Module - 1
INTRODUCTION
Measurements
Instrumentation
Functional Elements of an measurement
Static and Dynamic Characteristics
Errors in measurements
Calibration
Standard
Statistical Evaluation of Measurement.
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Measurements
Measurement of a given quantity is essentially an act or result
of comparison between the quantity (whose magnitude is
unknown) and predetermined or predefined standards.
Two quantities are compared the result is expressed in
numerical values.
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Basic requirements for a
meaningful measurement
The standard used for comparison purposes must be
accurately defined and should be commonly accepted.
The apparatus used and the method adopted must be provable
(verifiable).
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Two major functions
Design of equipment and processes
Proper Operation and maintenance of equipment and
processes.
Methods of Measurement
Direct Methods
Indirect Methods
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DIRECT METHODS: In these methods, the unknown
quantity (called the measurand ) is directly compared against a
standard.
INDIRECT METHOD: Measurements by direct methods
are not always possible, feasible and practicable. In engineering
applications measurement systems are used which require
need of indirect method for measurement purposes.
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Evolution of Instruments.
a) Mechanical
b) Electrical
c) Electronic Instruments.
MECHANICAL: These instruments are very reliable for
static and stable conditions. But their disadvantage is that
they are unable to respond rapidly to measurements of
dynamic and transient conditions.
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Contd
ELECTRICAL: It is faster than mechanical, indicating the
output are rapid than mechanical methods. But it depends
on the mechanical movement of the meters. The response is
0.5 to 20 seconds (approx).
ELECTRONIC: It is more reliable than other system. It uses
semiconductor devices and weak signal can also be detected.
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Classification Of Instruments
Absolute Instruments.
Secondary Instruments.
ABSOLUTE: These instruments give the magnitude if the
quantity under measurement terms of physical constants of the
instrument.
SECONDARY: These instruments are calibrated by the
comparison with absolute instruments which have already been
calibrated.
Further its classified as
Deflection Type Instruments
Null Type Instruments
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Functions of instrument and measuring system can be
classified into three. They are:
i) Indicating function.
ii) Recording function.
iii) Controlling function.
Application of measurement systems are:
i) Monitoring of process and operation.
ii) Control of processes and operation.
iii) Experimental engineering analysis.
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Functional Elements of an
Instrumentation System
PRIMARY VARIABLE VARIABLE DATA DATA
QUANTITY CONVER MANIPULATI- TRANSMISSIO PRESENTA
TO BE SENSING
-SION ON ELEMENT -N ELEMENT TION
MEASURED ELEMENT ELEMENT ELEMENT
DATA CONDITIONING ELEMENT
TERMINATING
DETECTOR INTERMEDIATE STAGE STAGE
TRANSDUCER
STAGE
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Elements of Generalized Measurement
System
Primary sensing element.
Variable conversion element.
Data presentation element.
PRIMARY SENSING ELEMENT: The quantity under measurement
makes its first contact with the primary sensing element of a
measurement system.
VARIABLE CONVERSION ELEMENT: It converts the output of the
primary sensing element into suitable form to preserve the
information content of the original signal.
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Contd..
DATA PRESENTATION ELEMENT: The information about the
quantity under measurement has to be conveyed to the
personnel handling the instrument or the system for
monitoring, control or analysis purpose.
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Example:
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Static Characteristics
Application involved measurement of quantity that are
either constant or varies slowly with time is known as
static.
Accuracy Static correction
Drift Scale range
Scale span
Dead Zone
Noise
Static Error Dead Time
Sensitivity Hysteresis.
Reproducibility Linearity
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ACCURACY: It is the closeness with an instrument reading
approaches the true value of the quantity being measured.
TRUEVALUE: True value of quantity may be defined as the
average of an infinite no. of measured value.
SENSITIVITY is defined as the ratio of the magnitude of
the output response to that of input response.
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STATIC ERROR: It is defined as the difference between
the measured value and true value of the quantity.
A=At-Am
Where Am =measured value of quantity
At =true value of quantity.
It is also called as the absolute static error.
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SCALE RANGE: The scale range of an instrument is defined
as the difference between the largest and the smallest reading
of the instrument.
Suppose highest point of calibration is Xmax units while the
lowest is Xmin units, then the instrument range is between
Xmin and Xmax.
SCALE SPAN: Scale span or instrument span is given as
Scale span= Xmax - Xmin
It is the difference between highest and lowest point of
calibration.
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Reproducibility is specified in terms of scale readings over
a given period of time.
Drift is an undesirable quality in industrial instruments
because it is rarely apparent and cannot be maintained.
It is classified as
a) Zero drift
b) Span drift or sensitivity drift
c) Zonal drift.
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Noise
A spurious current or voltage extraneous to the current or
voltage of interest in an electrical or electronic circuit is
called noise.
Noise
Generated Conducted Radiated
Noise Noise Noise
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Dynamic Characteristics
Speed of response
Measuring lag
Fidelity
Dynamic error
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. SPEED OF RESPONSE :
It is defined as the fastness with which a measurement
system responds to changes in measured quantity. It is one of
the dynamic characteristics of a measurement system.
FIDELITY:
It is defined as the degree to which a measurement system
indicates changes in the measured quantity without any
dynamic error.
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Dynamic Error
It is the difference between the true value of the quantity
changing w.r.t time and the value indicated by the
measurement system if no static error is assumed.
It is also called measurement error. It is one the dynamic
characteristics.
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Measuring Lag
It is the retardation delay in the response of a measurement
system to changes in the measured quantity. It is of 2 types:
Retardation type: The response begins immediately after a
change in measured quantity has occurred
Time delay: The response of the measurement system begins
after a dead zone after the application of the input
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Errors in Measurement
Limiting Errors (Guarantee Errors)
Known Error
Classification
Gross Systematic Or Random Or
Error Cumulative Residual Or
Error Accidental
Error
Instrumental Environmental Observational
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Gross Error
Human Mistakes in reading , recording and calculating
measurement results.
The experimenter may grossly misread the scale.
E.g.: Due to oversight instead of 21.5oC, they may read as
31.5oC
They may transpose the reading while
recording (like reading 25.8 oC and record as
28.5oC)
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Systematic Errors
INSTRUMENTAL ERROR:
These errors arise due to 3 reasons-
Due to inherent short comings in the instrument
Due to misuse of the instrument
Due to loading effects of the instrument
ENVIRONMENTAL ERROR:
These errors are due to external conditions to the
measuring device. These may be effects of temperature,
pressure, humidity, dust or of external electrostatic or
magnetic field.
OBSERVATIONAL ERROR:
The error on account of parallax is the observational
error.
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Residual error
These errors are due to small factors which change or
fluctuate from one measurement to another.
The happenings or disturbances about which we are unaware
are lumped together and called “Random” or “Residual”.
Hence the errors caused by these are called random or
residual errors.
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Arithmetic Mean
The most probable value of measured variable is the
arithmetic mean of the number of readings taken.
It is given by x1 x2 .....xn x
x
Where = arithmetic mean n n
x1,x2,.. x3= readings of samples
n= number of readings
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Deviation
Deviation is departure of the observed reading from the
arithmetic mean of the group of readings.
d1 x1 X
d 2 x2 X
d 3 x3 X
d n xn X
d1 d 2 d 3 ..... d n 0
ie
( x1 X ) ( x2 X ) ( x3 X ) .. ( xn X )
( x1 x2 x3 ... xn ) n X
nX nX 0
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Standard Deviation
The standard deviation of an infinite number of data is
defined as the square root of the sum of the individual
deviations squared divided by the number of readings.
S .D
d12 d 22 d 32 ... d 42
d 2
20observation
n n
S .D s
d d d ... d
1
2 2
2
2
3
2
4 d 2
20observation
n 1 n 1
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Variance
Variance S .D
2 2
d 2
n
20observation
Variance S .D s
2 2
d 2
n 1
20observation
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Standard
A standard is a physical representation of a unit of measurement. The
term „standard‟ is applied to a piece of equipment having a known
measure of physical quantity.
Types of Standards
International Standards
Defined based on international agreement
Primary Standards
Maintained by national standards laboratories
Secondary Standards
used by industrial measurement laboratories
Working Standards
used in general laboratory
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CALIBRATION
• It’s the procedure to determine the correct
value of the measurand by comparison with the
standard ones.
• The standard of device with which comparison
is made is called a standard instrument.
• The instrument which is unknown and is to be
calibrated is called test instrument.
• In calibration test instrument is compared with
the standard instrument.
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CALIBRATION METHODOLOGY
DIRECT COMPARISON INDIRECT COMPARISON
•METER CALIBRATION •METER CALIBRATION
•GENERATOR CALIBRATION •GENERATOR CALIBRATION
•TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION •TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION
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METER CALIBRATION
GENERATOR
METER TO BE
CALIBRATED
In direct comparison, a source or generator applies a
known input to the meter under test.
Meter is the test instrument while generator is the
standard instrument.
The deviation of meter from the standard value is
compared with the allowable performance limit.
If the meter deviation exceeds the allowance then the
meter is considered to be out of tolerance.
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GENERATOR CALIBRATION
GENERATOR METER
With the help of direct comparison, a generator or
source can be calibrated.
In such calibration, meter act as a standard instrument,
while the generator act as a test instrument.
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TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION
Mech
o/p
Motor TRANSDUCER METER
The transducer converts the signal from one
form to another.
If the transducer is to be calibrated, meter
and motor act as a standard instrument,
while the transducer act as a test
instrument.
The transducer characteristics are then
expressed as a ratio b/w the device’s o/p to
its i/p
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INDIRECT COMPARISON CALIBRATION
METER CALIBRATION:
METER
SOURCE
METER
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GENERATOR CALIBRATION
GENERATOR
TRANSFER
METER
GENERATOR
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TRANSDUCER CALIBRATION
TRANSDUCER
TRANSFER
SOURCE METER
TRANSDUCER
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