UNIT- 5
HEAT CONDUCTION AND CALORIMETRY
This unit focuses on "Heat Conduction and Calorimetry."
This unit explores the fundamental concepts of heat, temperature, heat
transfer mechanisms, and the measurement of heat energy.
5.1 The Concept of Heat
Defining Heat
heat is the transfer of thermal energy between systems or objects at
different temperatures. This energy transfer occurs spontaneously from a
region of higher temperature to a region of lower temperature.
It is important to differentiate heat from temperature, which is a measure
of the average kinetic energy of the particles within a system.
Effects of Heating
Heating a system can lead to various effects:
Temperature change: Heating can increase or decrease the
temperature of a system, depending on the direction of heat flow.
Phase changes: Heat transfer can cause substances to undergo phase
transitions, such as melting (solid to liquid), boiling (liquid to gas), or
sublimation (solid to gas), without changing the temperature of the
substance during the phase change.
Thermal expansion: Heating generally causes materials to expand in
size, as the increased kinetic energy of particles leads to greater
separation between them.
Internal Energy
Internal energy is the total energy stored within a system, including the
kinetic and potential energy of its particles.
Heat transfer is one way to change the internal energy of a system, while
work done on or by the system is another.
5.2 Heat Transfer Mechanisms
The three primary mechanisms of heat transfer are:
1. Conduction:
The transfer of heat through a material medium without any net movement
of the material itself. This occurs due to the transfer of kinetic energy from
higher-energy particles to lower-energy particles through collisions.
Conduction is most efficient in solids, where particles are closely packed,
and less efficient in liquids and gases.
2.Convection:
The transfer of heat through the movement of fluids (liquids or gases).
Convection occurs when a fluid is heated, becomes less dense, and rises,
while cooler, denser fluid sinks to replace it, creating convection currents.
3.Radiation:
The transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves, such as infrared
radiation. Unlike conduction and convection, radiation does not require a
material medium and can occur through a vacuum.
Basic examples of these three heat transfer mechanisms, includes:
Feeling warmth from a fire: Primarily through radiation.
Metal rod heated at one end: Primarily through conduction.
Water boiling in a pot: Primarily through convection.
5.3 Heat Capacity and Specific Heat Capacity
Quantifying Heat Transfer
This part introduces two important concepts for quantifying heat transfer:
1. Heat capacity (C):
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of a given
amount of a substance by 1 degree Celsius (or 1 Kelvin).
2. Specific heat capacity (c):
The amount of heat energy required to raise the temperature of 1
kilogram of a substance by 1 degree Celsius (or 1 Kelvin).
The relationship between heat capacity, specific heat capacity, mass (m),
and temperature change (ΔT) is given by: Q = mcΔT, where Q is the heat
energy transferred.
Understanding Specific Heat Capacity
Specific heat capacity is an intrinsic property of a substance and indicates
how much heat energy a substance can store for a given mass and
temperature change. Water, for example, has a relatively high specific
heat capacity, meaning it can absorb or release a significant amount of
heat energy with relatively small temperature changes. This property
makes water an excellent coolant, as seen in its use in car radiators.
5.4 Thermal Expansion
The Phenomenon of Thermal Expansion
thermal expansion is the tendency of most materials to expand in size
when heated. This expansion occurs in all three dimensions (length,
width, and height) and is a direct consequence of the increased kinetic
energy of particles at higher temperatures.
Linear Expansion
linear expansion is the change in length of a material with temperature
change. The change in length (ΔL) is proportional to:
The original length of the material (L): A longer material will expand
more for a given temperature change.
The change in temperature (ΔT): A larger temperature change leads to
greater expansion.
The coefficient of linear expansion (α): An intrinsic property of the
material that indicates its tendency to expand with temperature.
The relationship is given by: ΔL = αLΔT.
Applications of Thermal Expansion
The basic examples of applications of thermal expansion include:
Riveting: Rivets are inserted into holes while hot. As they cool, they
contract,
creating a tight joint between metal sheets.
Bimetallic strips: These strips consist of two different metals bonded
together with different coefficients of linear expansion. When heated, the strip
bends due to the unequal expansion of the two metals, finding applications in
thermostats and other temperature-sensitive devices.
Area expansion
Area expansion is the change in area of a material with temperature
change. The change in area (ΔA) is proportional to:
The original area of the material (A0): A Large surface area material will
expand more for a given temperature change.
The change in temperature (ΔT): A larger temperature change leads to
greater expansion.
The coefficient of area expansion (α): An intrinsic property of the
material that indicates its tendency to expand with temperature.
The relationship is given by: ΔA = βA0ΔT.
where β is called the coefficient of surface (area) expansion,
and it can be measured by the unit °C-1 , or K .
Volume Expansion
When length,width and the thickness of an object equally
significant we consider three dimensional expansion( volume
expansion)
Volume expansion is the change in volume of a material with
temperature change. The change in volume (ΔV) is proportional to:
The original volume of the material (V0): A Large Volume of material will
expand more for a given temperature change.
The change in temperature (ΔT): A larger temperature change leads to
greater expansion in volume.
The coefficient of volume expansion (γ): An intrinsic property of the
material that indicates its tendency to expand with temperature.
The relationship is given by: ΔV = γA0ΔT.
where γ is called the coefficient of volume expansion, and it
can be measured by the unit °C-1 , or K
The relationship between coefficient of linear,area and volume
expansion is given by :
γ =2β =3α
5.5 Change of phase
Latent Heat and Phase Transitions
latent heat, the heat energy absorbed or released by a substance during
a phase transition at a constant temperature.
The amount of heat absorbed or released by an object of mass,m , is
given by mathematically :
Q = mL , where L is called latent heat of the substance,
with unit joule/kilogram( J/Kg)
Latent heat depends on the nature of phase change as well as
property of the substance.
Latent heat of fusion: The heat energy required to change 1 kilogram of a
substance from solid to liquid at its melting point.
Latent heat of vaporization: The heat energy required to change
1kilogram of a substance from liquid to gas at its boiling point.
During a phase transition, the heat energy supplied or removed is used to
break or form inter-molecular bonds rather than to change the kinetic
energy of the particles, hence the temperature remains constant.
Phase diagram
phase is the distinct form of a substance under different
conditions, e.g. solid, liquid, gas .
phase change a change from one state of matter to another
without a change in chemical composition
phase change diagram( phase diagram) is a graph of pressure
against temperature which can be used to show the conditions
under which each phase of a substance exists.
Fig:- Phase change diagram
critical point the temperature and pressure at which the liquid and
gas phases of a substance become identical.
triple point the temperature and pressure at which the three phases
of a substance coexist
5.6 Calorimetry
Calorimetry: Measuring Heat Exchange
Calorimetry is the science of measuring the heat of chemical reactions
or physical changes. Calorimetry involves the use of a calorimeter. The
word calorimetry is derived from the Latin word calor, meaning heat.
Scottish physician and scientist Joseph Black, who was the first to
recognize the distinction between heat and temperature, is said to be the
founder of calorimetry.
calorimetry the experimental approach to measuring heat capacities and
heat changes during chemical and physical processes
A calorimeter is an insulated container used to measure heat transfer
during a process, minimizing heat loss to the surroundings.
The Principle of Calorimetry
The principle of calorimetry, based on the law of conservation of energy,
states that for an isolated system: Heat energy lost by hot object = Heat
energy gained by cold object.
Measuring Specific Heat Capacity
Calorimetry is often used to determine the specific heat capacity of an
unknown substance. This involves:
1. Heating a known mass of the unknown substance to a known
temperature.
2. Placing the hot substance into a calorimeter containing a known mass
of water at a known temperature.
3. Allowing the system to reach thermal equilibrium.
4. Measuring the final temperature of the mixture.
By knowing the masses, initial temperatures, final temperature, and
specific heat capacity of water, the specific heat capacity of the unknown
substance can be calculated using the principle of calorimety
