Alexander von Humboldt (1769–1859)
Background and Education
Born into the Prussian aristocracy in 1769; his father died when he was 10.
Educated under private tutors at Tegel and near Berlin.
Studied at the University of Frankfurt for six months and then shifted to factory management in
Berlin. Soon left to pursue physics, philosophy, and archaeology at the University of Göttingen.
A transformative influence came from George Forster, with whom he travelled through the Rhine,
Netherlands, and England in 1789. This trip initiated his interest in nature and geography.
Also studied at the Freiberg Academy of Mines under A.G. Werner, where he combined geology
and botany and began researching underground plant life.
Early Contributions and Scientific Training
Published Florae Fribergensis, showing the relationship between underground plant life and the
environment.
Proposed the concept of plant geography, defining it as the study of connections and relations
among plants and their spatial distribution.
Defined geography as more than description—it was the study of organisms in relation to their
environment, setting it apart from zoology, botany, or geology, which only dealt with individual
forms.
Scientific Philosophy and Viewpoints
Embraced the empirical method inspired by Enlightenment rationalism, Lavoisier’s exact science,
and Comtean positivism.
Sought to reconcile empirical science (sense experience and experiment) with philosophical
idealism, particularly the idea of nature as an organic whole (inspired by Goethe, Schiller, Leibniz).
Opposed the materialistic-mechanistic worldview of science. Instead, emphasized unity and
harmony in nature, rejecting the separation of natural science from history and philosophy.
He supported empirical-experimental research but refused to abandon the organic view of nature
—for him, nature wasn’t a machine, but a living, interdependent organism.
Strongly opposed the fragmentation of sciences into disconnected parts. Advocated a unified view of
knowledge that saw geography as the key integrating discipline.
Coined the term Zusammenhang (interconnectedness) to describe the essential unity of all
phenomena on Earth.
Concept of Universal Science
In the mid-1790s, formulated the idea of "Physique du Monde" (Universal Science), aiming to
bring together all physical, biological, and human phenomena under a single conceptual framework.
Wrote to Pictet: “to reduce experiments to general laws, to establish harmony among the
phenomena.”
His idea was not just to collect facts but to show their causal interconnections and unifying
principles.
South American Expedition (1799–1804)
Traveled with Aimé Bonpland to South America, Cuba, and Mexico.
Mapped 1,725 miles of the Orinoco River, proving a natural link between Orinoco and Amazon
rivers.
Climbed Mount Chimborazo (20,561 ft), reaching 19,286 ft, and conducted studies on altitude's
effect on physiology.
Made key observations on deforestation, vegetation zones, soil composition, and temperature
gradients.
Disproved Werner's theory of sedimentary origins of all rocks, arguing for volcanic origins of
granite and gneiss.
Identified the Humboldt Current, a cold ocean current that influences climate along the Peruvian
coast.
Investigated guano as fertilizer and began the study of ocean currents and upwelling phenomena.
Scientific Publications
Published Voyage aux Régions Équinoxiales du Nouveau Continent (1805–1834), a 30-volume
report of his travels.
Argued that geography should describe not just physical features but the ensemble of nature—
integrating humans, climates, vegetation, soils, and topography.
Wrote, “My attention will never lose sight of the harmony of concurrent forces, the influence of the
inanimate world on the animal and vegetable kingdom.”
Considered this approach as both a beginning and an end: the end of cosmographic, fictional
geography and the beginning of analytical, methodological geography.
Kosmos (1845–1862)
A 5-volume work (incomplete at death), described as "the work of my life".
Aimed to present all known knowledge about the universe as a whole, including:
o Astronomy and celestial laws
o Physical geography of the earth
o Plant and animal geography
o Human-environment relations
First volume: General view of the universe
Second: Representations of nature by poets and philosophers
Third: Astronomy
Fourth: Earth studies
Fifth: Meant to cover plant, animal, and human geography (left incomplete)
Integrated philosophical reflections, scientific observations, and statistical analyses.
Humanist Vision
Profound concern for social justice: criticized slavery and colonial inequalities.
In Cuba, observed that 83% of people were non-white, and 50% were enslaved. Warned of inevitable
revolt if reform was not implemented.
His brother, involved in constitutional reform in Prussia, had to resign due to Alexander's outspoken
writings.
Saw geography as a tool for societal transformation, an idea echoed much later by geographers
like Zelinsky (1975).
Contribution to Geographic Thought
Father of modern geography—especially systematic physical geography.
Pioneered the study of interrelationships among phenomena: plants, climate, altitude, soils, and
human activity.
Advocated the study of the earth as a whole and in parts, with no contradiction between systematic
and regional approaches.
Stressed comparative analysis and generalization from facts to formulate natural laws.
For Humboldt, geography wasn’t merely a subject of isolated facts; it was a synthetic, holistic
discipline.
Method and Legacy
Employed both inductive and deductive reasoning.
Saw geography as the science of areally distributed interconnections.
Emphasized the principle of causality and principle of general geography:
o Causality: explain spatial relationships among phenomena.
o General Geography: understand global distribution and patterns of natural features.
Though he left no school or direct disciples, his ideas were rediscovered and appreciated by later
generations.
Seen as a bridge between Enlightenment empiricism and Romantic idealism.
Carl Ritter (1779–1859)
Early Life and Education
Born in Quedlinburg, Germany.
Father died when he was 5; raised under financial hardship by his mother.
Selected as a pupil for Christian Salzmann’s experimental school, which emphasized clear
thinking and observation over memorization.
Trained under J.C.E. Guts-Muths, a geographer who deeply shaped Ritter's outlook on man-nature
relations.
Observed landscapes in Thuringia, which inspired his concept of unity in diversity in nature.
Later tutored the sons of wealthy banker Bethmann Hollweg, who financed his higher education.
Academic and Professional Career
Studied at the University of Göttingen (1814–1816), where he pursued geography, history, physics,
chemistry, botany, and mineralogy.
Influenced heavily by Alexander von Humboldt, whom he met in 1807.
Published his first major work in 1817: Erdkunde (The Science of the Earth), intended to be a series
combining geography, history, and natural science.
In 1820, became the first Professor of Geography in Germany at the University of Berlin.
Scientific Viewpoints and Goals
Sought to develop a "new scientific geography", free from mere description and filled with causal
connections.
Defined geography as the study of the Earth as the home of man, emphasizing the interconnection
of natural and human phenomena.
Rejected rote memorization of place names and facts; instead emphasized the study of causes,
relationships, and historical-geographic processes.
Used Zusammenhang, like Humboldt, to refer to the harmonious unity of nature.
Erdkunde (1817–1859)
Published 19 volumes by the time of his death, covering Asia and Africa in detail.
Aimed to integrate all known information about a region—physical, biological, historical, and
cultural—into a coherent geographical narrative.
Described regions as organic wholes, each shaped by natural and human forces.
Though incomplete, Erdkunde set a new standard in regional geography, influencing a generation
of scholars.
Teleological Perspective
Ritter’s concept of unity in nature was theologically grounded.
Believed that the Earth was created by God for man’s benefit, with every part of the surface
serving some divine purpose.
Interpreted continents symbolically:
o Asia: sunrise (origin of civilization)
o Africa: noon (uniformity and stasis)
o Europe: sunset (climax of human development)
o America: new culmination
Though deeply religious, Ritter’s science remained empirical, and he insisted on observation-based
laws, not metaphysical speculation.
Methodology
Relied on data from explorers, not personal fieldwork.
Advocated empirical studies, comparative analysis, and historical context in geography.
Emphasized the importance of regional units and areal synthesis in geographical research.
Called for a comparative worldwide approach to regional studies.
Relationship with Humboldt
Revered Humboldt, acknowledging that without Humboldt’s general studies, his own regional work
would not have been possible.
Despite stylistic differences (empirical regionalist vs. empirical universalist), their philosophies
were complementary.
Both believed in the unity of geography, integrating physical and human aspects.
Legacy
Ritter left behind a school of followers who continued his regional approach and expanded his
work.
His influence spread to the U.S. through Arnold Guyot, who championed geography as interpretive
and comparative.
Though his teleological views waned in importance with the rise of Darwinian evolution, his
methodological rigor and regional vision remained central.
Promoted geography as both general and regional, human and physical, united by causal
relationships and interconnectedness.
