Ann S. Masten, Ph.D.

, is
a professor with the
Institute of Child
Development, and
Janette E. Herbers, J. J.
Cutuli, and Theresa L.
Lafavor are graduate
students, at the
University of Minnesota,
Twin Cities. E-mail:
Promoting Competence and
[email protected]
Resilience in the School Context
Four decades of research on resilience in young people ered as well, including the central nervous system
provide compelling data and models for applications and the immune system. Masten (2003) provided an
in the school context. Resilience theory and findings illustration of interrelated and embedded systems for
are highly congruent with Strengths-Based School a child’s life in relation to family, peer, and school
Counseling (SBSC) as formulated by Galassi and systems, and the larger systems connected to chil-
Akos (2007). In this article, resilience is defined in dren through schools or school personnel.
relation to competence in developmental tasks and In most economically developed societies of the
risks to positive development, with reference to key pro- 21st century, schools play a central role in child
motive and protective roles of schools and school per- development. Schools function as a vitally important
sonnel. Implications of a resilience framework for context for child development, while at the same
schools are delineated, including positive approaches to time a classroom or school also can be viewed as a
mission statements, models of change, measuring posi- system that may be threatened by adversities. A
tive progress, and mobilizing powerful systems for school that functions well in a context of adversity
changing the direction of human development. New also can be said to manifest resilience, and there is
horizons of research on resilience are described, along considerable interest in the resilience of classrooms
with the potential of integrating SBSC and resilience- (Doll, Zucker, & Brehm, 2006) or schools (Wang &
based frameworks in transformative efforts to promote Gordon, 1994). The resilience of adults who work
the successful development of young people. in schools is important because these individuals
often play a central role in school resilience while
our decades of research on competence and also serving as protective adults or brokers of resour-

F resilience in young people have yielded a com-

pelling set of models and evidence for promot-
ing and protecting positive youth development in the
ces in the lives of high-risk children.
In research on resilience in development, the
school context has been implicated in diverse ways as
school context. In this article we highlight the find- a promotive and protective environment for children
ings from research on resilience in children and ado- and adolescents (Masten & Motti-Stefanidi, in press).
lescents, with particular reference to Strengths-Based Research findings implicate schools in many of the
School Counseling (SBSC; Galassi and Akos, 2007). processes that promote positive development and pre-
Resilience refers to positive adaptation of a system vent problems in the general population. In addition,
during or following significant disturbances. In the school context affords opportunities to facilitate
research on young people, investigators have studied resilience among children at risk for poor outcomes
resilience in relation to patterns of positive adapta- due to adversity exposure, ranging from divorce,
tion among individuals during or following expo- family violence, homelessness, and maltreatment to
sure to adversities or risks that have the potential to war, natural disasters, and religious persecution.
harm development (Luthar, 2006; Masten, 2007). In this article, we provide a concise overview of
In addition to the life of a single human organism, major findings from the resilience literature on chil-
however, the idea of resilience can be applied to dren that have implications for schools and school
many other kinds and levels of systems (Masten & counseling. Subsequently, we present a resilience-
Obradovic´, 2007). Children, for example, develop in based framework for applications to the school con-
the context of many systems, including families, peer text, with general guidelines for practice. Finally, we
groups, schools, communities, and societies discuss new frontiers of resilience research, in
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979), and the resilience of each particular research on plasticity in brain develop-
of these systems also can be considered. Systems ment and windows of opportunity for prevention
operating within a single individual can be consid- and intervention.

76 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

THE COMPONENTS OF RESILIENCE individuals from a developmental task perspective is
multidimensional. Because of the multidimensional
Understanding resilience in any system requires the nature of developmental expectations, children
definition and measurement of two basic aspects of viewed as manifesting resilience in the context of
system function and adaptation: First, what does it serious adversity would be doing well in multiple
mean for this system (e.g., a person or a school) to domains, successfully engaging or accomplishing
be doing well or operating effectively; and second, multiple key developmental tasks. Resilience could
what can threaten or disturb the successful function- be studied more narrowly by focusing on one
ing or survival of the system? In the case of develop- dimension at a time, such as “academic resilience.”
ing systems, such as human individuals, the nature of Nonetheless, when a group of people is identified as
effective function and also the nature of threats will manifesting resilience, it usually means that multiple
change over the life course, so that definitions and criteria have been met for doing well.
assessments need to accommodate these changes. In Resilience researchers recognize that positive
addition, if the goal is to understand how a system adaptation of a living system can be defined in rela-
responds well (or poorly) to disturbances, one must tion either to external adaptation, internal adapta-
also identify and study the strengths and protective tion, or both. Many developmental tasks are exter-
processes that make a difference for the system when nal markers of adaptation, related to getting along in
it is threatened. Thus, the components of resilience the world. However, emotional well-being, happi-
include a focus on the positive outcomes of interest, ness, life satisfaction, and physical health also can be
the risk factors or threats to those outcomes, and assessed as criteria of internal adaptation in an indi- In r esear ch on
potential strengths and protective factors that facili- vidual. Some researchers include internal criteria in
tate resilience in the context of these risks or threats. their definitions of resilience, whereas others focus resilience in
exclusively on external successes. However, most
Understanding Competence investigators are interested in the interplay of inter- development, the
and Developmental Tasks nal well-being and external successes. Clearly, inter-
Research on resilience in children has focused on nal adaptation has the potential to interfere with scho ol c on text has
competence in age-salient developmental tasks as a way external adaptation and, conversely, perceived exter-
of defining and measuring how well a child’s life is nal success or failure could affect a person’s well- been implic ated in
going (Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Masten, being. There is growing attention to these bidirec-
Cutuli, Herbers, & Gabrielle-Reed, in press). In a tional processes linking competence in external diverse ways as a
given context, families and communities hold expec- developmental tasks to subjective well-being or
tations for individual adaptation to the environment health. The dynamic relations between internal and pr omotive and
in domains expected to prepare the person for suc- external adaptation are a fundamental concern of
cess in life. These expectations change over the developmental systems theory. pr otec tive
course of development as individuals mature and Negative criteria also have been used in studies of
move into new developmental contexts. Thus, very resilience, by defining positive adaptation in terms of envir onment for
young children are expected to learn to walk and “no evidence of disorder” or “absence of problems.”
talk, listen to their parents, and comply with parental However, there is growing recognition that positive childr en and
rules, whereas older children are expected to go to adjustment or development encompasses more than
school, listen to teachers, behave appropriately in an absence of problems and, concomitantly, that adolesc ents.
the classroom, get along with other children, learn effective interventions often focus on promoting
to use the language and mathematical symbols of competence and strengths in addition to, or instead
their culture effectively, and so forth. As children of, focusing on the prevention or treatment of prob-
grow up, these expectations expand to include lems (Masten, 2001).
developmental tasks in other areas, including the Research on topics such as “desistance” from
domains of work, romantic relationships, family for- delinquency in high-risk youth or recovery from
mation, and rearing children. trauma can be included under the broad umbrella of
During any given period of development, individ- resilience research. A change toward good function-
uals are expected to engage successfully in multiple ing is implied by desistance or recovery in these
domains of functioning. Thus, for example, children studies, changes that could be reframed in terms of
in elementary school are expected to do well in function in key developmental task domains. In the
learning academic skills, forming and maintaining case of desistance from delinquency, young people
relationships with peers, and adhering to the stan- become more rule-abiding. In the case of recovery
dards of conduct for the classroom. Therefore, a from trauma, studies may focus more broadly on a
child with major problems in any of these domains is return to competent behavior in multiple contexts,
not likely to be viewed as developing well. This mul- such as family, school, work, and peer groups or
tiplicity of expectations means that the adaptation of other relationships.

12:2 DECEMBER 2008 | ASCA 77

Developmental Cascades and the Timing ardous conditions and risk factors rarely arise in iso-
of Interventions lation, and they began to measure cumulative risk or
Resilience research has brought attention not only aggregated life events (Masten, Best, & Garmezy,
to the importance of competence in developmental 1990; Obradovic´, Shaffer, & Masten, in press). As
tasks but also to connections over time among the the level of risk exposure accumulated, children
multiple domains of functioning. The links among often had worse outcomes, reflecting a risk gradient.
dimensions of effective function in development task Even at high cumulative levels of risk or adversity,
domains, such as academic achievement or peer however, some children were observed to be doing
competence, and traditional symptom domains, well (better than one would expect from the level of
such as internalizing or externalizing symptoms, risk), which indicated that other influences must be
hold particular interest (Masten, Burt, & Coats- important to consider. The search for explanations
worth, 2006). How an individual functions in one of such “off-gradient” patterns of adaptation led in-
domain often has implications for other domains. vestigators to the study of promotive and protective
The idea of such spillover effects is not new. School factors. These factors reflect the functional strengths
counselors and developmental scientists long have of processes operating in people, relationships, and
observed that some kinds of problems seem to environments that make resilience possible.
“snowball” or spread over time. Similarly, develop-
Developmental mental theorists have posited that competence The Short List and Fundamental Protective
begets competence, in the sense that success in Systems for Human Development
theorists have newly emerging developmental tasks builds on suc- Striking consistency was observed in findings on
cesses in previous tasks. However, recent research is promotive and protective factors in the research on
posited that corroborating such developmental cascade effects resilience. This convergence was surprising given the
with much more informative longitudinal research diversity of the people, adversities, methods, and
competenc e begets designs and analytic approaches (Burt, Obradovic´, cultures studied in the first generation of work on
Long, & Masten, 2008; Masten et al., 2005). resilience. Masten (2001) described convergent
competenc e, in the Developmental cascade research is important for findings on promotive or protective factors as “the
stakeholders concerned with prevention and strate- short list” of clues to what matters most for
sense that success gic intervention. If antisocial behavior or attention- resilience in children, asserting that this list impli-
regulation problems begin very early and these cates a set of fundamental adaptive systems that keep
in newly emer ging problems rapidly undermine academic progress and human development on course. If these systems are
peer relations from the outset of school entry, then developing and operating normally, they afford chil-
developmental it is important to intervene before the nature of the dren considerable ongoing capacity for resilience.
problems has spread. Furthermore, the most cost- Masten argued that resilience typically results from
tasks builds on effective approaches seem to prevent multiple prob- the function of these basic protective systems, which
lems before they occur. The high “return on invest- have deep roots in biological and cultural evolution.
successes in ment” in early child development documented by Thus, resilience typically arises from what Masten
Heckman (2006) may be due in part to timely inter- termed “ordinary magic” rather than special or
pr evious tasks. ventions with cascading effects. High returns on unique advantages. The greatest danger to children
early investments may reflect the cumulative impact occurs when these protective systems themselves are
of promoting positive cascades and averting the damaged, destroyed, or undermined.
spreading influence of early arising problems in A short list of strengths in the child, family, rela-
high-risk children. tionships, and larger environment widely implicated
in the resilience literature is presented in Table 1,
Risk, Cumulative Risk, Adversity, and Trauma along with the implicated human adaptive systems.
Resilience is concerned with positive adaptation in a Counselors and educators have long recognized the
context of significant threats to the person (or any importance of strengths on this list, such as prob-
other system under consideration). The concept of lem-solving skills, self-control skills, and relation-
risk or risk factor refers to any measurable predictor ships with competent and caring adults.
of an undesirable outcome. In research on young
people over the past four decades, a wide variety of How Schools and School Counselors Matter
events and experiences have been studied as risks to Effective schools and positive school experiences
child development, including effects of war, natural have been implicated for decades as strengths or
disasters, terrorism, family violence, divorce, mal- protective influences in studies of resilience (Condly,
treatment, other traumatic life events such as fires, 2006; Luthar, 2006; Masten et al., 1990; Rutter &
and chronic conditions such as poverty or living in Maughan, 2002; Wang & Gordon, 1994). Research
an understaffed orphanage. Investigators realized on school-level effectiveness has parallels in studies
early in the study of various adversities that haz- of effective families. In either setting, positive devel-

78 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

Table 1. The “Short List” of Commonly Observed Predictors of Resilience in Young People
Promotive/Protective Factors Implicated Adaptive Systemsa

Positive relationships with caring adults Attachment

Effective parenting Family
Intelligence, problem-solving skills Learning and thinking systems
Perceived efficacy, control Mastery motivation
Achievement motivation, persistence Mastery motivation
Self-regulation skills Executive function systems
Effective stress management Stress response systems
Positive friends, romantic partners Peer and family systems, attachment
Faith, hope, spirituality Religion, cultural systems
Beliefs that life has meaning Religion, cultural systems
Effective teachers, schools Education systems
a Many of these fundamental adaptive systems probably play a role in the development of most correlates of
resilience. However, the adaptive systems listed for a particular predictor are implicated in a major way for
that factor.

opment has been linked to the combination of warm uals and the resilience of the school system itself.
relationships, a supportive climate, high expecta- Schools afford numerous opportunities for healthy
tions, and an orderly structure with consistent rules relationships with positive adults and peers and also
and discipline (Masten & Motti-Stefanidi, in press). may actively implement programs to establish men-
But schools also actively afford many positive oppor- toring relationships. Schools may provide basic food
tunities for children, engage many of the fundamen- and health care for low-income students, nurturing
tal protective systems listed in Table 1, and are healthy brain development and physical growth
charged by society with the task of nurturing human along with skills development. Effective schools and
capital and shaping many of the adaptive systems teachers provide children on a daily basis with mas-
implicated for resilience. Thus schools and the adults tery experiences, opportunities to experience success
who implement the educational mission have multi- and enjoy achievement that also serve to foster
faceted roles, both in nurturing competence in age- intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and persistence in
salient developmental tasks and in shaping funda- the face of failure. Pianta (2006) has delineated a
mental adaptive systems. dynamic and integrative portrait of the school as a
Teachers, school counselors, and other staff func- context for child development. Similarly, Eccles and
tion directly as promotive and protective factors in Roeser (1999) described the ways that regulatory
the lives of high-risk children while also nurturing processes characterizing the social and instructional
the learning skills, knowledge, self-regulation skills, nature of schools shape child development over the
and self-protective skills that children need to adapt course of the school years. SBSC integrates these
on their own. School counselors may contribute to perspectives in the role of the school counselor.
child resilience in multiple ways at multiple levels,
including efforts to broker services for an individual A FRAMEWORK FOR PROMOTING
student or the student body of a whole school, COMPETENCE AND RESILIENCE
actions to promote positive relationships of school
staff with all students, and advocacy or intervention Frameworks for the promotion and protection of
aimed at promoting student strengths. Galassi and positive development have been delineated in refer-
Akos (2007) have described the school counselor in ence to normative (e.g., Lerner & Dowling, 2002)
SBSC as an applied developmental specialist who and extenuating circumstances (Masten, 2006;
promotes positive academic development and school Masten & Obradovic´, 2007; Masten & Powell,
success in multiple ways. 2003; Yates & Masten, 2004). These frameworks
School effectiveness also can be considered at are highly congruent with the guiding principles of
multiple levels, focusing on the resilience of individ- SBSC (Galassi & Akos, 2007). Masten and col-

12:2 DECEMBER 2008 | ASCA 79

leagues have described the following components in and crisis management in order to transform the role
a resilience framework for intervention: mission, and effectiveness of school counselors.
models, measures, methods, and various multifac- Over the years, a number of resilience-oriented
eted combinations of these. models of child adaptation and development have
been delineated that include positive components
Mission: Framing Positive Objectives and processes while still including negative compo-
Positive goals are fundamental to resilience-based nents or processes (Garmezy, Masten, & Tellegen,
frameworks, as well as to the ASCA National 1984; Luthar, Cicchetti, & Becker, 2000; Masten,
Model® (American School Counselor Association, 1989, 2001; Masten et al., in press). These models
2005) and SBSC. Whether the mission concerns include assets or strengths as well as deficits, promo-
development in the normal course of child develop- tive and protective processes as well as risk and vul-
ment, or in situations where the lives of children are nerability processes, and competence outcomes as
threatened by adversity, or in cases where children well as problem outcomes. These models accommo-
already have manifested problems, objectives are date people and pathways characterized by better
defined in reference to important domains of posi- than expected outcomes. Thus, there have been
tive function and developmental progress in these models illustrating general risk gradients (with prob-
domains. Schools have a particular mission to nur- lems rising as a function of cumulative risk) that also
Schools affor d ture the academic and social skills and motivations allow for “off the gradient” children who succeed in
that young people need to become productive mem- the context of high risk for problems (Masten &
numerous bers of their societies. The mission of school systems, Obradovic´, 2006). Similarly, models permit path-
or districts, or even the mission of national education ways of development to turn in more positive direc-
oppor tunities for systems, can be framed in terms of positive goals and tions, either in relation to developmental transitions
outcomes. Focusing on positive objectives does not (such as the transition to adulthood; see Masten,
healthy mean that problems are ignored, but rather that Obradovic´, & Burt, 2006) or in the aftermath of dis-
progress and success are assessed and judged in rela- aster (Masten & Obradovic´, 2007).
relationships with tion to positive objectives and outcomes. Models are important methodologically as well as
Positive objectives not only reflect the values and conceptually. Resilience models brought greater
positive adults and ultimate goals of most stakeholders, but also carry a attention to the assessment of positive influences and
much more appealing message to parents, school outcomes, as well as to theories of positive change for
peers and also may staff, communities, and children themselves. Most designing interventions. Similarly, SBSC calls atten-
young people and parents prefer to be part of pro- tion to the importance of assessing strengths and
ac tively implement grams and efforts aiming toward positive goals such positive changes in students and schools.
as reading fluency, graduating from high school, or
programs to achieving college degrees and good jobs, rather than Measures: Assessing Competence
programs aiming to reduce delinquency, school and Positive Progress
establish dropout, teenage pregnancy, underage drinking, or Positive objectives require a means of assessing pos-
welfare dependency. In the course of recent interna- itive progress. Schools have a long tradition of eval-
mentoring tional efforts to change the framework for child wel- uating academic progress. Nonetheless, school
fare systems worldwide to focus on positive develop- counselors and psychologists often have been called
relationships. ment and strengths, stakeholders have noted the upon to assess problems, disabilities, disorders, and
transformative effect of positive goals and strategies risk factors, to the exclusion of strengths, resources,
on morale and motivation at both the individual and and promotive or protective factors associated with
system levels (Flynn, Dudding, & Barber, 2006). learning, development, or positive recovery. Resil-
Similarly, Galassi and Akos (2007) have made a ience researchers played an instrumental role in
strong case for transforming the goals and focus of expanding assessments to include strengths as well as
school counseling in a positive direction. problems and protective factors in addition to vul-
nerabilities. For example, assessments for a student
Models: Promotive and Protective Influences beyond progress in academic skills might include
Positive goals require causal and action models that progress in prosocial classroom behavior, peer
include positive processes and components as well as friendships, relationships with teachers or mentors,
risks, threats, deficiencies, or symptoms. Prevention access to extracurricular enrichment activities,
and remediation models that exclude positive school engagement, leadership, and motivation to
processes, contributors, and outcomes run the risk learn. SBSC emphasizes the evaluation of strengths,
of omitting some of the best evidence and strategies progress, and positive outcomes at the student and
for positive development and change. In the SBSC school levels.
framework, Galassi and Akos (2007) call for school
counselors to move beyond deficit-based models

80 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

Methods: Reducing Risk, Adding Assets, who may lack basic or balanced nourishment. Other
Mobilizing Powerful Adaptive Systems examples of risk-focused strategies include efforts to
Resilience research also suggests many effective reduce the impact of residential mobility on stability
strategies for practices to promote competence of of schooling, teachers, peers, and curricula, or pro-
individuals in developmentally strategic ways and at grams to reduce bullying or discrimination in school
multiple levels. Strategies can be developed on the through evidence-based interventions.
basis of evidence and well-grounded theories of how Addressing clear risk factors for the development
competence develops, how cascades or protective of competence is important. Another key strategy is
factors work, which risk factors are most threatening focused on building resources or assets associated
to whom, and the best ways to prevent problems or with positive development. For many at-risk stu-
ameliorate potential harm. Basic strategies from the dents, schools represent a relatively asset-rich environ-
resilience research on individual adaptation include ment (compared to their homes or neighborhoods),
building assets, reducing risks, and mobilizing pow- not just for children but also for their families.
erful adaptive systems, in addition to fostering Examples of asset-focused strategies with the poten-
healthy human development in the broadest sense. tial to promote competence include providing health
The best “inoculation” for threats to general risks clinics, after-school programs, tutoring and home-
posed by life is healthy development itself. Healthy, work services, multimedia libraries, swimming pools,
competent individuals are highly adaptive in the face community recreation activities, and opportunities
Effor ts to pr omote
of ordinary adversities because they are armed with to development talents in art, music, math, or chess.
many self-righting and self-correcting systems. A third and powerful strategy for schools involves
positive
These include powerful protective relationships efforts to mobilize the most fundamental and pow-
(with parents and later friends, romantic partners, erful adaptive systems for changing human develop-
development or
and spiritual figures), good information-processing ment. Schools have the potential to engage power-
systems, and protections afforded by many cultural ful engines of change when they mobilize major
resilience migh t
traditions and practices. The short list implicates a adaptive systems for children (and families) who do
powerful set of human adaptive systems that typical- not have strong protections in their lives. Programs
require
ly protect human function and development. Just as designed to change the quality of parenting, add a
a healthy immune system is the best general protec- long-term mentor to the life of a child, or change
multifaceted
tion for a wide variety of possible infections, children the motivation for learning or continuing in school
are generally best positioned to become well-adjust- all reflect this kind of strategy. These strategies tend
str ategies, with
ed adults if they possess normal problem-solving to have multiplicative effects because they come with
skills, attachment relationships, self-efficacy, motiva- powerful motivational reward systems and self-
effor ts to build
tion to meet challenges, self-regulation capacity, and renewal capacity. Designing a program to duplicate
beliefs that life has meaning. These adaptive systems everything an effective parent or mentor might do
cumulative
help individuals handle the usual bumps and detours to promote positive development is vastly more dif-
of life along the way. ficult than ensuring that a child has a strong bond
pr otec tions with
Schools play an important role in nurturing and with a competent, attached adult who is motivated
protecting the development of these fundamental to use the human and social capacity at his or her
str ategic,
adaptive systems (Masten & Motti-Stefanidi, in disposal to foster and protect a child’s development.
press). But schools also are in a unique position to There are analogous strategies at the school level.
sequential timing.
identify and address risks or moderate their harm to It has been widely noted that effective schools often
children and development. Some threats to develop- have positive leadership, a good climate, motivated
ment arise very early, perhaps strongly influenced by staff, and so forth (Masten & Motti-Stefanidi, in
genetic vulnerabilities or intrauterine environments. press; Pianta, 2006; Wang & Gordon, 1994).
Others arise from experiences after birth, some ear- Actions by school counselors to change the nature
lier and some later, some traumatic and acute, and of staff relationships, leadership, mentoring or moti-
others persistent. vation, and the climate of the school can be viewed
There are a number of risk-focused strategies by as methods for engaging powerful systems for posi-
which school systems can act to promote better tive school function and development.
chances for high-risk children. One such strategy is School counselors cannot expect themselves to be
to identify and address important early risk factors the central protective mentor in the lives of all the
for school success. Early screening for school readi- young people who may need such a relationship.
ness can lead to preschool enrichment or treatment However, they can work to promote programs that
programs to address the threats of early deprivation, build such relationships for many children, and also
neurodevelopmental delays, or language needs. strive to promote a school climate ripe for mentor-
Schools also can serve healthy food to counter mal- ing relationships to emerge. In SBSC, a counselor’s
nutrition issues of low-income or neglected children efforts to develop leadership skills and other talents

12:2 DECEMBER 2008 | ASCA 81

in students or staff can be designed to harness the resilience that might suggest methods to engage
energy of the mastery motivation system, aiming for these processes for positive change. The next step
multiplicative effects. Individual students or teachers was testing whether interventions designed to focus
are more likely to strive for attainment and persist in on these potential protective processes would work
the face of setbacks when they have a sturdy sense of to promote resilience. Informative findings have
their own effectiveness and motivation to succeed in been accumulating for more than four decades from
their work in the school context. Such efforts can be these waves of resilience research. Now, a new wave
guided by a rapidly expanding evidence base on the of research on resilience is emerging as a result of
development of competence, protective systems, recent advances in genomics, biology, animal mod-
effective schools, resilient organizations, and per- els, neuroscience, statistics, and the modeling of
haps most importantly, what works to develop and development in complex systems (Masten, 2006).
engage powerful systems of human adaptation and Investigators are exploring new possibilities for
learning. creating, changing, or reshaping fundamental adap-
tive systems for resilience. Highly targeted interven-
Multifaceted Approaches tions are being designed on the basis of rapidly
Development and resilience involve multiple com- expanding knowledge about how experience shapes
ponents and processes at multiple levels. Threats to the expression of genes that in turn shape develop-
Understanding positive adaptation also tend to be cumulative or ment, how the brain develops and responds to expe-
complex. Thus, it comes as no surprise that efforts rience, how to induce brain plasticity, and a number
casc ade effec ts in to promote positive development or resilience might of other provocative strategies not envisioned a gen-
require multifaceted strategies, with efforts to build eration ago (Lester, Masten, & McEwen, 2006).
development— cumulative protections with strategic, sequential Following new insights into the development of
timing (Masten et al., 2006, in press). Early exam- executive function abilities and their central impor-
when and how one ples of programs with combined strategies include tance for school success has led to innovative strate-
Head Start (Zigler & Styfco, 2001), the Abece- gies to boost these skills among high-risk children
str ength (or darian Project (Campbell, Ramey, Pungello, (e.g., Diamond, Barnett, Thomas, & Munro, 2007).
Sparling, & Miller-Johnson, 2002), the High/ Older interventions with known effectiveness in
problem) leads to Scope Perry Preschool program (Schweinhart et al., schools, such as the PATHS curriculum, are being
2005), and the Chicago Child-Parent Centers reconceptualized in light of advances in neurosci-
another—holds (Reynolds et al., 2007). Additional examples of ence, with the promise of further refining these evi-
multi-component programs are FAST Track (Con- dence-based model practices (e.g., Greenberg, 2006).
consider able duct Problems Prevention Research Group, 2002), There is also growing interest in theory and meth-
the Seattle Social Development Project (Hawkins, ods that unite resilience studies from very diverse
promise for Guo, Hill, Battin-Pearson, & Abbott, 2001), the fields (e.g., ecology, urban planning, organizational
PATHS curriculum (Greenberg, 2006), and Early psychology, public health) to understand, prepare
researchers, Risers (August, Realmuto, Hektner, & Bloomquist, for, and respond more effectively to disruptions of
2001). Much as these programs attempted to pro- interdependent systems, such as those involved in
prac titioners, and mote positive development through multiple strate- major disasters and trauma (Masten & Obradovic´,
gies, SBSC (Galassi & Akos, 2007) recognizes the 2006). School systems play a central role in these
polic y makers alike. potential power of multifaceted school counseling. scenarios, given their mission and the amount of
At the same time, there is growing interest in effi- time children spend in schools. In the aftermath of
ciency and cost-effectiveness. Research is underway disaster, for example, people in a community often
to identify the most cost-effective combinations of look to the reopening of school as an important
multi-component interventions and programming. symbol of recovery and normalization. Moreover,
Budget-minded policy makers and educational teachers and all other school personnel must be
administrators want to know the best ways to invest viewed as “first responders” because of the high
limited dollars for achieving academic goals, address- probability a disaster will occur during school hours.
ing educational disparities, and avoiding academic Understanding cascade effects in development—
dropout and other problems. when and how one strength (or problem) leads to
another—holds considerable promise for
NEW FRONTIERS OF RESILIENCE researchers, practitioners, and policy makers alike.
RESEARCH AND PRACTICE These stakeholders share the goal of doing the right
thing at the right time to promote good outcomes
Initial research on resilience was focused on identi- in cost-effective ways. Growing evidence from stud-
fying what seemed to make a difference (e.g., the ies of resilience suggests that there are important
short list of protective factors). Subsequent studies windows of opportunity and vulnerability, when
were designed to figure out the processes underlying development is more likely to change direction and

82 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING

timing bodes well for positive cascade effects. The Blair, C. (2002). School readiness: Integrating cognition and
preschool years appear to be a window of opportu- emotion in a neurobiological conceptualization of
children’s functioning at school entry. American
nity for addressing antisocial behavior, promoting
Psychologist, 57, 111–127.
language development, and shaping executive func- Bronfenbrenner, U. (1979). The ecology of human development:
tion skills, all of which set the stage for positive tran- Experiments by nature and design. Cambridge, MA:
sitions into school (Blair, 2002). Similarly, efforts to Harvard University Press.
reduce problem behaviors, such as underage drink- Burt, K. B., Obradovic´, J., Long, J. D., & Masten, A. S. (2008). The
interplay of social competence and psychopathology
ing, may need to begin in childhood (e.g., address-
over 20 years: Testing transactional and cascade models.
ing antisocial behavior before cascade effects perpet- Child Development, 79, 359–374.
uate), with special attention to a window of escalat- Campbell, F A., Ramey, C. T., Pungello, E., Sparling, J., & Miller-
ing risk and vulnerability in the transition to adoles- Johnson, M. (2002). Early childhood education: Young
cence (Masten, Faden, Zucker, & Spear, 2008; Zuck- adult outcomes from the Abecedarian Project. Applied
Developmental Science, 6, 42–57.
er, Donovan, Masten, Mattson, & Moss, 2008).
Condly, S. J. (2006). Resilience in children: A review of literature
Early action is crucial to avert the potentially dis- with implications for educators. Urban Education, 41,
astrous effects of alcohol use on adolescent brain 211–236.
development and to reduce the odds of accidental Conduct Problems Prevention Research Group. (2002).
injuries and deaths. The best and most cost-effective Predictor variables associated with positive Fast Track
outcomes at the end of third grade. Journal of Abnormal
efforts to prevent problems may be sequential strate-
Child Psychology, 30, 37–52.
gies to promote positive cascades through building Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007).
strengths and bolstering adaptive systems, such as Preschool program improves cognitive control. Science,
through supporting effective parenting; shaping or 318, 1387–1388.
reshaping attention and executive function skills; Doll, B., Zucker, S., & Brehm, K. (2006). Resilient classroom:
Creating health environments for learning. New York:
boosting literacy and numeracy skills in the begin-
Guilford.
ning school years; keeping children engaged with Eccles, J. S., & Roeser, R. W. (1999). School and community
teachers, schools, and positive peers; offering oppor- influences on human development. In M. H. Bornstein &
tunities for prosocial mastery experiences; and M. E. Lamb (Eds.), Developmental psychology: An advanced
enhancing prosocial leadership skills. These efforts textbook (4th ed., pp. 503–554). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates.
would seem to require school counselors to collabo-
Flynn, R. J., Dudding, P. M., & Barber, J. G. (Eds.). (2006).
rate across school levels in K–12 district planning Promoting resilience in development: A general framework
and programming. for systems of care. Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: University of
SBSC is highly congruent with the findings and Ottawa Press.
frameworks arising from research on resilience in Galassi, J. P., & Akos, P. (2007). Strengths-Based School
Counseling: Promoting student development and
development. Resilience science offers a strong and
achievement. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
rapidly expanding base of knowledge with great rel- Garmezy, N., Masten, A. S., & Tellegen, A. (1984). The study of
evance for implementing the guidelines of the SBSC stress and competence in children: A building block for
framework delineated by Galassi and Akos (2007). developmental psychopathology. Child Development, 55,
Concomitantly, resilience research will be refined by 97–111.
Greenberg, M. T. (2006). Promoting resilience in children and
the questions, hypotheses, wisdom, and conclusions
youth: Preventive interventions and their interface with
arising from strengths-focused practice in schools neuroscience. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences,
and evaluations of its manifested effectiveness in 1094, 139–150.
promoting positive adaptation and development. Hawkins, J. D., Guo, J., Hill, K. G., Battin-Pearson, S., & Abbott, R.
Integrating SBSC with resilience-based frameworks D. (2001). Long-term effects of the Seattle social
development intervention on school bonding
and findings on positive development in school-
trajectories. Applied Developmental Science, 5, 225–236.
children has the potential to accelerate growth in the Heckman, J. J. (2006). Skill formation and the economics of
knowledge base and the quality of evidence-based investing in disadvantaged children. Science, 312,
practices to the benefit of all who hold a stake in the 1900–1902.
competence and resilience of young people. ❚ Lerner, R. M., & Dowling, E. M. (2002). Positive youth
development: Thriving as the basis of personhood and
civil society. New Directions for Youth Development, 95,
References 11–33.
American School Counselor Association. (2005). The ASCA Lester, B. M., Masten, A. S., & McEwen, B. S. (Eds.). (2006).
national model: A framework for school counseling Resilience in children (Annals of the New York Academy of
programs (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: Author. Sciences, Vol. 1094). New York: Academy of Sciences.
August, G. J., Realmuto, J. M., Hektner, J. M., & Bloomquist, M. L. Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of
(2001). An integrated components preventive research across five decades. In D. Cicchetti & D. J. Cohen
intervention for aggressive elementary school children: (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol. 3: Risk,
The Early Risers program. Journal of Consulting and disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed.). New York: Wiley.
Clinical Psychology, 69, 614–626.

12:2 DECEMBER 2008 | ASCA 83

Luthar, S., Cicchetti, D., & Becker, B. (2000). The construct of Masten, A. S., Obradovic´, J., & Burt, K. (2006). Resilience in
resilience: A critical evaluation and guidelines for future emerging adulthood: Developmental perspectives on
work. Child Development, 71, 543–562. continuity and transformation. In J. J. Arnett & J. L. Tanner
Masten, A. S. (1989). Resilience in development: Implications of (Eds.), Emerging adults in America: Coming of age in the
the study of successful adaptation for developmental 21st century (pp. 173–190). Washington, DC: American
psychopathology. In D. Cicchetti (Ed.), The emergence of a Psychological Association Press.
discipline: Rochester Symposium on Developmental Masten, A. S., & Powell, J. L. (2003). A resilience framework for
Psychopathology (Vol. 1, pp. 261–294). Hillsdale, NJ: research, policy, and practice. In S. Luthar (Ed.), Resilience
Lawrence Erlbaum. and vulnerability: Adaptation in the context of childhood
Masten, A. S. (2001). Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in adversities (pp. 1–25). New York: Cambridge University
development. American Psychologist, 56, 227–238. Press.
Masten, A. S. (2003). Commentary: Developmental Masten, A. S., Roisman, G. I., Long, J. D., Burt, K. B., Obradovic´, J.,
psychopathology as a unifying context for mental health Riley, J. R., et al. (2005). Developmental cascades: Linking
and education models, research, and practice in schools. academic achievement, externalizing and internalizing
School Psychology Review, 32, 170–174. symptoms over 20 years. Developmental Psychology, 41,
Masten, A. S. (2006). Promoting resilience in development: A 733–746.
general framework for systems of care. In R. J. Flynn, P. Obradovic´, J., Shaffer, A., & Masten, A. S. (in press). Risk in
Dudding, & J. G. Barber (Eds.), Promoting resilience in child developmental psychopathology: Progress and future
welfare (pp. 3–17). Ottawa, Ontario, Canada: University of directions. In L. C. Mayes & M. Lewis (Eds.), The
Ottawa Press. environment of human development: A handbook of
Masten, A. S. (2007). Resilience in developing systems: Progress theory and measurement. New York: Cambridge
and promise as the 4th wave rises. Development and University Press.
Psychopathology, 19, 921–930. Pianta, R. C. (2006). Schools, schooling, and developmental
Masten, A. S., Best, K. M., & Garmezy, N. (1990). Resilience and psychopathology. In D. Ciccheti & D. J. Cohen (Eds.),
development: Contributions from the study of children Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 1. Theory and
who overcome adversity. Development and method (2nd ed., pp. 494–529). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
Psychopathology, 2, 425–444. Reynolds, A. J., Temple, J. A., Ou, S.-R., Robertson, D. L., Mersky, J.
Masten, A. S., Burt, K. B., & Coatsworth, J. D. (2006). Competence P., Topitzes, J. W., et al. (2007). Effects of a school-based,
and psychopathology in development. In D. Cicchetti & early childhood intervention on adult health and well-
D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology, Vol. 3: being. Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine, 161,
Risk, disorder, and psychopathology (2nd ed., pp. 730–739.
696–738). New York: Wiley. Rutter, M., & Maughan, B. (2002). School effectiveness findings,
Masten, A. S., & Coatsworth, J. D. (1998). The development of 1979–2002. Journal of School Psychology, 40, 451–475.
competence in favorable and unfavorable environments: Schweinhart, L. J., Montie, J., Xiang, Z., Barnett, W. S., Belfield, C.
Lessons from research on successful children. American R., & Nores, M. (2005). Lifetime effects: The High/Scope Perry
Psychologist, 53, 205–220. Preschool study through age 40. (Monographs of the
Masten, A. S., Cutuli, J. J., Herbers, J. E., & Gabrielle-Reed, M. J. (in High/Scope Educational Research Foundation, 14).
press). Resilience in development. In C. R. Snyder & S. J. Ypsilanti, MI: High/Scope Press.
Lopez (Eds.), The handbook of positive psychology (2nd Wang, M. C., & Gordon, E. W. (1994). Educational resilience in
ed.). New York: Oxford University Press. inner-city America: Challenges and prospects. Hillsdale, NJ:
Masten, A. S., Faden, V. B., Zucker, R. A., & Spear, L. P. (2008). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Underage drinking: A developmental framework. Yates, T. M., & Masten, A. S. (2004). Fostering the future:
Pediatrics, 121(Suppl. 4), S235–S251. Resilience theory and the practice of positive
Masten, A. S., & Motti-Stefanidi, F. (in press). Understanding and psychology. In P. A. Linley & S. Joseph (Eds.), Positive
promoting resilience in children: Promotive and psychology in practice (pp. 521–539). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
protective processes in schools. In T. Gutkin & C. Reynolds Zigler, E., & Styfco, S. J. (2001). Extended childhood intervention
(Eds.), Handbook of school psychology. prepares children for school and beyond. Journal of the
Masten, A. S., & Obradovic´, J., (2006). Competence and American Medical Association, 285, 1378–2380.
resilience in development. Annals of the New York Zucker, R. A., Donovan, J. E., Masten, A. S., Mattson, M. E., & Moss,
Academy of Sciences, 1094, 13–27. H. B. (2008). Early developmental processes and the
Masten, A. S., & Obradovic´, J. (2007). Disaster preparation and continuity of risk for underage drinking and problem
recovery: Lessons from research on resilience in human drinking. Pediatrics, 121(Suppl. 4), S252–272.
development. Ecology and Society, 13(1), 9.

84 ASCA | PROFESSIONAL SCHOOL COUNSELING