1.

2 Mughals rule in the Indian subcontinent between

1526–1757

Focus point 1: The establishment of Mughal rule in the

Indian subcontinent
Summary
The Mughals first arrived in India in the early sixteenth century and extended their authority
widely. In Bengal they encountered strong opposition from the Afghans, but following a Mughal
victory at the Battle of Rajmahal in July 1576, Bengal finally became an integral part of the
Mughal Empire.

Maps
Maps and pictures can be found in publications such as:

 Ali, Mohar; History of the Muslims of Bengal; Dhaka: Islamic Foundation; 2003

 Majumdar, R.C., H.C. Chaudhiri and Kalikinkar Datta; An Advanced History of India; 8th
edition; London: Macmillan; 1963

 www.sscnet.ucla.edu/southasia/History/Mughals/mughals.html
Medieval Bengal (source: Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh)

Main events: struggles between Mughals and Afghans

 1526 Battle of Panipat: Moghul Babur defeats Sultan of Delhi

 1538 Sack of Gaur: Afghan rule established in Bengal

 1539 Battle of Chausa: Afghan Sher Shah defeats Mughal Humayun

 1540 Battle of Kanauj: Humayun again defeated and flees to Persia

 1556 Mughal Akbar: assumes power

 1575 Afghan Daud Khan: recovers Bengal

 1576 Battle of Rajmahal: Bengal becomes part of Mughal Empire

 Establishment of Mughals under Babur in 1526

The rise and the reign of the Mughal dynasty is one of the most interesting
episodes in Indian history. At the height of their power, the Mughals ruled almost
every corner of India. Bengal was one of these. Bengal came under the influence
of the Mughals not only in the field of politics, but also of economy and culture.

 Babur: the founder of the Mughal Empire

The founder of the Mughal Empire was Zahiruddin Muhammad Babur. Through
his father's line, Babur was a descendant of Amir Taimur (also known as
Timurlane, 1336-1405), and through his mother's line, he was a descendant of
Chengiz Khan, both of whom were famous warriors of the medieval period.

Babur was born in Central Asia in 1483 into the ruling family of a small kingdom
called Fargana. He was a very ambitious man and tried to establish an empire in
Central Asia. But he was unsuccessful and instead turned to India to set up his
empire.

 Taking advantage of a power vacuum in India

The circumstances in India were ideal for Babur's ambitious mind. With the
decline of the last strong Sultans of Tughlaq dynasty, central power in Delhi was
not strong. Then the invasion of Delhi in 1398 by Timurlane had brought further
instability. The Sultans of the Sayyid and Lodi dynasty had tried to maintain the
political power of Delhi but faced great difficulties. The Lodis, racially Afghans,
had extended their political influence in India considerably, but there was little
stability as the Afghan Lodi rulers of different regions often fought with each other
for supremacy.

 The First Battle of Panipath

Babur stepped in India amidst this situation. Between 1519 and 1520, he
conquered Vira, Sialkot and Saidpur. He conquered Kandahar in 1522 and
Punjab in 1525. Then in the battle of Panipat (1526), he defeated Ibrahim Lodi,
Sultan of Delhi, and began to establish the Mughal dynastic rule in India. The
battle of Panipat not only paved the way for Babur's rise to supremacy in
northern India, but also in Bengal.

Having secured the Punjab, Bābur advanced toward Delhi, garnering support
from many Delhi nobles. He routed two advance parties of Ibrahim Lodis troops
and met the sultan’s main army at Panipat. The Afghans fought bravely, but they
had never faced new artillery, and their frontal attack was no answer to Bābur’s
superior arrangement of the battle line. Bābur’s knowledge of western and
Central Asian war tactics and his brilliant leadership proved decisive in his
victory. By April 1526 he was in control of Delhi and Agra and held the keys to
conquer Hindustan.

 The achievements of Babur

a. Babur was a military adventurer of genius and an empire builder of good
fortune, with an engaging personality. He was also a gifted Turki poet, which
would have won him distinction apart from his political career, as well as a lover
of nature who constructed gardens wherever he went and complemented
beautiful spots by holding convivial parties. Finally, his prose memoirs,
the Babur-nameh, have become a renowned autobiography. They were
translated from Turki into Persian in Akbar’s reign (1589), were translated into
English, Memoirs of Babur, in two volumes, and were first published in 1921–22.
They portray a ruler unusually magnanimous for his age, cultured, and witty, with
an adventurous spirit and an acute eye for natural beauty. He also established
new mints in Lahore and Jainpur and tried to ensure a safe and secure route
from Agra to Kabul.

[Source: Encyclopedia Britinica]

b. Arts and Architecture: Babur's rule was greatly influenced by Mughal

architecture. Babur's Mughal architecture marked the start of an imperial
movement that was influenced by regional elements. Babur's elegant and
fashionable structures developed gradually as a result of the talented artisans
who lived in those provinces. Babur built numerous mosques all over India. The
Babri Mosque, the Panipat Mosque, and the Jama Masjid are three of the most
well-known mosques.

c. The first Mughal emperor Babur was laid to rest in The Gardens of Babur, also
known as Bagh-e-Babur, a historic park in Kabul, Afghanistan. Around 1528 is
when the gardens are thought to have been created. The location of Bagh e
Babur is regarded as the "paradise." It is one of many gardens Babur created
throughout his life for enjoyment and recreation while selecting this location for
his final resting place.

[Source: studocu.com]

 The death of Babur and Nusrat Shah and the emergence of

Sher Shah
Shortly after this, Babur died (1530). His death was followed by the assassination
of Nusrat Shah (1532). Babur was succeeded by his son Humayun, and Nusrat
Shah was succeeded by his brother, Mahmud Shah. Both of the new leaders
were less able than their predecessors, and the next influential figure was Sher
Shah, an Afghan of insignificant origin. He not only captured Bengal and Bihar
but also kept the Mughals away from North India as long as he lived. Therefore
Sher Shah can be seen as an important figure not only in the history of Bengal,
but also of India.

Comprehension Questions

1. Who was Babur?

2. How did he extend his authority in many parts of India?

 Emperor Humayun and the Afghan Resistance

a. Afghan Sher Shah topples Mahmud Shah in Bengal

Sher Shah (better known as Sher Shah) came to the limelight when Mahmud
Shah sent an army into Bihar to punish one of his governors for his alleged
involvement in the assassination of his father, Nusrat Shah. But the governor
happened to be an ally of Sher Shah, who in defence of his ally, advanced
towards Bengal and captured Gaur in 1538, in course of his fight against
Mahmud Shah. Mahmud Shah was forced to concede all territories west of
Rajmahal and pay an annual tribute of about one crore tankas (takas). Shortly
afterwards, when Mahmud Shah broke his commitment of paying the annual
tribute, he was finally toppled by Sher Shah’s army. With this, Afghan rule was
established in Bengal. But the Mughals were coming.
b. Sher Shah defeats the great Mughul Humayun
In northern India, after the death of his father, Humayun became the Mughal
emperor but soon he sensed great danger to his new empire from the emerging
power of Sher Shah. In 1538, Humayun marched towards Bihar and Bengal with
a huge army to subdue Sher Shah. Wisely, Sher Shah did not confront
Humayun’s massive army face to face and ‘melted’ into the Bihar interior,
allowing the Mughals an easy occupation of Bengal. But whilst Humayun was
busy merrymaking in Gaur, Sher Shah established his control over the territory
between Bihar and the capital Delhi, thus cutting off all the lines of
communication between Delhi and Bengal. Humayun had unwisely wasted his
time in Bengal when the rainy season was drawing near.

After some time, when Humayun realised his mistake and started for Agra from
Bengal, his way was blocked by Sher Shah at Chausa. Sher Shah defeated
Humayun in the battle of Chausa, near Boxer, in June 1539. Soon afterwards,
Sher Shah sent an army to Gaur and succeeded in overthrowing the Mughal
garrison. In the meantime Humayun made another attempt to recover his fortune
and confronted the Afghans in Kanauj in May 1540, but was defeated again.
Humayun fled to Persia.

c. Sher Shah and the rule of the Afghans

Administration of Sher Shah

In a brief reign of only five years (1540-1545), Sher Shah established peace and order in the Empire
and remodelled its administration. For example:

 He divided his Empire into 47 sarkars and subdivided each sarkar into a number of parganas.
Bengal had 19 sarkars, with two high officials, Shiqdar-i-Shiqdaran (Shiqdar-in-Chief) and Munsif-
i-Munsifanappointed in each sarkar to look after the work of pargana officers.

 Taxes were fixed at one-fourth of the gross produce, after proper measurement of land, and were
payable either in cash or in kind.

 Sher Shah reformed the currency and improved trade and commerce by abolishing some duties.
A network of excellent roads, connecting the capital Agra with outlying areas of the Empire, as
well as sarai, mosques and temples at regular intervals, improved communication. His most
important road was the Sarak-i-Azam, which ran for 3000 miles from Sonargon to Multan via
Agra, Delhi and Lahore, with shady trees on both sides. This road came to be known as the
Grand Trunk Road in the Colonial period.

 He introduced a means of easy and quick despatch of government orders and messages, to and
from the capital, by relay of horses. Sarais, besides being shelters for traders, travellers and
government servants, served as dak-chowkis (stations for changing post horses) as well.

 The sultan remodelled the police system, made village headmen responsible for the maintenance
of peace in their respective areas and prevented crimes like drinking and adultery through
muhtasibs.

 He maintained a strong standing army and an efficient espionage system. A man with a strong
sense of justice, the sultan was the highest court of appeal, both for civil and criminal cases. Next
to him was the Qazi-ul-Quzzat. In the parganas the Qazi administered criminal cases, while the
Amin looked after the civil ones. Panchayets decided the civil cases of the Hindus.

 The sultan made liberal grants for charitable purposes, opened free public kitchens for the poor,
founded madrasas, mosques and important buildings, laid out gardens and erected hospitals and
sarais. His excellent taste in building is well attested by his noble mausoleum at Sasaram. Sher
Shah was a pious Muslim, but he also was tolerant towards the Hindus. He combined the
qualities of a military leader, a wise monarch and a capable and far-sighted statesman.

[Source: adapted from Banglapedia, Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]

Comprehension Question

 Show how Sher Shah can be considered as a good administrator.

Comprehension Questions

1. Why did Emporer Humayun find it difficult to assert his authority in Bengal?

2. When and how did the Mughals finally take control in Bengal?
 Return of the Mughals
The death of Sher Shah in 1545 gave Humayun an opportunity to regain his empire
from the Aghans. He finally managed to achieve this by 1555. The return of the Mughals
led to a long-lasting Mughal supremacy almost all over India. However, the process of
consolidation of the Mughal Empire was carried out not by Humayun, but by his son,
Akbar, the greatest of the Mughals. Bengal once again came under the influence of
Mughal supremacy during his time.

 Akbar and the beginnings of Mughal Rule in Bengal

Akbar ascended the throne of Delhi at the age of thirteen following the death of his
father, Emperor Humayun, in January 1556. After assuming power, Akbar had to fight a
number of battles in order to consolidate his empire in the north and south of India.
Meanwhile, Bengal continued to be under the

successors of Sher Shah until 1564, when Sulaiman Kararni, the Governor of South
Bihar, extended his authority over Bengal. Sulaiman, till his death in AD 1572, formally
recognised the overlordship of Akbar and maintained uncomfortable but friendly terms
with the Mughal Emperor.

However, on the death of Sulaiman, his son, Daud Khan, aroused the wrath of the
Mughal emperor by declaring his independence and then attacking and capturing the
fort of Zamania, on the Eastern frontier of the Empire. Akbar personally marched
against Daud Khan in 1574 and drove him out of Patna and Hajipur. He then returned to
Delhi, leaving an army of 20,000 to continue confronting the Afghans. However, Daud
Khan was able to strike back and recover Bengal in October 1575. But when Daud
Khan was killed at the Battle of Rajmahal in July 1576, Bengal finally became an
integral part of the Mughal Empire.

Activity: Writing an obituary

 When important people die, newspapers often write an account of their lives. This is
called an obituary. You are going to write an obituary with a difference. Your obituary is
going to be about either Nusrat Shah or Sher Shah. But it is not going to be a fair
obituary. You must decide to write it either only to praise your selected ruler or only to
criticise him. Once you have written it, compare your account with that written by
someone who had the opposite view. Who do you think has written the most accurate
account?

 Akbar and the Baro Bhuiyans

a. Anti-Mughal resistance by the Baro Bhuiyans in Bengal

However, Mughal control of Bengal was far from secure at this stage. Between
1574 and 1610, local resistance prevented the Mughals from completing their
mission of absolute control over Bengal. The resistance was put up by a number
of powerful chieftains and landlords (zamindars) of Bengal, collectively known as
the Baro Bhuiyans (twelve landlords). Most of the bhuiyans were governors of
the now fallen Sultanate of Bengal. The anti-Mughal resistance was led by the
famous Isa Khan, who had his capital in Sonargaon, close to today’s Dhaka.

b. Mughal forces defeated by Isa Khan

In September 1584, Isa Khan defeated a large Mughal navy. Two years later,
when the Mughals successfully marched through the Bengal Delta and reached
as far as Chittagong, Isa Khan played a rather conciliatory role and seemed to
have accepted Akbar’s overlordship. But Isa Khan was increasingly being viewed
by the Mughals as a menace to their Empire. Therefore, Akbar sent one of his
most charismatic generals, Raja Mansingh, to be governor of Bengal. Mansingh
led an expedition against Isa Khan in 1595. But in the meantime, Isa Khan
became more emboldened by the alliance from neighbouring zamindars such as
Kedar Rai of Faridpur. In 1597, he defeated the Mughal forces under Mansingh
whose son was killed in the battle. Isa Khan’s resistance against the Mughals
has been reflected in folk songs, ballads and poems.

c. Musa Khan takes up the struggle against Mughal forces

However, the era of successful resistances against the Mughals declined with the death
of Isa Khan in 1599. After the death of Isa Khan, his son Musa Khan, took up the
leadership of the anti-Mughal resistance. In the meantime, Mansingh was able to defeat
and kill Kedar Rai, one of the most influential allies of Musa Khan. Resistance to the
Mughals centred around Musa Khan and Usman Khan, one of the last very powerful
Afghans. These two chieftains continued their struggle against the Mughals with mixed
success, but finally they had to give in when Islam Khan, an illustrious Mughal
governor, was sent to Bengal.

 Influence of Jahangir

a. Mughal governor Islam Khan breaks up control of Musa Khan

Islam Khan’s appointment in Bengal followed changes in political circumstances
in northern India. In October 1605, Emperor Akbar had died and he was
succeeded by his son, Jahangir. Jahangir had sent to Bengal two governors,
Qutub al-Dia Khan Koka and Jahangir Quli Khan in quick succession between
1606 and 1608 (1606-07 and 1607-08). It was during these years that the
Bengali Chief, Musa Khan, and his allies had recovered some of their territories
which had been lost during Mansingh’s invasions. Then Jahangir sent Islam
Khan to Bengal as the new Mughal Viceroy.

Islam Khan was young and energetic and was determined to establish Mughal
authority over Bengal. He brought in increased forces and war materials,
including guns and artillery, as well as a large fleet. A new Diwan, Abu Al Hasan
and a new admiral of the fleet, Ihtimam Khan, joined him at Rajmahal shortly
after his arrival.

While Islam Khan was preparing for war in 1608, he also tried to induce Raja
Pratapaditya of Jessore, another influencial figure of the Baro Bhuiyans, to join
the Mughals by offering territories and patronage. Thus began a new period in
the Mughal policy in Bengal. Islam Khan applied diplomacy in winning over as
many of the zamindars and chiefs as he could to break up the power of Musa
Khan and his confederates. Pratapaditya responsed favourably to Islam Khan’s
offers and accepted his overlordship, but eventually refrained from supplying his
army to assist the Mughals, though he promised to do so. As a result, Islam Khan
defeated and imprisoned Pratapaditya and annexed his territory.

b. Mughal control established over Bengal

After crushing Pratapaditya, Islam Khan fought against many minor Afghan
leaders before finally defeating Musa Khan in 1611 and Usman Khan in 1612.
Musa Khan was compelled to come to a compromise with the mighty Mughals,
but Usman Khan died fighting the Mughals. With the submission of Musa Khan
and death of Usman Khan, the period of resistance of the Baro Bhuiyans came to
an end. With this, most of Bengal also came firmly under Mughal administration.
The most important event of the time was that Dhaka was made the capital of
Bengal. This was named Jahangir Nagar, in honour of the Mughal emperor.

Comprehension Questions

1. Who were the Baro Bhuiyans? (There is no need to give their individual names, just
describe who they were).

2. Give some examples of their successes.

3. Why were they eventually defeated?

 Influence of Shah Jahan

Emperor Jahangir died in 1627 and was succeeded by his third son, Prince
Khurram or Shah Jahan. Shah Jahan's reign of thirty years till 1658 was marked
by peace and prosperity. For the province of Bengal, too, as a part of the Empire,
it brought security of life and property, especially in lower Bengal. Hugli was
captured from the Portuguese and the slave trade closed.

a. The Viceroys of Bengal during Shah Jahan's reign

Qasim Khan was sent to replace Fida Khan as Viceroy of Bengal. The next two
viceroys, Azam Khan (1632-35) and Islam Khan Mashadi (1635-39) had to deal
with fresh trouble in Assam and Arakan. The Mughals occupied Darrang in
Assam and set up headquarters in Gauhati. In 1639, Islam Khan Mashadi was
recalled to take up the post of Prime Minister, and so Prince Suja, the second
son of Shah Jahan was appointed Viceroy of Bengal.

b. Prince Suja as Viceroy of Bengal

Prince Suja's appointment was clear evidence of the importance given to the
frontier province by the Emperor. Bengal enjoyed a long period of peace and
prosperity during Suja's viceroyalty of twenty-one years (1639-1660).

Rajmahal: the new capital

Suja removed the headquarters from Dhaka to Rajmahal, which was a drier
region near the Bihar frontier. It also enabled effective control over all parts of the
province, including Kamrup in the northeast.
 Influence of Aurangzeb
Emperor Shah Jahan fell seriously ill at the end of September 1657. This was a
signal for a struggle of succession to break out among his four sons, Dara Shiko,
Suja, Aurangzeb, and Murad.

a. Aurangzeb wins struggle for succession amongst his brother

Suja
Suja had proved himself an efficient administrator as Viceroy of Bengal.
However, he had hardly any influence in court. Murad, the youngest son, did not
have the qualities needed either. The main contest, therefore, was between
Dara, the eldest son, and Aurangzeb. Dara was defeated by Aurangzeb at
Samugar, eight miles east of Agra on the 29 May, 1658. Dara fled and
Aurangzeb occupied Agra and, as his brother Dara had done, imprisoned his
father in the Agra fort. He also imprisoned his brother Murad..

The armies of Aurangzeb and Suja confronted each other at Khajwa, in modern
Uttar Pradesh (north India). A defeated Suja fled towards Bengal in January
1659. Aurangzeb sent the Governor of Khandesh, Moazzam Khan alias Mir
Jumla in pursuit of Suja. He then returned to the capital and had Dara
imprisoned and beheaded.

In the meantime, Suja took refuge in Tanda near Gaur. Mir Jumla occupied
Rajmahal in April 1659 and defeated Suja early in 1660. Suja fled to Dhaka with
his family and finally sought asylum in Arakan. Mir Jumla made a triumphant
entry into Dhaka in May 1660. The Arakan ruler had Suja and his family
members mercilessly killed, probably when he attempted a coup with the help of
the Muslim subjects of the Arakan ruler.

1. Why do historians see the reign of Shah Jahan as successful?

2. Can you find any examples of Aurangzeb's determination to make himself

undisputed ruler?
b. Mir Jumla as new Viceroy of Bengal: capital transferred to Dhaka
Suja's escape to Arakan ended the war of succession. Aurangzeb wanted Mir
Jumla to continue to remain in Bengal. He wanted to reward Mir Jumla for his
services by giving him the viceroyalty and also to establish his authority firmly
over Bengal. Mir Jumla was awarded the title of Khan-e-Khanan, the highest of
all ranks in recognition of his achievement.

Mir Jumla transferred the capital from Rajmahal to Dhaka. During his viceroyalty,
he occupied Kuch Bihar and succeeded in annexing the greater part of Assam.
Orissa, which had been joined to the Bengal administration during Prince Suja's
time, was also under his administration until a new Governor of Orissa was
appointed. When Mir Jumla died, Daud Khan was made the temporary governor
until Shaista Khan, Mumtaz Mahal's brother, arrived as the new Viceroy of
Bengal.

c. Shaista Khan as Viceroy: reforms and Chittagong

Shaista Khan
[Sourde:
Wikipedia]

Shaista Khan
arrived in Dhaka
in December,
1664. He
introduced a
number of reforms such as the abolition of trade monopolies and customs and
tolls.

Kuch Bihar remained under Shaista Khan's control, and he planned to capture
Chittagong from the Arakanese. At first, his forces occupied Sandvip. Then after
defeating the Arakanese in a battle in 1666, he entered Chittagong. Many
Bengali men and women, held prisoner by the Arakanese, were set free.
Chittagong was named Islamabad by the Emperor.
d. Murshid Quli as Viceroy: more independent
Murshid Quli Zafar Khan was made Viceroy of Bengal in 1705. He proved to be
a strong and capable ruler. He transferred the capital from Dhaka to
Murshidabad. It was during Murshid Quli’s time that, Bengal’s political connection
with central Mughal administration weakened. Murshid Quli did not openly severe
the connections with the Mughals, but he was wise enough to realise that the
great Mughal Empire was gradually becoming weak. He therefore asserted his
authority in a way that would not trouble the emperor but would help him run the
affairs of Bengal virtually independently. This trend of ruling Bengal
independently from central Mughal administration was adopted by rulers of
Bengal until the British took over. But why was the hitherto very successful
Mughal Empire beginning to weaken?

 The decline of the Empire after Aurangzeb

Aurangzeb, the last great Mughal Emperor, had reached the height of his power
in the year 1690. His rule extended from Kabul to Chittagong and from Kashmir
to the river Kaveri. Then, gradually, this great Empire began to disintegrate even
before Aurangzeb's death in March 1707, though the pace was accelerated soon
after his death. One of the reasons was the struggle for succession between his
three sons. But there were many other reasons, which we will read about in the
next section.