FEDERAL UINVERSITY OF EDUCATION, KANO

DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH
LECTURE NOTES ON ENG 114: Introduction to literature and literary Appreciation
For Free circulation and NOT FOR SALE
By
Dr. Danladi Abdu

What is Literature?
The term “literature” has been defined in markedly different ways. This underscores the fact that there
is no definite or self-embracing definition of it that is universally recognized or accepted by
academicians and students alike. Some view the concept in its narrowest sense as everything in print.
This would, therefore, include all writing whether scientific, cultural or otherwise (Kelani: 2004). This
amplifies the fact that a clear- cut definition of literature may not be easy to arrive at. In his book
Literary Appreciation, Moody (1987) explains that “Literature springs from our inborn love of telling a
story, of arranging words in pleasing patterns, of expressing, in words, some specific aspects of human
experiences”.
Equally, Roger Fowler (1977) sees literature as “imaginative composition, nowadays mainly printed
but earlier in oral, whether dramatic, versed or prose in form.” The definitions mentioned above share
things in common; yet they fail to reveal an important area the concept embodies. Simply put, we can
define literature as an imaginative work of art designed in prosaic, dramatic and verse form, each with
its own features.
General Functions of Literature
Literature, in any of the three genres, deals with human experience and behaviour, past and present,
and in various social, cultural, geographical and political situations. Literature provides the following
functions, among others:
(A) Cultural transmission: literature transmits the cultural norms and values of a particular society.
The transmission of is done using imaginary characters and settings. This becomes an important
avenue because literature does such a function in a comic and an exciting manner. Besides, the
language of literature is memorable and, in a way, keeps one informed of his or her cultural heritage.
Achebe’s Things Fall Apart is a good but typical example of a novel which portrays to the world Igbo
Society such that it is enriched with Igbo proverbial expressions.
Added to this, Aliyu Kamal in Hausa Land, and almost his novels, depicts the Hausa tradition
from northern Nigerian milieu, so to speak. In effect, this underscores the fact that the role of the writer
is, in part, to find an aspiration of his new society and new ways of seeking and understanding in the
light of traditional values as they are confronted with the impact of modern ideas, (Wright, 1973).

(B) Propagation of historical facts: literature accounts for historical facts and provides a
corresponding link with contemporary realities. Historical experiences are part of the living tradition of
any community. Unlike history, literature explains the historical facts imaginatively, and shapes them
into contemporary phenomena in such a way as to expose people on how important their history is.
The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and The River Between by Ngugi Wathion`go depict the real but exact
picture of the Mau Mau war or uprising in African Kenya. The war is associated with the independence
struggle of Kenya from colonial bondage. The novels depict the historical facts about the struggles in
an imaginative manner, using imaginary characters. This, as Ngugi (2007:477), argues, “Literature and
writers cannot be exempted from the battlefield”, meaning writers should be committed in the portrayal
of socio-political problems using their creative endowment.

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Here literature serves as a medium for the propagation of the political life of Kenya in exciting but
appealing tones. His post- independence novel, Petals of Blood, also depicts the betrayal of
independence in African Kenya. The novel reflects the colonial nuances which partly deal with the
history of Kenya. In effect; this reveals the fact that literature provides immediacy towards the
historical explanation by blending it with current happenings.

(c) Satire or the eradication of social ills Literature: social ills are curbed through satire, ridicule
and cartoons. This shows that literary writers can use any of the aforementioned literary devices to pass
useful comments for corrective purposes. Writers are instructors of moral values and they do this using
their creative ingenuity- styles in which the use of satire is inclusive to indict the wrong doings.
Achebe’s A Man of the People is a good example of a novel that exposes the ills of corruption in post
independence Nigeria. In support of this, Ngara (1985:36) says: “One of the first authors to show their
dissatisfactions with black rulers was Achebe.” His novel, Anthills of the Savannah, satirizes the ruling
class and the realties and distortions associated with post -independence. Armah`s The Beautyful Ones
are not Yet Born Satirizes politicians and corrupt people in the society on what they have done with
hard-won independence.

(D) Education: Literature educates people on how to live a successful life in their community, as it
educates them about their moral, social and cultural values. This shows that children learn a lot about
what is desirable for them in the society. Drama is a great but vital tool that educates people. Soyinka’s
The Brother Jero is a good example of a play that educates people to be careful of quack priests who
use their position to lead people astray or cheat them. Similarly, Tahir’s The Last Imam depicts an
Imam that deviates from Islamic practices or route. In this way, literature educates people not only on
the moral paths or aspects but also on world experience for it opens a window for them to learn more
about the cultural norms and values of different tribes from around the world. This is because reading
literary texts is the best alternative option for learning world experiences at ease.

(E)Entertainment: Literature entertains people. Entertainment is indispensable to people’s life. The

human mind is not always in a good emotional state. It is sometimes in a happy or bad mood; therefore,
when one is in a sad mood such a person needs something that can dispel his or her tension. Literature,
through comedy, can entertain by dispelling tension in people. Not only through watching drama does
literature entertain but also through reading for pleasure in which the reader drowns in the world of
experience.
Prose
Prose is one of the genres of Literature. It is plain writing devoid of technical arrangement or
rhythmic pattern. As such, it can be functionally defined as literature written in the normal way that we
speak. In other words, prose literature is written in normal day-to-day manner of speech. In effect,
prose is a narrative composition written in form of novels, short stories or essays. It is different from
poetry and drama. Put it in another way, it does not need economy of words that much, neither is it
compressed so as to, among other things, hide its meaning.
Elements of prose

1. Plot
2. Characters
3. Setting
4. Language

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5. Theme

Plot
This is the sequential arrangement of incidences, events in a novel or a short story. In other
words, it describes the resolution of a story; the interactions of different characters; the conflict or
tension mounted on characters and the setting in which the events of the work take place. It deals or
concerns with the author’s imaginative power to design and order events or incidents according to the
time frame they occur.
Setting
This implies the time, physical place, details of the surrounding environment and circumstances in
which a situation or event occurs. Setting includes the background, atmosphere or environment in
which characters live or interact with. The mere description of the environment guides one to know
whether the setting is rural or urban. The mentioning of thatched huts or an adobe house will tell one
that this is a rural setting.

Language or Diction
This entails the artistic use of language by the author in his or her writing. In effect, all the
sentences must be grammatically constructed and literary devices must be applied or placed at
appropriate contexts. Language use is the most crucial element of novel writing; therefore, linguistic
manipulations and grammatical knowledge are indispensable properties to the author.
Theme
It is a thought or idea the author presents to the reader that may be deeply felt. Theme is sometimes
seen as the driving force of any text ; it is the controlling idea or concept that guides the author on
where the story goes, what characters do, what mood is portrayed and what emotional effects the story
creates in the reader. The author must have a specific message to pass across to the readers. No writer
writes in a vacuum. A theme has to be extracted as the reader explores a story. In other words, an
author must be emotionally inclined by political, economic, social, cultural and religious
disillusionments as the bases for his writing. A writer may write to depict the ills of society in terms of
corruption, nepotism, armed robbery, mismanagement of public fund, etc. The theme is the most
essential element of the novel, for it passes across the message intended by the author.

Characters
These are persons created by the novelist to embody certain ideas or principles for the consumption
of readers. Characters are important because they are the medium or tool through which a reader
interacts with a piece of literature. Characters tell “who acts”. This is because a creative writer uses
characters in forming the plot of a story or creating mood or atmosphere of the entire work. The
characters are assigned roles commensurate to the thematic thrust of the novel.
A novel is usually centred on people in certain situational circumstances. Generally, there are two
types of characters: protagonists and antagonists. Protagonists are vested with sterling qualities ranging
from generosity, transparency, accountability and bravery, and they are determined to move the society
forward. On the other hand, antagonists are the destructive elements in the society; they are always on
the move to destroy any progress earmarked by protagonists
Drama
Drama is an English word which was derived from the Greek “Dramenon”, which means “to do” or
“to act” or “to perform”. This underscores the fact that drama must have a performer (actor), an acting

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area, messages and audience who consume the dramatic display. According to Encyclopedia
Britannica VOL 2, drama involves actions meant to be interpreted to the audience by actors who
impersonate real characters, recite speeches and dialogues and perform the actions of a story. Drama,
in most communities of the world, African communities included, originated from rituals associated
with festivals or ceremonies, especially religious ones.
Drama is seen as a penetration of life through artificial means. It is an imitation of action. It
mainly exists in actions and is performed on the stage by different characters. With the advent of the
multi – media age, drama is transformed into film production and the audience is put in a conducive
but relaxed atmosphere to watch drama on video, television or C.D video. This elevates the genre to an
exalted status as Hausa drama is transformed to filmed versions.
The Elements of Drama
Characters
Characters are persons who convey the different ideas put forward by the playwright. Generally,
characters are assigned a series of roles to play in a drama or play. Those characters are technically
known as actors/actresses; thus they perform their roles commensurate to their physical and mental
capacities. They wear costumes, which fit to their personality traits. Above all, they do engage
themselves in dialogue and action with a view to unravel the meaning/theme of the drama.

Dialogue
Dialogue is an essential element of Drama. It is a series of conversations between two or more
characters. Communication is central to drama; it is the pivot on which dramatic performance revolves.
It distinguishes drama from the other two genres of literature. Though dialogue appears in prose
narratives, it is not as prominent as it is in drama. In either filmed or staged drama, dialogue flows
smoothly and aids in unfolding the theme/subject matter of the drama. This underscores the fact that
dialogue is inseparable from drama
Plot
This is a sequence of events in a drama. The playwright often concentrates on the development of their
plot from beginning, through the middle and towards the end. The plot of a drama naturally reveals the
order in which events are designed in drama. A well-designed plot helps in unfolding the theme of a
play. An example of a plot is:
Danladi went to Sabongari market and bought a bag of rice. On reaching home, he placed it on
the floor, picked a sharp knife and tore up the seal.
Action
This is a series of movements the characters engage themselves in while performing their roles. As
for dialogue, action is central to drama. The two go hand in hand. Action is usually accompanied by
dialogue; thus, depicting the interactions and indeed the thematic concern of the work. The action, in
contrast with narrative, is what creates an impression in the audience because of its visual effects.

Conflict
Conflict is another element of drama which is crucially important. Indeed, it refers to the
disagreement arising from or between two people or group of people in the play. When two persons
hold two different opinions, this will virtually culminate into a disagreement.

What is Poetry?
At best, poetry is a genre of literature rendered in a metrical pattern. It is seen as a kind of language
that says more and says it more intensely than ordinary language. The language of poetry is

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compressed to bring to us a sense and perception of life and to widen and sharpen our contacts with
existence.. Poetry deals with the depiction of the emotional feelings of the poet, using selective
language. For instance, when somebody hurts your feelings by failing to satisfy your gratification, you
will get offended. Likewise, when you are in a happy mood your emotions would change. This will be
a driving force that motivates one to design or write a poem in order to express his or her inner
reactions. That is the nature of poetry.

Figure of speech
Figure of speech is used in an imaginative sense rather than in its literal form. It is seen as a
deliberate attempt to shift from the normal style of speaking or writing. It thus adds vividness,
freshness and immediacy to speech or writing.

Examples of Literary devices

Metaphor
This is the direct comparison in which the attribute or quality of one thing is transferred to
another without any modification. It says one thing is something else but, literally, it is not. In simile,
we say one thing is like a particular thing but in metaphor, we say one thing in exactly the same way as
a particular thing.
Examples:
1. Danbaballe is a lion during the fight
2. One of the twins is a tiger and the other is a goat.
3 He is a bull dozer in the field.
4. Dan agwai is the bulldozer in the field.
5. He is diarrhea that he made me penniless last week; I have to avoid him. It is obvious to note that
all the attributive features attached to people in the above examples are not theirs, but portray their
physical powers.

Simile
This is an indirect comparison of two things of similar qualities using “like”, “as well as” and
“as … as". In metaphor, one says a person is exactly like something without using “like” or “as”. That
is called direct comparison, as opposed to indirect comparison in which words such as “like” and ‘”as”
are frequently used.
Examples:
1. Abdul is as strong as a horse ,
2. Mansir is as clever as a fox
3. Hafsat is like a lioness during the fight.
4. Samaila is as ageless as sun.
5. I can’t buy from Munzali Ali because his prices are as
costly as election
6. Binta is afraid like a grasshopper.

In the last example, one can assess or judge the extent of difficulties in the conduct of an election,
which involves strenuous but long hours before the elections are announced. This is compared to the
cost of the products being sold. The comparism is apt.

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Personification
This is another literary device in which human attributes are given to inanimate objects. In
other words, objects, things and non-iving things are given human qualities.
Examples:
1. The city danced to the music of the drum.
2. The wall is crying for paint.
3. The sky is smiling at farmers.
4. The tyres of my motorbike are weeping ( meaning the tyres are worn out, therefore need
replacement)
5. My table coughs any time I write my assignment on it. (meaning the legs are wobbling or
shaking )

Irony
This is another poetic device, which expresses the opposite of what one says and what he means.
Ironical expressions have two levels of meaning. Irony is employed to ridicule in a light manner
without hurting the people, but the ironical implication is deeply felt. Initially, there two types of
Ironies, which are verbal and dramatic. In verbal irony, the speaker says something different from what
he or she means, but the audience, because of the particular situations, knows that it is the opposite.
Thus, what the speaker says is not true. In dramatic irony, or what characters do or perform, are not
known to the characters, but are known by the audience. As the name implies, it happens in drama.

Examples of verbal irony

1. When an ugly girl is passing by you, you can use ironical expression to say: “Be hold a
beautiful girl is coming”.
2. When you have money and you don’t want to display it.
You can say: “I don’t have a single Kobo today”.

Sarcasm
This is like irony but is more painful than it because it evokes a bitter remark that could hurt the
feelings of people. Sarcasm is a powerful literary device the writer uses to shapely indict a particular
situation or criticize people on their evil doings.
Examples:
1. You are a tall man ( referring to a dwarf person)
2. Sani, you look so handsome after a good beating you should forget to do your home work.

This is a form of expression in which there is a deliberate exaggeration or over-statement for the
sake of humuor. In other words, hyperbole is an over-statement by virtue of saying more than what
really the statement is..
Examples:
1. I thank you a million times.
2. I ate a bag of rice.
3. The whole world knows Alhaji Isah is my friend.

Oxymoron

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This is a literary device in which two words of contradicting meanings are paced together. The
words or phrases are opposed to each other in meaning; as such the meaning is complex to understand.
However, oxymoron helps to perceive a deeper insight of meaning or truth about the words used.
Examples:
1. Mustapha had bitter sweet memories
2. The matter becomes an open secret to everyone.
3. He had a painful laughter when the matter was revealed.

Litotes
This is the opposite of hyperbole; while hyperbole exaggerates, litotes underrate. In other words, litotes
understate the value of something or somebody.
Examples:
1. I am nobody but a pauper like you. ( a millionaire said to a penniless man)
2. I am ungrateful for the million as Zakkat alms Magaji gave me.
3. I am citizen of no means. ( a commissioner said to his people)

Paradox
This is a statement that seems foolish or impossible but does have some truth in it.
Examples:
1. A favorite has no friend (because everyone is his friend) therefore, he has no friend.
2. A child is the father or the man (because the child will soon grow to be a father or a child who
in turn will soon become a man).

Apostrophe
This is a figure of speech in which somebody addresses or talks to somebody that is not around or
alive. An object or event can be addressed as if it is alive or listening to the speaker. Apostrophe is
usually used along with an exclamatory mark: “Oh!”, “Ah!”, “Oho!”, “Alas!,” etc.
Examples:
1. Oh! Sa’adatu Rimi; why didn’t you give me admission? This sentence is clearly speaking to
Sa’adatu Rimi College of Education, not a person.
2. Oh, literature! Why did you fail me?
3. Ah! The house gave me comfort.
Innuendo
This is a figure of speech which shares certain characteristics with Irony and Sarcasm but portrays
a different meaning. It is cunning way of passing an unpleasant comment. Here, the speaker craftily
selects his/her words in such a manner that the listener understands the underlying meaning embedded
in the expressions, yet the speaker does not offend or insult the person he/she is addressing.
Examples:
1. Alh. Umaru is rich but he is mean.
2. Harisu Nababa has ten wives but he is strongly impotent.
3. Aliyu is very honest, especially with matters unconnected with money.

The poem
Just a Passerby ( By Oswald Mitshalli)
I saw them clobber him with kieries
I heard him scream with pain

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like a victim of slaughter;
I smelt Fresh blood gush
from his nostril
and flow on the street.

I walked into the church

and knelt in the pew
“Lord! I love you,
I also love my neighbour. Ameen”.

I came out
my heart as light as an angle’s kiss
on the cheek of a saintly soul

Back home I strutted

past a crowd of onlookers.
Then she came in –
my woman neighbour:
“Have you heard? They have killed you brother”.
O! No! I heard nothing. I have been to church.

Analysis of the Poem

The poet is one of the most talented South African poets who fought racial discrimination through
his pen or literary talent. His name is Oswald Mbuyisemi Mtshalli. Black people had suffered a series
of subjugations by white people and are denied the right of freedom of expression, which is one of the
legitimate rights human beings enjoy on the earth. The poet demonstrated his creative ingenuity in the
portrayal of the experiences of his people. This is shown in the way he uses a subtle approach, thus
using soft but lamenting tones that could not manifest the anger in him. The following are the themes
of the poem. Social Segregation
1. Victimization of black people by white people
2. Oppression to black people
3. Helplessness of black people to take revenge
4. Racial discrimination
(1) The theme of Victimization: The poet depicts how black people are subjugated or
relegated to the background because of their being black. The poet uses non-emotive language to
express or portray the manner in which black people are brutally cheated. Thus, the first stanza
images the magnitude of their suffering. Simile-“like the victim of slaughter”, underscores the
extent of the victimization lavelled on them, such that they cannot do anything other than accept
the practice. Using the incidence of his brother is a literary strategy that can make him survive
potential arrest from oppression.
The theme of Hopelessness
Black people are portrayed as hopeless. Thus, they cannot retaliate or fight back. This is because
they are armless compared to white oppressors who are in possession of the political machinery. In
other words, whites are well-armed and live in healthy environment with everything at their disposal,
whereas the black live in an unhygienic environment. Above all, they are not educated such that they
cannot fight against their denied rights. The poet uses his literary talent to show the level of the

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hopelessness of black people and this reveals the way they have accepted the practice. “I walked into
the church”, is enough to show the hopeless minds of black people who resort to praying instead. In
other words, they are armless compared to the whites who are heavily armed.
Stanza 2
I walked into the church
and knelt in the pew
“Lord! I love you.
I also love my neighbor, Ameen”
This stanza images the hopeless nature of black people trapped by racial turmoil. They rather find
respite in the church, thus praying for a better living condition.

The Oppression of black people

The government oppresses black people. This is seen in the way the poet in the last stanza laments
in “non-emotive language” their subjugation. He uses a rhetorical question (Have you heard?) to
heightens or rather reinforce the extent of their suffering. This is because the rhetorical question
doesn’t require a reply. In this context, the answer lies with the poet. He uses dialogue in this respect to
depict the situation in an explicit but imaginative manner. The woman response still shows the
helplessness or hopelessness of the people.

Stanza 4
This stanza images how black people are segregated or oppressed:
“Have you heard? They have killed your brother.”

Stanza 3
“my heart as light as an angel’s kiss”.
This is another simile being compared with angel’s kiss in which the poet feels deeply relieved any
time he goes to church.

Reference
Abdu, D. (2013). Understanding literatrure and Literary Appreciation. Zaria: Ahmadu Bello
Uiversity Press Limited