6 Logarithmic and

exponential functions
To forget one’s ancestors is to be a brook without a source, a tree
without a root.
Chinese proverb

Discussion point
You have two parents and each of them has (or had) two parents so you
have four grandparents. Going back you had 23 = 8 great grandparents,
24 = 16 great great grandparents and so on going backwards in time.
Assuming that there is one generation every 30 years, and that all your
ancestors were different people, estimate how many ancestors you had
living in the year 1700. What about the year 1000?
The graph below shows an estimate of the world population over the
last 1000 years. Explain why your answers are not realistic. What
assumption has caused the problem?
World Population
10.0
9.0
8.0
Population (billions)

7.0
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0.0
1050 1150 1250 1350 1450 1550 1650 1750 1850 1950 2050
Year

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Recent DNA analysis shows that almost everyone in Europe is

descended from just seven women. Arriving at different times during
the last 45 000 years, they survived wolves, bears and ice ages to form
different clans that eventually became today’s population. Another 26
maternal lineages have been uncovered on other continents.
Researching family history is a popular hobby and there are many
internet sites devoted to helping people find out details of their
ancestry. Most of us only know about parents, grandparents, and
possibly great-grandparents, but it is possible to go back much further.

Worked example
Assuming that a new generation occurs, on average, every 30 years,
how many direct ancestors will be on your family tree if you go back 120
years? What about if you were able to go back 300 years?

Solution
30 years ago, you would have information about your two parents.
Each of these would have had two parents, so going back a further 30 years
there are also four grandparents, another 30 years gives eight great-
grandparents and so on.
If you tabulate these results, you can see a sequence starting to form.

Number of years Number of people This is a geometric

30 2 sequence of numbers.
60 4 = 22
You will meet these
90 8 = 23
sequences in Chapter 12.
120 16 = 2 4

For each period of 30 years, the number of direct ancestors is double the
number in the previous generation. After 120 years, the total number of
ancestors is 2 + 4 + 8 + 16 = 30.
300 years ago is ten periods of 30 years, so following the pattern, there are
210 = 1024 direct ancestors in this generation.

In practice, family trees are much more complicated, since most

families have more than one child. It gets increasingly difficult the
further back in time you research.

Discussion point
How many years would you expect to need to go back to find over
1 billion direct ancestors?
What date would that be?
Look at the graph on the previous page and say why this is not a
reasonable answer.
Where has the argument gone wrong?

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Logarithms

You may have answered the discussion point by continuing the pattern
in the table on the previous page. Or you may have looked for the
smallest value of n for which 2 n is greater than 1 billion. You can find
this by trial and error but, as you will see, it is quicker to use logarithms
to solve equations and inequalities like this.

Logarithms
Logarithm is another word for index or power.
For example, if you want to find the value of x such that 2x = 8, you
can do this by checking powers of 2. However, if you have 2 x = 12, for
example, it is not as straightforward and you would probably need to
resort to trial and improvement.
The equation 23 = 8 can also be written as log 2 8 = 3. The number 2 is
referred to as the base of the logarithm.
Read this as
Similarly, 2 x = 12 can be written as log 2 12 = x. ‘log to base 2
In general, of 8 equals 3’.
a x = y ⇔ x = log a y.

Most calculators have three buttons for logarithms.

» log which uses 10 as the base.
» ln which has as its base the number 2.718…, denoted by the letter e,
which you will meet later in the chapter.
» log which allows you to choose your own base.

Worked example
Find the logarithm to base 2 of each of these numbers. Do not use a calculator.
a) 32 b) 1 c) 1 d) √ 2
4
Solution
This is equivalent to being asked to find the power when the number is written
as a power of 2.
a) 32 = 25, so log 2 32 = 5
b) 1 = 2 -2 , so log 2 1 = −2
4 4
c) 1 = 2 0, so log 2 1 = 0
logn 1 = 0 for all
1 positive values of n.
d) 2 = 2 2 , so log 2 2 = 12

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Graphs of logarithms
The graph of y = log a x has the same general shape for all values of the
base a where a > 1.
y

y = loga x

1 a x

The graph has the following properties:

» The curve only exists for positive values of x.
» The gradient of the graph is always positive. As the value of x
­increases, the gradient of the curve decreases.
» It crosses the x-axis at (1, 0).
» The line x = 0 is an asymptote, i.e. the curve approaches it ever more
closely but never actually touches or crosses it.
» The graph passes through the point (a, 1).
» loga x is negative for 0 < x < 1.
Graphs of other logarithmic functions are obtained from this basic
graph by applying one or more transformations – translations, stretches
or reflections – as shown in the following examples.

Note
● A translation moves the graph – horizontally, vertically or in both
directions – to a different position. It does not change in shape.
When a > 0:
m replacing x by (x − a) moves the graph a units to the right (the
positive direction)
m replacing x by (x + a) moves the graph a units to the left
(the negative direction)
m replacing y by (y − a) moves the graph a units upwards
(the positive direction)
m replacing y by (y + a) moves the graph a units downwards (the
negative direction).
● A reflection gives a mirror image. In this book only reflections
in the coordinate axes are considered.
m Replacing x by (−x) reflects the graph in the y-axis.
m Replacing y by (−y) reflects the graph in the x-axis.

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Logarithms

Worked example
Sketch each pair of graphs and describe the transformation shown. In each
pair, join (2, log 2) and (3, log 3) to their images.
a) y = log x and y = log ( x − 3)
b) y = log x and y = log ( x + 2 )
c) y = log x and y = − log x
d) y = log x and y = log ( − x )

Solution
a) The graph of y = log ( x − 3) is a translation of the graph of y = log x 3 units
to the right.
y

(3, log 3)
(2, log 2) (6, log 3)
(5, log 2)

1 3 4 x

y = log x y = log(x − 3)

b) The graph of y = log ( x + 2 ) is a translation of the graph of y = log x

2 units to the left.
y

(1, log 3)
(0, log 2) (3, log 3)
(2, log 2)

–2 –1 1 x

y = log(x + 2) y = log x

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

c) The graph of y = − log x (which is the same as − y = log x) is a reflection of

the graph of y = log x in the x-axis.

y = log x
(2, log 2) (3, log 3)

1 x
(2, –log 2) (3, –log 3)

y = –log x

d) The graph of y = log ( − x ) is a reflection of the graph of y = log x in the

y-axis.
y

y = log(−x) y = log x

(−3, log 3) (3, log 3)

(−2, log 2) (2, log 2)

−1 1 x

Worked example
You are given the curve of y = log x and told that log 3 = 0.48 (2 d.p.).
a) Sketch the graph of y = log 3 + log x.
b) What is the relationship between the graphs of y = log x and y = log 3 + log x?
c) Sketch the graphs of y = log x and y = log 3x on the same axes.
d) What do you notice?

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Logarithms

Solution
a) y

log x
y = log 3 +
y = log x

1 x

b) The graph of y = log 3 + log x is a translation of the graph of y = log x

upwards by a distance of log 3.
c) y

y = log 3x
y = log x
You can use graphing
software to show
that the graph of 1 x
y = log 3x is the same
as the graph of
y = log 3 + log x.
This confirms
one of the ‘laws
of logarithms’
introduced below.
d) The graph of y = log 3x looks the same as the graph of y = log 3 + log x.

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

If a logarithmic Laws of logarithms

expression is true for There are a number of rules for manipulating logarithms. They are
any base, the base is derived from the rules for manipulating indices. These laws are true for
often omitted. all logarithms to any positive base.

Operation Law for indices Law for logarithms

x+ y
Multiplication a ×a =a
x y
log a xy = log a x + log a y
Division a ÷a =a
x y x− y
log a x = log a x − log a y
y
Powers (a ) x n
=a nx
log a x n = n log a x
1 x
Roots (a x ) n = a n log a n x = 1 log a x
n
Logarithm of 1 a =10
log a 1 = 0

log a 1 = log a 1 − log a x = − log a x

1
Reciprocals = a−x
ax x
Log to its own base a1 = a log a a = 1

You can use these laws, together with the earlier work on translations,
to help you sketch the graphs of a range of logarithmic expressions by
breaking them down into small steps as shown below.

Worked example
Write 2 + 3 log 2 - log 4 as a single base 10 logarithm.

Solution
2 + 3 log 2 − log 4
loga a = 1 so
= 2 log 10 + 3 log 2 − log 4
log 10 = 1
using nlogax
= log 10 2 + log 2 3 − log 4
= loga x n
combine using = log 100 + log 8 − log 4

loga x + loga y = log (100 × 8 ) − log 4

= loga xy = log 800 − log 4
combine using
800
= log
4 loga x − loga y
= log 200 = loga x
y

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Logarithms

Worked example
Sketch the graph of y = 3log ( x − 2 ).

Solution
Transforming the graph of the curve y = log x into y = 3log ( x − 2 ) involves two
stages. Translating the graph of y = log x two units to the right gives the graph
of y = log ( x − 2 ).
y

1 3 x

y = log x y = log (x − 2)

y = 3log(x − 2)
Multiplying log(x − 2) by 3 y
stretches the new graph in the y
direction by a scale factor of 3.

y = log(x − 2)

3 x

Logarithms to different bases

All the graphs you have met so far in the chapter could have been
drawn to any base a greater than 1.
» When a logarithm is to the base 10 it can be written either as log10
or as lg. So, for example lg7 means log10 7.
» Base e is the other common base for logarithms.
The graphs of logarithms with a base number that is not 10 are very
similar to the graphs of logarithms with base 10.

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Notice that y
when you use a
different base for
the logarithm, the
graph has a similar y = ln x
shape and still
y = log x
passes through the
point (1, 0).
1 x

Change of base of logarithms

It is sometimes useful to change the base of a logarithm.
x = log a b ⇔ a x = b Some calculators
can manipulate
⇔ log c a x = log c b
logarithms to
⇔ x log c a = log c b any positive base.
log c b Check whether
⇔x=
log c a yours is one of
them.

Worked example
Write log8 12 as a logarithm to base 2.

Solution
logcb log 8 12 =
log 2 12 1
= log 2 12 log2 8 = 3 as
x = logab ⇔ x = log 2 8 3
logca 23 = 8

Worked example
1
Write as a natural logarithm.
log 4 e

Solution
log e e 1
log 4 e = =
log e 4 ln 4
logcb
x = logab ⇔ x =
Hence logca
1 1
= = ln 4
log 4 e 1
ln 4

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Logarithms

Using logarithms to solve equations

Logarithms can be used to solve equations involving powers, to any level of
accuracy.

This question does

not ask for any
Worked example
particular base. In Solve the equation 3x = 2000.
this case base 10 is Solution
used but you could
Taking logarithms to the base 10 of both sides:
alternatively have
used base e. These lg 3 x = lg 2000 ⇒ x lg 3 = lg 2000
are the two bases ⇒x=
lg 2000
= 6.92 (3 s.f.)
for logarithms lg 3
on nearly all
calculators. Logarithms can also be used to solve more complex equations.

Worked example
Solve the equation 4e3x = 950.

Solution When there is a

4e3x = 950 term of the form
⇒ e3x = 237.5 ex, it is easier to
Taking the
use logarithms to
logarithms to base ⇒ 3x = ln 237.5
base e, i.e. the ln
e of both sides ⇒ 3x = 5.470 167 … button on your
⇒ x = 1.82 (3 s.f.) calculator.

Worked example
Solve the equation 5 2 x − 5 x − 20 = 0

Solution
5 2 x − 5 x − 20 = 0
⇒ (5 x ) 2 − 5 x − 20 = 0

Substituting 5 x = u
⇒ u 2 − u − 20 = 0
Factorise ⇒ (u + 4 ) (u − 5) = 0
⇒ u = −4 or u = 5

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Remember, the Since 5 x = u

graph of ⇒ 5 x = −4 or 5 x = 5
y = loga x only
exists for positive 5 x = −4 ⇒ x = log 5 − 4 which is not a valid solution.
values of x. The 5 x = 5 ⇒ x = log 5 5 = 1 a x = y ⇔ x = loga y
logarithm of a
negative number is
undefined.
Discussion point
It is always a good idea to check that your solution is correct.
For the example above, verify that the solution x = 1 satisfies the
original equation 5 2 x − 5 x − 20 = 0.

Worked example
Use logarithms to solve the equation 3 5 − x = 2 5 + x . Give your answer correct
to 3 s.f.

Solution
No base is mentioned, so you can use logarithms to any base. Using base 10:

3 5− x = 2 5+ x
⇒ lg 3 5− x = lg 2 5+ x
⇒ ( 5 − x ) lg 3 = ( 5 + x ) lg 2
⇒ 5 lg 3 − x lg 3 = 5 lg 2 + x lg 2
⇒ 5 lg 3 − 5 lg 2 = x lg 2 + x lg 3
⇒ 5 ( lg 3 − lg 2 ) = x ( lg 2 + lg 3)
5 ( lg 3 − lg 2 )
⇒ x=
( lg 2 + lg 3)
⇒ x = 1.13

Note that any base will yield the same answer. Using base 2:

35− x = 2 5+ x
⇒ log 2 3 5 − x = log 2 2 5 + x
Remember,
⇒ ( 5 − x ) log 2 3 = ( 5 + x ) log 2 2
log2 2 = 1.
⇒ 5 log 2 3 − x log 2 3 = 5 + x
⇒ 5 log 2 3 − 5 = x + x log 2 3
⇒ 5 ( log 2 3 − 1) = x (1 + log 2 3)

5(log 2 3 − 1)
⇒ x=
1 + log 2 3
⇒ x = 1.13 (3 s.f.)

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Logarithms

Discussion point
Did you find one of these methods easier than the other?
If so, which one?

Using logarithms to solve inequalities

Logarithms are also useful to solve inequalities occurring, for example,
in problems involving interest or depreciation.
When an inequality involves logs, it is often better to solve it as an
equation first and then address the inequality. If you choose to solve
it as an inequality, you may need to divide by a negative quantity and
will therefore need to reverse the direction of the inequality sign. Both
methods are shown in the example below.

Worked example
A second-hand car is bought for $20  0 00 and is expected to depreciate at a
rate of 15% each year. After how many years will it first be worth less than
$10   000?

Solution
The rate of depreciation is 15% so after one year the car will be worth 85% of
the initial cost.
At the end of the second year, it will be worth 85% of its value at the end of
Year 1, so (0.85)2 × $2 0 000.
Continuing in this way, its value after n years will be (0.85)n × $20  0 00.

Method 1: Solving as an equation

Solving the equation ( 0.85 ) n × 20 000 = 10 000

⇒ ( 0.85 ) n = 0.5
⇒ lg 0.85 n = lg 0.5
⇒ n lg 0.85 = lg 0.5
lg 0.5
⇒ n=
lg 0.85
⇒ n = 4.265…

The car will be worth $10  0 00 after 4.265 years, so it is 5 years before it is first
worth less than $10  0 00.

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Remember Method 2: Solving as an inequality

Solving the inequality ( 0.85) n × 20 000 < 10 000
that lg 0.85 is
negative and ⇒ ( 0.85 ) n < 0.5
when you divide
⇒ lg 0.85 n < lg 0.5
an inequality by a
negative number, ⇒ n lg 0.85 < lg 0.5
you must change lg 0.5
the direction of ⇒ n>
lg 0.85
the inequality. ⇒ n > 4.265…
The car will be worth less than $10  0 00 after 5 years.

Exercise 6.1 In some of the following questions you are instructed not to use your
calculator for the working, but you may use it to check your answers.
1 By first writing each of the following equations using powers, find the
value of y without using a calculator:
1
a) y = log 2 8 b) y = log 3 1 c) y = log 5 25 d) y = log 2
4
2 3 = 9 can be written using logarithms as log3 9 = 2. Using your
2

knowledge of indices, find the value of each of the following without

using a calculator:
a) log 2 16 b) log 3 81 c) log 5 125 d) log 4 1
64
Remember that lg 3 Find the following without using a calculator:
means log10. a) lg100 b) lg(one million)
1
c) lg 1000 d) lg(0.000 001)
4 Using the rules for manipulating logarithms, rewrite each of the
following as a single logarithm. For example, log 6 + log 2 = log(6 × 2)
= log 12.
a) log 3 + log 5 b) 3log 4
c) log12 − log 3 d) 1 log 25
2
e) 2 log 3 + 3log 2 f) 4 log 3 − 3log 4
g) 1 log 4 + 4 log 1
2 2
5 Write each of the following as a single base 10 logarithm:
a) lg 3 + 2 lg 6 b) 2 lg 9 − 3lg 3 c) 3 + 2lg6 − lg 8
6 Write each of the following as a logarithm to the given base:
a) log 4 25 to base 2 b) log 3 10 to base 9 c) ln 1000 to base 10
7 Write each of the following as a single natural logarithm:
a) 1 2 1 3
b) c) +
log 6 e log 7 e log 3 e log 4 e
8 Express each of the following in terms of log x:
a) log x 5 − log x 2 b) log x 3 + 3log x c) 5log x − 3log 3 x

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Logarithms

9 This cube has a volume of 800 cm 3.

a) Use logarithms to calculate the side length correct to the nearest

millimetre.
b) What is the surface area of the cube?
10 Starting with the graph of y = ln x, list the transformations required, in
order when more than one is needed, to sketch each of the graphs. Use
the transformations you have listed to sketch each graph.
a) y = 3ln x b) y = ln ( x + 3) c) y = 3ln 2 x
d) y = 3ln x + 2 e) y = − 3ln ( x + 1 ) f) y = ln ( 2 x + 4 )
11 Match each equation from i to vi with the correct graph a to f.
i) y = log ( x + 1) ii) y = log ( x − 1) iii) y = − ln x
iv) y = 3ln x v) y = log ( 2 − x ) vi) y = ln ( x + 2 )

a) y b) y
6
2
5

1 4

x 2
−1 1 2 3 4
1
−1

−2 −1 1 2 e3 4 5 6 x
−1

−2

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Exercise 6.1 (cont)

c) y d) y
3 3

2 2

1
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

−1
−1

e) y f) y
3

2
1

1
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x

−1

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

−2

−1

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Exponential functions

12 Solve the following equations for x, given that ln a = 3:

a) a 2 x = e 3
b) a 3 x = e 2
c) a 2 x − 3a x + 2 = 0
13 Before photocopiers were commonplace, school examination papers
were duplicated using a process where each copy produced was only
c% as clear as the previous copy. The copy was not acceptable if the
writing was less than 50% as clear as the original. What is the value
of c if the machine could produce only 100 acceptable copies from the
original?
14 Use logarithms to solve the equation 5 2 x − 1 = 4 x + 3 . Give the value of x
correct to 3 s.f.
15 a) $20 000 is invested in an account that pays interest at 2.4% per
annum. The interest is added at the end of each year. After how
many years will the value of the account first be greater than
$25 000?
b) What percentage interest should be added each month if interest is
to be accrued monthly?
c) How long would the account take to reach $25 000 if the interest
was added:
i) every month
ii) every day?
16 Where possible, solve each of the following equations:
a) 8 2 x + 8 x − 6 = 0 b) 10 2 x + 6 × 10 x + 9 = 0
c) (lg x) − 7 lg x + 12 = 0
2 d) (lg x) 2 + 2 lg x − 8 = 0

Exponential functions
The expression y = loga x can be written as x = ay. Therefore, the graphs
of these two expressions are identical.
For any point, interchanging the x- and y-coordinates has the effect of
reflecting the original point in the line y = x, as shown below.
y
y=x
(3, 5)

(1, 2) (5, 3)

(2, 1)
x

Interchanging x and y for the graph y = log a x (shown in red) gives the
curve x = log a y (shown in blue).

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

y x = loga y

y=x

1 y = loga x

1 x

When rewritten with y as the subject of the equation, x = log a y

becomes y = ax.
The function y = ax is called an exponential function and is the inverse
of the logarithm function.
The most commonly used exponential function, known as the
exponential function, is ex, where e is the base of the logarithmic
function ln x and is approximately equal to 2.718. You can manipulate
exponential functions using the same rules as any other functions
involving powers.
» e a +b = e a × e b
» e a −b = e a ÷ e b

Graphs of e x and associated exponential

functions
The graph of y = ex has a similar shape to the graph of y = ax for
positive value of a. The difference lies in the steepness of the curve.
y = 4x
y = ex
y = 2x

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Exponential functions

As the base number increases (i.e. 2, e and 4 in the equations above),

the curve becomes steeper for positive values of x. All the y-values are
positive and all the curves pass through and ‘cross over’ at the point (0, 1).
For positive integer values of n, curves of the form y = enx are all related
as shown below. Notice again, that the graphs all pass through the point
(0, 1) and, as the value of n increases, the curves become steeper.
y

y = e3x

y = e2x

y = ex
1

The graph of y = e -x is a reflection in the y-axis of the graph of y = ex.

The graphs of y = enx and y = e -nx are related in a similar way for any
integer value of n.
y
y = e−2x y = e2x

The family of curves y = kex, where k is a positive integer, is a set of

different transformations of the curve y = ex. These represent stretches
of the curve y = ex in the y-direction.
y = 6 ex
y = 3ex

y = ex

6
Notice that the
curve y = kex 3
crosses the y-axis
1
at (0, k).
x

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Similarly, for a fixed value of n, graphs of the family y = kenx are

represented by stretches of the graph y = enx by scale factor k in the
y-direction.
One additional transformation gives graphs of the form y = kenx + a.

Worked example
Sketch the graph of y = 3e 2 x + 1. y y = ex
Solution
Start with y = ex.

Transform to y = e2x = (ex)2 . y y = e2x

The y values are squared,
giving smaller values for
x < 0 (where y < 1) and larger
values for x > 0.

x
Stretch in the y-direction with y y = 3e2x
a scale factor of 3 to give the
graph of y = 3e2x.

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Exponential functions

Translate 1 unit upwards to y y = 3e2x + 1

give y = 3e2x + 1.

Worked example
Solve the equation 2e x = 5 + 3e − x .

Solution
2e x = 5 + 3e − x
Multiply through ⇒ 2(e x ) 2 = 5e x + 3e − x e x
by ex
2e2 x = 5ex + 3
Rearrange to form 2e2 x − 5ex − 3 = 0
a quadratic which
equals 0 Substituting e x = u
⇒ 2u 2 − 5u − 3 = 0

Factorise ⇒ ( 2u + 1) ( u − 3) = 0
⇒ 2u + 1 = 0 or u − 3 = 0
Remember, the
1
graph of ⇒ u = − or u = 3
2
y = loga x only Since e x = u
exists for positive
1
values of x. The ⇒ ex = −
2 or
ex = 3
logarithm of a
negative number
1
e x = − ⇒ x = ln −
2
1
2 ( )
which is not a valid solution.
is undefined. e = 3 ⇒ x = ln 3 = 1.099 (3 d.p.)
x

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Worked example
Solve the equation 3(ln 4 x) 2 + 5(ln 4 x) − 2 = 0.
Solution
Substituting ln 4 x = u gives
3u 2 + 5u − 2 = 0
⇒ ( 3u − 1) ( u + 2 ) = 0
⇒ 3u − 1 = 0 or u + 2 = 0
1
⇒ u = or u = −2
3
Since ln 4 x = u
1
⇒ ln 4 x = or ln 4 x = −2
3
1
1
1 e3
ln 4 x = ⇒ 4 x = e 3 ⇒ x = = 0.349 (3 d.p.)
3 4
−2
e
ln 4 x = −2 ⇒ 4 x = e −2 ⇒ x = = 0.034 (3 d.p.)
4

Exponential growth and decay

The word ‘exponential’ is often used to refer to things that increase or
decrease at a very rapid rate.
y = ex is called
the exponential Any function of the form y = ax is referred to as an exponential
function. function. When x > 0, the function y = ax is referred to as exponential
growth; when x < 0 it is exponential decay.

Worked example
During the growth of an organism, a cell divides into two approximately every
6 hours. Assuming that the process starts with a single cell, and none of the
cells die, how many cells will there be after 1 week?
Solution
It is possible to work this out without any special formulae:
2 cells after 6 hours
4 cells after 12 hours
8 cells after 18 hours…
However as the numbers get larger, the working becomes more tedious.
Notice the pattern here using 6 hours as 1 time unit.
21 cells after 1 time unit
22 cells after 2 time units
23 cells after 3 time units…
1 day of 24 hours is 4 time units, so 1 week of 7 days is 28 time units. So after
1 week there will be 228 = 268 435 456 cells.

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Exponential functions

Worked example
A brand of ‘invisible’ ink fades rapidly once it is applied to paper. After each
minute the intensity is reduced by one quarter. It becomes unreadable to the
naked eye when the intensity falls below 5% of the original value.
a) What is the intensity, as a percentage of the original value, after 3 minutes?
b) After how many minutes does it become unreadable to the naked eye?
Give your answer to the nearest whole number.

Solution
a) After 1 minute it is 3 of the original value.
4

() ()
2
3
After 2 minutes it is 3 3 = of the original value.
4 4 4

()=
3
After 3 minutes it is 3 27 or approximately 42% of the original value.
4 64
It would be very b) Using the pattern developed above:

(4)
t
tedious to continue After t minutes it is approximately 3 of the original value.
the method in
( 43 ) < 1005
t
used above until The situation is represented by: 5
5% = 100
the ink becomes
Using logarithms to solve the inequality as an equation:
unreadable.
() () ( )
t
lg 3 = lg 5 ⇒ t lg 3 = lg 5
4 100 4 100
⇒ t lg 0.75 = lg 0.05
lg 0.05
⇒ t=
lg 0.75
⇒ t = 10.4

Since the question asks for the time as a whole number of minutes, and the
time is increasing, the answer is 11 minutes.

Exercise 6.2 It is a good idea to check the graphs you draw in questions 1–4 using any
available graphing software.
1 For each set of graphs:
i) Sketch the graphs on the same axes.
ii) Give the coordinates of any points of intersection with the axes.
a) y = e x, y = e x + 1 and y = e x + 1
b) y = e x , y = 2e x and y = e 2 x
c) y = e x , y = e x − 3 and y = e x − 3
2 Sketch the graphs of y = e 3 x and y = e 3 x − 2 .
3 Sketch the graphs of y = e 2 x , y = 3e 2 x and y = 3e 2 x − 1.

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Exercise 6.2 (cont) 4 Sketch each curve and give the coordinates of any points where it cuts
the y-axis.
a) y = 2 + e x b) y = 2 − e x
c) y = 2 + e − x d) y = 2 − e − x
5 Solve the following equations:
a) 5e 0.3t = 65 b) 13e 0.5t = 65
c) e t + 2 = 10 d) e t − 2 = 10
6 The value, $V, of an investment after t years is given by the formula
V = Ae 0.03t , where $A is the initial investment.
a) How much, to the nearest dollar, will an investment of $4000 be
worth after 3 years?
b) To the nearest year, how long will I need to keep an investment for
it to double in value?
7 The path of a projectile launched from an aircraft is given by the
equation h = 5000 − e 0.2 t , where h is the height in metres and t is the time
in seconds.
a) From what height was the projectile launched?
The projectile is aimed at a target at ground level.
b) How long does it take to reach the target?
8 Match each equation from i to vi to the correct graph a to f.
i) y = e 2 x ii) y = e x + 2 iii) y = 2 − e x
−x −x
iv) y = 2 − e v) y = 3e − 5 vi) y = e −2 x − 1

a) y b) y
6 5

4
5

3
4
2
3
1

2
−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
1 −1

−2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 x

−1

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Exponential functions

c) y d) y
5 5

4
4

3
3
2
2
1
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2
−2

e) y f)
3
y
5
2
4
1
3

−2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
2
−1
1
−2

−3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−4
−2
−5

−6

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6 Logarithmic and exponential functions

Exercise 6.2 (cont) 9 A radioactive substance of mass 100 g is decaying such that after t days
the amount remaining, M, is given by the equation M = 100e −0.002 t .
a) Sketch the graph of M against t.
b) What is the half-life of the substance (i.e. the time taken to decay to
half the initial mass)?
10 When David started his first job, he earned $15 per hour and was
promised an annual increment (compounded) of 3.5%.
a) What is his hourly rate in his 5th year?
After 5 years he was promoted. His hourly wage increased to $26 per
hour, with the same compounded annual increment.
b) For how many more years will he need to work before his hourly
rate reaches $30 per hour?
11 a) Solve the equation e 2 x + e x − 12 = 0.
b) Hence solve the equation e 4 x + e 2 x − 12 = 0.
2x x
12 a) Solve 2(3 ) − 5(3 ) + 2 = 0
x x +1
b) Solve e e = 10
2x x
c) Solve 2 − 5(2 ) + 4 = 0
d) Solve 2e − 13e x + 15 = 0.
2 x

e) Solve 3e x = 11 − 10e − x.
f) Solve 2(ln 3 x) 2 − 3(ln 3 x) − 14 = 0.

Past-paper questions
1 Given that loga pq = 9 and loga p2 q = 15, find the value of
(i) loga p and loga q,[4]
(ii) log p a + logq a.[2]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 12 Q4, November 2012
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 12 Q4, November 2012

2 Solve the simultaneous equations

log3 a = 2 log3 b,
log3 (2a - b) = 1. [5]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 13 Q5, November 2010
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 13 Q5, November 2010

3 The number of bacteria B in a culture, t days after the first

observation, is given by
B = 500 + 400e0.2t
(i) Find the initial number present. [1]
(ii) Find the number present after 10 days. [1]
(iv) Find the value of t when B = 10 000. [3]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 22 Q5 i, ii & iv, November 2014
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 22 Q5 i, ii & iv, November 2014

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Exponential functions

Now you should be able to:

H know and use simple properties and graphs of the logarithmic
and exponential functions, including ln x and ex
H know and use the laws of logarithms, including change of base of
logarithms
H solve equations of the form a x = b.

Key points
✔ Logarithm is another word for index or power.
✔ The laws for logarithms are valid for all bases greater than 0 and
are related to those for indices.
Operation Law for indices Law for logarithms
Multiplication a ×a =a
x y x+ y log a xy = log a x + log a y

Division a x ÷ a y = a x− y log a x = log a x − log a y

y

Powers (a ) x n
=a nx log a x n = n log a x

log a n x = 1 log a x
1 x
Roots (a x ) n = a n n
Logarithm of 1 a0 = 1 log a 1 = 0
1
Reciprocals = a−x log a 1 = log a 1 − log a x = − log a x
ax x
Log to its own base a =a
1 log a a = 1
✔ The graph of y = log x:
is only defined for x > 0
has the y-axis as an asymptote
has a positive gradient
passes through (0, 1) for all bases.
✔ Notation.
The logarithm of x to the base a is written logax.
The logarithm of x to the base 10 is written lg x or log x.
The logarithm of x to the base e is written ln x.
✔ An exponential function is of the form y = a x.
✔ The exponential function is the inverse of the log function.
y = loga x ⇔ ay = x
✔ For a > 0, the graph of y = a x:
has the x-axis as an asymptote
has a positive gradient
passes through (0, 1).
✔ For a > 0, the graph of y = a -x:
has the x-axis as an asymptote
has a negative gradient
passes through (0, 1).
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REVIEW EXERCISE 2

Review exercise 2
Ch 1, 4 1 a Solve the equation 5 − 2 x = 12 . [3]
b Solve the inequality x − 3 ≤ 2 x . [4]
Ch 1, 2, 4 2 a On a grid like the one below, sketch the graph of y = 2 x 2 + x − 10 , stating the
coordinates of any points where the curve meets the coordinate axes. [4]
y

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 x

b How many values of x satisfy the equation 2 x 2 + x − 10 = 3 x ? [2]

Ch 2, 4 3 Solve the inequality 3 x 2 + x − 3 ≤ ( x − 2 ) 2 . [3]
Ch 2, 3, 4
4 It is given that the polynomial p ( x ) = x 3 − x 2 − 4 x + 4 has a factor of x − 2 .
a Write p ( x ) as a product of its linear factors. [3]
b i On axes like the ones below, sketch the graph of y = p( x ).
ii State the coordinates of any points where the curve meets the coordinate axes. [3]
c Solve the inequality x 3 + 4 ≥ x 2 + 4 x. [2]
y

−3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 x

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Review exercise 2

Ch 2, 5 5 Solve the equations

y − x = 4,
x 2 + y 2 − 8 x − 4 y − 16 = 0. [5]
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 11 Q1, May/June 2018
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 11 Q1, May/June 2018
Ch 2, 4, 5 6 Find the set of values of k for which the line y = 2 x + k intersects the curve
y = kx 2 − 2 x + 5 at two distinct points. [6]
Ch 2, 5, 6 7 Solve the simultaneous equations
log 6 x = 2 log 6 y
log 6 ( 5 y − x ) = 1 [5]
Ch 6 8 The value, V dollars, of a car aged t years is given by V = 12 000e −0.2 t .
i Write down the value of the car when it was new. [1]
ii Find the time it takes for the value to decrease to 2 of the value when it was new. [2]
3
Cambridge O Level Additional Mathematics (4037)
Paper 22 Q2, February/March 2017
Cambridge IGCSE Additional Mathematics (0606)
Paper 22 Q2, February/March 2017
Ch 1, 6 9 On separate grids, like the one below, sketch the graphs of the following.
State the equations of any asymptotes and the coordinates of any point where the curves
meet the coordinate axes.
a y = ln ( x − 1) [3]
b y = ln ( x − 1) [1]
y

0 x

Ch 6 10 Solve the equation 10 3 x − 2 = 8 , giving your answer correct to 2 decimal places. [3]
log 5 a + log 5 b
11 Write as a single logarithm to base 5. [2]
(log 5 c)(log c 5)
Total marks [52]

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