Genetic Basis of Selection and Methods in Plant Breeding: Detailed Notes

1. Genetic Basis of Selection in Plant Breeding

Plant breeding relies heavily on the genetic variation within plant species to select traits that
are beneficial to humans, such as increased yield, disease resistance, or improved quality.
The core principles of selection are based on understanding the genetic variation present in
the population and how it can be inherited across generations. The genetic basis of selection
is grounded in the following concepts:

A. Heritability

Heritability refers to the proportion of phenotypic variation that can be attributed to genetic
factors. High heritability means that the traits being selected are strongly controlled by
genetic factors, making selection more effective. There are two main types of heritability:

 Broad-sense heritability (H²): The total proportion of variance in a trait due to

genetic differences.

 Narrow-sense heritability (h²): The proportion of variance in a trait due to additive

genetic effects, which are the most directly passed on to offspring.

Reference: Falconer, D. S., & Mackay, T. F. C. (1996). Introduction to Quantitative Genetics.

Longman.

Broad-Sense Heritability (H²) and Narrow-Sense Heritability (h²)

Heritability is a measure of how much of the variation in a trait within a population is due to
genetic differences as opposed to environmental factors. Understanding heritability is
important in plant breeding because it helps predict how much genetic improvement can be
achieved through selection.

Heritability can be classified into two main types:

 Broad-sense heritability (H²)

 Narrow-sense heritability (h²)

Let’s break down both concepts with definitions, examples, and explanations.

1. Broad-Sense Heritability (H²)

Definition:

Broad-sense heritability (H²) is the proportion of the total phenotypic variance in a

population that is attributable to genetic variance. It considers all genetic factors—additive
effects, dominance effects, and gene interactions (epistasis).

Mathematically, broad-sense heritability is calculated as:

H2=VGVPH^2 = \frac{V_G}{V_P}

Where:

 VGV_G = Genetic variance (variance due to all genetic factors, including additive,
dominance, and interaction effects).

 VPV_P = Phenotypic variance (total variance in the trait, which is the sum of genetic
variance and environmental variance).

Interpretation:

 If H² is close to 1: A large proportion of the total variation in the trait is due to

genetic differences. This means selection would be very effective, as the genetic
component is strong.

 If H² is close to 0: Most of the variation in the trait is due to environmental factors,

and selection will have limited effectiveness because the trait is not strongly
controlled by genetics.

Example of Broad-Sense Heritability:

Consider a population of wheat plants with variation in grain weight. The phenotypic
variance VPV_P (which includes both genetic and environmental factors) might be 25. If
genetic variance VGV_G (due to all genetic components including dominance, additive
effects, etc.) is found to be 20, the broad-sense heritability would be:

H2=2025=0.80H^2 = \frac{20}{25} = 0.80

This means that 80% of the total variation in grain weight is due to genetic factors, and 20%
is due to environmental factors. In this case, selection for grain weight in wheat breeding
would be quite effective, because the trait is largely influenced by genetics.

2. Narrow-Sense Heritability (h²)

Definition:

Narrow-sense heritability (h²) is the proportion of the total phenotypic variance in a

population that is attributable to additive genetic variance (the part of the genetic variance
that is passed directly from parents to offspring). This measure is particularly important in
plant breeding because it indicates how much of a trait’s variation is due to genes that will
be passed on to the next generation.

Mathematically, narrow-sense heritability is calculated as:

Where:

 VAV_A = Additive genetic variance (variance due to the sum of individual allelic
effects).

 VPV_P = Phenotypic variance (total variance in the trait).

Interpretation:

 h² close to 1: The trait is mostly influenced by additive genetic effects, meaning that
the offspring will inherit the trait in a predictable way based on the parent’s
phenotypes. Selection for such a trait will lead to significant progress.

 h² close to 0: The trait is not strongly influenced by additive genetic effects. It may be
controlled by dominant or epistatic genetic effects, or it may be heavily influenced by
the environment, making selection less effective.

Example of Narrow-Sense Heritability:

Let’s say we are breeding for fruit size in a population of tomatoes. After analyzing the
genetic and phenotypic data, we find the following variances:

 Total phenotypic variance (V_P): 16

 Additive genetic variance (V_A): 12

The narrow-sense heritability would be:

h2=1216=0.75 h^2 = \frac{12}{16} = 0.75

This means that 75% of the phenotypic variation in fruit size is due to additive genetic
effects, meaning that the size of the fruit is largely influenced by the alleles inherited from
the parents. As a result, selection for this trait (fruit size) would be quite effective because
the genetic component is strong and heritable.

Key Differences Between H² and h²

Feature Broad-Sense Heritability (H²) Narrow-Sense Heritability (h²)

Definition Proportion of phenotypic variance Proportion of phenotypic variance

due to all genetic factors (additive, due to additive genetic variance (the
dominance, and interaction). part that is inherited by offspring).
Formula H2=VGVPH^2 = \frac{V_G}{V_P} h2=VAVPh^2 = \frac{V_A}{V_P}

Focus Includes all genetic effects (additive Focuses only on additive genetic
+ dominance + epistasis). effects.

Effect on Indicates general potential for Indicates how much progress can be
Selection selection, but doesn’t directly made through selection.
predict genetic progress.

Use in Less directly useful for predicting Very useful for predicting the
Breeding selection response. response to selection in a breeding
program.

Why is Narrow-Sense Heritability Important in Plant Breeding?

 Prediction of Breeding Success: Narrow-sense heritability directly affects the

response to selection (R). High h² means that selection for a trait is likely to result in
substantial genetic gain because the additive genetic effects are inherited in a
predictable way.

 Effective Selection: Traits with high h² are easier to improve in breeding programs, as
the trait can be reliably passed from parents to offspring.

 Breeding Efficiency: Understanding the proportion of variation due to additive

genetic factors helps breeders decide which traits are worth selecting for. In crops,
traits like yield, quality, and disease resistance that have high h² tend to respond
better to selection efforts.

Example of Both H² and h² in a Breeding Program

Let’s take an example of a rice breeding program aiming to improve drought tolerance.

 Broad-Sense Heritability (H²): After testing several rice varieties, it is determined

that H² for drought tolerance is 0.65. This indicates that 65% of the variation in
drought tolerance is due to genetic factors (including all genetic effects like additive,
dominance, and epistasis). While this suggests genetic control over drought
tolerance, breeders would also need to consider non-additive effects like dominance
or epistasis when selecting parents.

 Narrow-Sense Heritability (h²): When focusing specifically on additive genetic

effects, it is found that h² for drought tolerance is 0.40. This means 40% of the
phenotypic variation in drought tolerance is due to additive genetic variation, which
is the portion that is passed down to offspring in a predictable manner. With this
information, breeders can anticipate that selection for drought-tolerant parents will
lead to some genetic progress, but it might not be as fast as for traits with higher h².
Thus, while both H² and h² suggest that genetic factors play a role in drought tolerance, the
breeders would place more emphasis on traits with higher h² for faster and more predictable
progress through selection.

B. Genetic Variability

For selection to be effective, there must be genetic variability within the population. Genetic
variability arises from mutations, gene flow, and sexual reproduction. The types of genetic
variability important for plant breeding include:

 Allelic variation: Differences in the forms of a gene.

 Genotypic variation: Differences in the genetic makeup of individuals.

 Phenotypic variation: Observable traits that result from both genetic and
environmental influences.

C. Gene Interaction

Gene interactions play a significant role in the inheritance of traits. These include:

 Dominance: One allele can mask the expression of another.

 Epistasis: The interaction between non-allelic genes.

 Pleiotropy: A single gene affecting multiple traits.

D. Selection Differential

The selection differential is the difference between the average phenotype of the selected
individuals and the average phenotype of the entire population. It is an important factor in
determining the rate of genetic change through selection.

E. Response to Selection

The response to selection (R) refers to the change in the average phenotype of a population
after selection. It is determined by the heritability (h²) of the trait, the selection differential
(S), and the generation interval.

2. Methods in Plant Breeding

Plant breeding techniques have evolved over time, and they can be classified into several
major categories based on the method of selection and hybridization used. The main
breeding methods include:

A. Pure Line Selection

Pure line selection involves selecting individuals from a genetically uniform population (a
pure line) that exhibits desirable traits. This method is used when the genetic basis of the
trait is simple and there is little environmental influence.

 Process: Choose superior individuals from a population, self-pollinate them, and

select the best offspring.

 Application: Widely used in self-pollinated crops like wheat and barley.

Reference: Allard, R. W. (1960). Principles of Plant Breeding. Wiley.

B. Mass Selection

Mass selection involves selecting a large number of individuals based on their phenotypic
characteristics, such as size or disease resistance. These individuals are then intermated to
produce the next generation.

 Process: Identify individuals with desirable traits, collect seeds, and mix them for the
next planting.

 Application: Common in crops like maize and sorghum.

Reference: Larkin, P., & Scarth, R. (2007). Mass Selection in Plant Breeding. Crop Science
Society of America.

C. Hybridization (Crossbreeding)

Hybridization is the process of crossing two genetically different plants to produce offspring
with traits from both parents. This can be done through:

 Interspecific hybridization: Between different species.

 Intraspecific hybridization: Between individuals of the same species.

Process: Controlled cross-pollination of two distinct parental lines, followed by selection of

the offspring with desired traits.

Applications:

 Heterosis (Hybrid Vigor): The hybrid offspring often exhibit superior traits like
increased growth rate or disease resistance compared to the parents.

Reference: Brown, D. (2005). Plant Breeding: Principles and Prospects. Springer.

D. Backcrossing

Backcrossing is a method used to transfer a single desirable trait from one plant to another.
The process involves crossing a hybrid offspring back to one of the parent plants that carries
the desired trait.
Process: Cross the hybrid back to the parent with the desired trait for multiple generations.
Applications: Common in developing disease-resistant or pest-resistant varieties.

Reference: Tautz, D., & Tautz, C. (2000). Backcrossing in Plant Breeding. Plant Science.

E. Mutation Breeding

Mutation breeding involves inducing mutations to create genetic variation. This can be
achieved through chemical mutagens, radiation, or other methods.

 Process: Treat seeds with mutagens, grow the plants, and select the ones with
desired mutations.

 Applications: Used to create new traits or improve existing ones, such as improved
disease resistance.

Reference: Mba, C., & Fregene, M. (2010). Mutation Breeding for Crop Improvement.
Springer.

F. Marker-Assisted Selection (MAS)

Marker-Assisted Selection involves using molecular markers to track specific genes or alleles
associated with desirable traits. This method enables breeders to select plants with the
desired genetic composition without waiting for them to express the trait phenotypically.

 Process: Use DNA markers linked to desirable traits for selection.

 Applications: Common in breeding for disease resistance, pest resistance, and yield
improvement.

Reference: Xie, C., & Liu, D. (2009). Marker-Assisted Selection in Plant Breeding. Springer.

G. Genetic Engineering (GMOs)

Genetic engineering involves directly modifying the plant's DNA using biotechnology tools to
insert genes for specific traits, such as resistance to pests or herbicides.

 Process: Use tools like CRISPR or Agrobacterium-mediated transformation to

introduce or modify genes.

 Applications: Used to develop genetically modified crops (GMOs) for increased

resistance, higher yield, and better quality.

Reference: Slatko, B. E., et al. (2018). Plant Genetic Engineering for Sustainable Agriculture.
Nature Reviews.

H. Polyploidy Induction

Polyploidy involves increasing the number of sets of chromosomes in a plant's genome,

which can result in increased size, fertility, or stress tolerance.
 Process: Use colchicine or other chemicals to induce chromosome doubling.

 Applications: Used to develop seedless fruits or increase vigor in crops like potatoes.

Reference: Ramsay, G. (2007). Polyploidy and Plant Breeding. Plant Breeding Reviews.

3. References and Links

Here are some helpful resources and further reading:

1. Introduction to Quantitative Genetics by Falconer, D. S. & Mackay, T. F. C. Google

Books

2. Principles of Plant Breeding by R. W. Allard Wiley Online Library

3. Plant Breeding: Principles and Prospects by D. Brown Springer Link

4. Mutation Breeding for Crop Improvement by Mba, C. & Fregene, M. Springer Link

5. Marker-Assisted Selection in Plant Breeding by Xie, C., & Liu, D. Springer Link

These texts will give you a comprehensive understanding of both the genetic basis and the
methods employed in modern plant breeding.