value, or deciding
on worth. A test, for example, is an assessment technique to collect information about
how much do students know on a particular topic. Assigning a grade, however, is an
evaluative act because the teacher is placing a value on the information gathered on the
test. In light with this explanation, assessment and evaluation are in most cases used
interchangeably. They do not have exactly the same meaning; nevertheless, evaluation
takes place after assessment because one can not assign a value without gathering and
analyzing necessary information. In short, assessment helps to generate information for
evaluation.

7.2 Evaluation Types

Under different situations, evaluations can vary. In teaching, we distinguish two types of
evaluation.

a) Formative (process) evaluation - This takes place prior to or during instruction. The
intention is to inform teachers about their students’ prior knowledge and skills in order to
assist with planning, information from this evaluation is not used to make judgments
about a student’s work; it is used for grouping students during instruction lesson planning
(modifying or changing objectives) and formulating instructional strategies. Colleagues as
well as students are sources of information for such evaluation. The results from this
Extension Teaching Methods __________________________________________________________ 39

evaluation are used to improve performance.

Process evaluation is conducted to detect or predict defects in the procedural design of a

teaching activity during the implementation phase. Key elements of a teaching activity are
monitored in a systematic manner with the goal of identifying potential problems before
they become serious. It is also used to measure students’ progress toward the objectives
set during the curriculum development.

Process evaluation is conducted periodically throughout the duration of the teaching the
subject matter concerned. It focuses on anything that occurs during implementation that
has an important effect on success of the teaching activity. It examines such contributing
factors as:

- Change in students’ knowledge, attitude or skill

- Effectiveness of teaching methods and materials
- Interpersonal relationship among trainees
- The performance of students: The extent to which students involved in and the
learning activity are in agreement with its intent.
- Adequacy of the resources, the physical facilities, and the time
schedule.

Both formal and informal methods are commonly used in process evaluation. formal
method include knowledge, attitude or skill tests (exam). Informal methods such as round
table discussions and individual interviews can also used. There are no hard and fast rules
on selection of methods.

Remember that process evaluation is conducted so as to have some idea of the progress
and to identify potential problems before the end of the teaching activity. If done early,
there will be time to make adjustments and corrections.

b) Summative (output) evaluations

In this case, efforts are made to use information about students’ feeling after a set of
instructional activities has occurred. Its purpose is to summarize how well a particular
student, group of students or the teacher has performed on a set of learning goals or
objectives. Summative evaluations are made to make judgments about accomplishments
of students, and teachers’ task. For example, the evaluation format you usually fill at the
end of a semester is an example of summative evaluation because you are assigning value
to the different criteria that altogether can weight the performance of the teacher and
overall aspects of a course.

Teachers use information from summative evaluation to determine grades. In fact, good
evaluation to a large extent depends on the quality of information. In non-formal teaching
situation, summative evaluation reveals the impact of a particular teaching program on the
performance of farmers on the field. The principles and practices of assessment in
classroom teaching also work in non-formal teaching where the extension can assess
and/or evaluate the farm level performance of farmers who, let us say, have been
participating in a particular training program. Both forms of evaluation would provide
information to design or re- design objectives, instructional methods and aids, and the
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overall teaching (training) environment.

7.3 Evaluation Techniques

Technique refers to how we are doing the evaluation itself. Evaluation techniques of
students can be done in the form of observing their participation, giving individual or
group assignments, continuous feedback from students, asking testing questions and the
final examination. Each technique has different purposes. For instance, in a large sized
class assigning value to students’ participation may be unfair, however, different teachers
continue to do so. Others can use participation as a means of encouraging or motivating
students to learn effectively. In this case, participation may not have a weighted value.

Getting feedback from students formally (using standardized formats) or informally

(through colleagues) cannot also have a weighted value for the students but rather helps
the teacher to improve teaching by identifying his/her weak points and build on the strong
points. From this, you can realize that evaluation serves multiple purposes: It has a value
for the teacher as well as for the students. As far as the benefit goes to both parties,
genuine evaluation is highly invaluable, as there are ethical and moral effects on the
person to be evaluated. The behaviour of students during instruction (teaching), the
personal behavior of the teacher and the purpose of evaluation altogether affect the
effectiveness of each technique of evaluation

7.4 Format for Evaluation

Different formats are used to collect data from students for evaluation. In that sense
evaluation in itself is a research because its findings are used to improve teaching. Most
teachers prepare standardized formats for evaluating their teaching; the content of the
course and the teaching methods and materials used. Evaluation also involves gathering of
information on the feelings of the students, their attitude towards the course and the
knowledge level acquired. This can be expressed qualitatively and/or quantitatively. In
each case the purpose is different. I will give you two examples below.

Example one: Quantitative process evaluation format

Suppose a teacher wants to know the opinion of students about the steps of identifying
community problems using PRA, (she may develop the following format.

Criteria Level of agreement

1. The techniques in PRA are complex to understand

2. PRA is a helpful research method
3. Steps in PRA are clear but the methods need modification
4. Understanding the steps would have involved intensive discussion
5. Social mapping in PRA requires further explanation
6. Applying PRA techniques in Ethiopia is difficult

In the above case, students can give a fixed value to each statement expressing their level
of agreement where 1 stands for strong disagreement and 5 for strong agreement on the
continuum. The teacher can now calculate to find out the percentage of students showing
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specific level of agreement. In most situations, such analysis in evaluation is easy and
simple. It is also easy for one to fill in the form. Due to this reason teachers tend to use
such kinds of format.

Nevertheless, more important question of evaluation specialists is ‘Can quantitative

evaluation reveal clear evidence for improving the process?’ The answer to this question
is ‘no’ validating the significance of qualitative evaluation. With little modification the
above format can be reused as follows (See example two).

Example two: qualitative evaluation

For same purpose mentioned above it is possible to prepare qualitative format by

introducing a new element justifying the reason why a student chooses for specific level
of agreement including the suggestion they may give.

Criteria for evaluation Level of Reason Suggestion too

agreement (1-5) improve
The techniques in PRA are
complex to understand
PRA is helpful method
Steps in PRA are clear but the
methods need modification
Understanding the steps would
have involved intensive
discussion
Social mapping in PRA requires
further explanation
Applying PRA techniques in
Ethiopia is difficult

Using qualitative format has advantages in exploring the opinion of students for
evaluation. However, certain disadvantages such as time required to prepare and analyze
the information gathered is well as the time and skill for students to fill in the form with
patience restrain teachers from conducting such kinds of evaluation.

The CIPP model as Evaluation Techniques

In evaluation concept, styles, methods and techniques are terms interchangeable used
although their meaning varies. In this section, emphasis is given to evaluation in a
systemic way where al aspects of an instructional (teaching) system are evaluated. The
model for this systemic approach is known as content-input process product evaluation
(CIPP) model.

Shortly, the elements of CIPP are:

a) Contents - the environment in which the teaching takes place

b) Inputs - the available resources to carryout teaching
c) Process - the manner in which the plan is put to action
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d) Product - results of teaching

The CIPP model is advocated by many authors and is proficient in providing reliable
information for future and on the spot decisions concerning a course. In the following
paragraphs, you will find the explanation for each element of the evaluation system.

Evaluation content of is comes with the initial decisions that the instructional designer
(the teacher) must take considering whether the course is necessary in relation the future
career of students. This evaluation is often termed as front end analysis.

Evaluation of lesson inputs is concerned with the lesson design and execution level.
There are three types of input to a lesson:
a) The lesson plan, its structure & content and the methods used
b) the resources to be used during the lesson
c) The human resources to be employed - teacher/tutor/ assistants including their level of
training and preparedness to execute the plan.

Evaluation the quality of inputs before the lesson is given is often suggested to avoid the
possibility of wasting resources and time. The teacher should formulate evaluation
questions for both the lesson plan and instructional materials (teaching resources).

For example:

a) Does the description state what learning materials will be used and when>
b) Does the description of the process indicate what new information is to be
communicated to learners?

The above two questions are exemplifying for evaluating lesson plan.

To evaluate the relevance of instructional materials, you may use the following questions;
a) Are the style and language used appropriate for target group?
b) Does the material appear to be adequate to achieve the objectives set for in the lesson
plan?

The third element in CIPP is the process aspects of evaluation. The technique of
valuation the teaching/learning process is approached from different angles. You can use
one or a combination of the following styles to evaluate teaching processes:
a) Free observation and later debriefing style of evaluation
b) Free observation, with the aid of videotape, to enable the process to be observed and
analyzed later.
c) Relying on a prepared questionnaire to be filled by the evaluator
d) Interaction - analysis technique in which the students will critically analyze the
different steps in teaching through active group interaction. this is often used to evaluate
training of adults who are on the job. This style helps to avoid the subjective
measurements inherent in the previous methods.

The fourth element of the CIPP model is evaluating the products of instruction. Whereas
during the steps of the lesson the teacher is evaluating progress to wards the lesson
objectives, at the end of the lesson he evaluates to what extent the objective have been
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achieved, at the end of the lesson he evaluates to what extent the objectives have been
achieved. This evaluation may serve summative as well as formative purposes in which
you adjust the current lesson or make modification in the future.