SUMMARY OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS
INTRODUCTION :
Sociolinguistics : is that part of linguistics, which is concerned with
language as a social ans cultural phenomenon. It investigates the field of
language and society and has close connections with the social sciences,
especially social psychology, anthropology, human geography and sociolog.
- Language is a means of establishing and maintaining relationships
with other people.
- Language gives an idea about the person speaking to ( region, religion,
education,social class;;;;)
- Who, what, where, cannot be dissociated from the social context
- We cannot talk about language in a social vacuum
- Language can be a very important factor in-group identification, group
solidarity and the signaling of difference.
- Language influences our perception of the world
- A language can affect society by influencing or even controlling the
worldview of its speakers.
- The man view of his environment may be conditioned by his language
- The society can affect language, and the environment is reflected in the
language example in the structure of lexicon
- In addition to environment and social structure, the value of a society
can also affect its language
- The value of a society can be illustrated in an interesting phenomenon
called taboo, which is concerned with behaviour, it is associated with
things which are not said.
- If the language is limited our perception of things is limited
- It is difficult to have clear linguistic borders between dialects
- Generally, two languages are considered distinct in case they are not
mutually intelligible
- Speakers can understand one another, then they are speaking dialects
of the same language.
- To place borders between two countries (Morocco, Algeria) is a matter
of a social and political decision rather than a linguistic fact.
- Though educated speakers in Scandinavian countries can understand
each other, we cannot say that they speak the same language
- A dialect is a variety of a language exp : Moroccan Arabic, Egyptian
Arabic.
- Dialect refers to differences between kinds of languages, which are
differences in vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation.
- Accent refers to differences in pronunciation
- Standard English : is a variety of English, used in print , spoken by
educated people, uses in news broadcasts
- Standard English is called a superposed variety of language because it
is imposed from above over the range of regional dialects.
Chapter 2 : Languages
1) Language and dialects :
- Language contains more items than dialect
- Since language contains a variety of dialects, then it is larger in
terms of size compared with the dialect.
- In terms of lexicon, vocabulary, items in a language exceed those
in a dialect.
- Dialect is limited to spoken function, language is broadly used in
many fields
- A language is more prestigious than a dialect because it has a
written system and dictionaries while dialect is limited to daily
conversations.
- The more important criterion to distinguish between lge and
dialect is prestige
- Yet, the classical Arabic suffer from a lack of vitality because it is
rarely used in communication.
2) Standard languages :
- Standard: refers to common characteristics, rules which are respected
- Any dialect can be a language by a political decision
- Any variety or dialect can be standardized if there is a political will.
A standard language passes through the following processes:
a) Selection: To select a language to be standardized is a matter of
political decision, this standardization leads to prestige.
b) Codification: To write grammar books and dictionaries
Exp : The Institute of Arabization : prepare dictionaries
The Bureau of Coordination of Arabisation : subordinates
between Arab countries, publication of magazines,
c) Elaboration of function : Create new functions and we select different
functions that can be used in a language
- Language must be constitutionally supported.
d) Acceptance: The selected variety must be accepted as the variety of
the community and as a national language
Once the acceptance done, the standard language serves as a strong
unifying force for the state , a symbol of its independence and a marker
of its difference from other states.
3) The delimitation of languages :
- Mutual Intelligibility: is a matter of degree (geographical context) ranging
from total intelligibility down to total unintelligibility.
- Mutual intelligibility is a relationship between people, speakers
- Motivation is a relevant quality when person A wants to understand and likes
person B
- Mutual intelligibility doesn’t need to be reciprocal.
- We need to focus on similarities to achieve an efficient understanding.
- Mutual intelligibility doesn't work as a criterion for delimiting language,
because only prestige can work as a real distinction between language and
dialect.
- Experience: The more previous experiences and contact we have had, the
more likely we are able to understand it.
4) The family tree model :
- The more languages are of the same same family or origin, the more they are in a
mutual intelligibility.
Chapter 3 Dialects
1) Regional dialects and isoglosses
- The smallest variety corresponding to an individual speaker : idiolect
- Idiolect : the speech habits peculiar to a particular person
- No possibility to make boundaries between varieties
- There is no way of delimiting varieties and we must therefore conclude
that varieties do not exist.
- It is nearly impossible to draw boundaries between varieties :
movement of people
2) Diffusion and the wave theory :
- The spread of language items occurs in the same way a wave is made
after throwing a stone in a pool.
- A language spreads outwards from centres of influence to the
surrounding areas.
- The adaptation of an item depends on the will and the motivation of the
speaker.
- What breaks the spread is when people refuse to adopt as an act of
identity.
- A speech community is a community that shares the same variety.
- The comparison between the spread of the waves after throwing a
stone in a pool with the spread of language fails because the latter
depends on many factors such as the need to identify with a different
speech community and the strength of the source community which
coined the new word.
3) The social dialects :
- Regional dialects : dialects related to different geographical locations.
- Dialects are not distributed geographically only with the movement of
people from one place to another holding with them their dialects, but
people may show similarities from the same social group in a different
area.
- Social dialects : Dialects shared by the same social class
- People from the same social class share the same variety of language
4) Types of linguistic item :
- Pronunciation and other items play different roles in the individual’s act
of identity.
- When you adopt the pronunciation of a given speech community, you
either want to show that :
● You belong to that community
● You want to others to believe that you belong to that community.
CHAPTER 4 VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE
1) Diaglossia : 2 tongues
- The term diaglossia was introduced into English language literature on
sociolinguistcs by Charles Ferguson (1959) to describe the situation
found in places like the Arabic world where there are two distinct
varieties, which one is used on formal and public occasion while the
other is used by everybody under normal, everyday circumstances.
- Ferguson defines Diglossia as follows:
● Diglossia is a stable language situation, in which in addition to
the primary dialects of the language, there is a highly codified
superposed variety, learned by formal education and used for
most written and formal purposes, but not used for ordinary
conversation .
● Diglossia is the existence of two varieties of the same language
side by side in a speech community , and each variety has a
specialized function : Arabic as an exemple .
- We have to distinct varieties : there a clear cut between CA and MA
- CA & MA are mutually exclusive because they have different functions
Classical Arabic Moroccan Arabic
- Formal/public occasions Informal/everyday circumanstances
- Standardized Not standardized
- Codified (written system,diction
Grammar books,respective
alphabets , respected body of
Written, poetry) Not codified
- Formal education(classroom context) Acquired
- Sacred (interconnection with quran) Trivial , spontaneous
- Conscious learning Unconscious acquisition
- Written (more) Spoken (more)
- High (prestige) Low (prestige)
- Classical arabic is used in formal situations, such as delivery of a
serment in a mosque, language in parliament, teaching and prestigious
used because of the literary heritage (poetry).
- ENNAJI (1991)In Morocco we have triglossias : CA, MA and Middle
Arabic.
- Middle Arabic has the historicity and standardization of CA and the
vitality of Moroccan Arabic.
- Fishman (1971) : Diaglossia exist even when we talk about 2 different
lges in a speech community exp: Paraguay, Spanish is a high
variety/Guarani a low variety.
CHAPTER 5 MIXTURE OF VARIETIES
Code-switching and borrowing
1) Code-switching :
- Code-switching : is a process in which a speaker switch from a language to
another in the same conversation .
- Whenever we have two languages ( codes) in contact, one of the
consequences is “ code-switching”.
- Register : the use of register refers to particular varieties or styles of
speaking or writing, registers vary because the lge is usd for different
purposes, contexts and audience. Exp : Legal register, advertising register,
banking register and weather forecasting register with the use of specialized
vocabulary.
- Reasons for using code-switching between Arabic & French
● To exclude/include someone from a conversation
● It could be an unconscious process in the case when the mastery of the two
codes differs.
● Impress/show off
● Word- finding problems
● Switch from formal to informal context or register
● More of the time CS is an unconscious process
- Reasons for Cs between Arabic & Amazigh
● Different functions : Each has its one function
● Express solidarity with a given speech community
● To get a benefit
● To exclude/include someone from a conversation
● To satisfy yourself or your interlocutor.
- Types of Code-switching
A- Metaphorical code-switching :
- A bilingual switch between two lges because of a change in the topic of the
conversation
- The topic imposes the kind of conversation.
B- Conversational Code-switching
-
There is no change in situation or topic
-
Some bilingual switch between codes within a single sentence
● Intersentential : code-switching at the border of sentences
● Intrasentential : code-switching is within a sentence.
- The switch between lges is not a result of a change in topic or the situation as a
whole.
C- Situational Code-switching :
- A change in situation (context) equals a change in languages.
2) Borrowing :
- An item taken from one variety to another
- Is adopting a foreign word and using it as a part of your language
- Borrowing is a natural process that can be noticed in many languages.
- Whenever two lges are in contact, borrowing is a the norm rather than an
exception.
- The more the speaker feels that he is dominated, the more he will borrow
from the dominating language.
- When a foreign word is borrowed , the speakers tend to adapt its
pronunciation to the language by replacing phonemes that do not exist in the
host language by the process of assimilation
- Loan word: no assimilation, word is taken as it is with no assimilation to the
native sounds.
- Loan translation : We translate meaning, claque, no assimilation
- Borrowing may involve syntax and semantics without involving
pronunciation at all
- All aspzcts of language can be borrowed.
CHAPTER 6 VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE
- Language : include all languages of the world
- Variety: - different manifestations of the language
A set of linguistic items with similar social distribution
(Music & its varieties)
- Community : is a group of people sharing sth,
- Speech community : linguistic community based on language/dialect
Speech community theories
1) Lyons (1970) : According to Lyons, a speech community is a group of
people using the same language, where a bilingual may claim
membership of two speech communities not necessary sharing the
same culture.
2) HOCKET (1958) : According to Hocket, to be considered as a member
of a speech community, you need to engage in communication.
- The whole set of people who communicate with each other either
directly or indirectly via the common lge ( 2 communities).
3) Bloomfield (1933) : According to Bloomfield, A speech community is
a group of people who interact through speech, using different lges but
still belonging to the same speech community, exp : In Morocco,
Amazighs and Arabs are from the same community : Moroccan
community.
4) Gumperz (1962) : According to Gumperz, We need not necessary to
be multilingual to belong to a speech community.
- In a speech community , we can have monolingual as well as
multilingual.
- Linguistic community is defined according to him as a social
group, and the social interaction should be regular/frequent to be
considered as members of the same speech community.
- We need to interact on a regular basis to be considered as
members of the same speech community.
- Less interaction between two speech communities exp:
Morocco& Algeria leads to the fact of not belonging to the same
speech community.
- If we don’t interact regularly, then we belong to different speech
community.
5) Gumperz (1968) : We differentiate between two speech communities
in case there are linguistic differences .
- If you belong to different communities, you will interact less.
6) Labov (1972) : According to Labov (1972), sharing a language
isn’t enough to constitute a speech community rather we need to
share attitudes .
7) Robert le Page (1968) : According to Robert le Page (1968), it is
possible for individuals to claim membership in different speech
communities depending on their motivation or attitudes etc ….
8) Dwight Bolinger (1975) : According to Dwight Bolinger (1975), the
number of speech communities within a given society is limitless
because of our different purposes.
- The same individual can be in many communities depending on
its goal, gain, security, amusement, workship or any others
purposes.
CHAPTER 7 LANGUAGE PLANNING
- Language policy : refers to deision-making process and the setting of
goals.
- Policies are declared but not implemented ( applied)
- Is a political decision with overt or covert objective.
- Language planning : refers to the implementation of plans for
attaining these goals.
- A set of technical activities, or managerial operations.
- Application of the policies
- Language agencies : Are in charge of implementing language planning :
Exp: Institute of Arabization / Amazigh Institute( ERCAM)
The Bureau of Coordination of Arabization.
1) LANGUAGE, NATIONS AND NATIONALISM :
- One language = one nation
- There is a strong correlation between language and nation
- Linguistic diversity in a country can threaten its political stability.
- Language is a strong unifying element in a country
- One of the most important pillars of a nation is language
2) The role of language planning in the construction of national
languages and nations.
- To create a nation we need language
- Standardization, differentiation, codification, elaboration and purification are
central to the language planning tradition, it is related to the creation of the
nation.
2.1 Corpus and status language planning :
- Status planning: assigning different functions to a given language
(government, education, official roles in different domains), these
allocations boost or diminish the status of these languages following a
political decision.
- Policies are declared but not implemented.
- Corpus planning: refers to the development of writing systems.
- Focus on the code itself/coining new words/developing an
alphabet/focus on language itself : linguistic decision
- When a language has a written system with alphabets gives it a sense
of eternity.
- When a language disappears, the culture disapear too.
- Ferguson(1968) summarised corpus planning are graphisation (the
development of writing systems), standardisation and modernisation
(include new words).
2.2 Differentiation, standardisation and codification
A- Differentiation :
- The conscious differentiation of the national language variety from
other varieties via selection and promotion.
- Linguistic unification leads to a unified nation
- A variety is selected to be standardised (political decision) and promoted via
advertisement.
- Dialect continuum : exp: Moroccan Arabic, Tunisian Arabic, Algerian Arabic
- B- Standardisation : MILROY (1998)
- Has both a linguistic and ideological dimension
- Is the creation of a uniform written variety
- The standard is based on the variety spoken by the most powerful sector of
society
- The dominated group imitates the variety used by the elite
- Acceptance and acquisition of the standard become necessary for
socio-economic mobility: it paves the path to success.
- The mastery of the language of the dominant group helps in social
promotion.
- These ideologies are supported by media, governmental agencies and
influential opinion formers.
C) Codification :
- The process of giving explicit definitions to the norms through the
production of grammars, dictionaries.
- Refers to grammar, dictionaries, books
- Grammar contributes to the dissemination (spread) of the standard by
making clear its rules.
- Milroy (1998)The standard language is an idea in the mind (abstract), a sort
of platonic form
● SUMMARY OF THE PRINCIPAL CONSTITUENTS :
1) Identification of the standard language: dictionaries, books
2) Belief in the superiority of the standard language over other varieties
and dialects.
3) Development of the notion of correct and incorrect language, and the
idea that there is only one correct form of the spoken language
4) Identification of the standard language with the national language, a
symbol of national identity and a source of national pride.
THE FOUR HEUGEN’S (1966c,1983) MODEL OF LANGUAGE
PLANNING :
1) Selection of norm: Refers to the choice of one or more dialects to
serve as the basis of the standard.
2) Codification of form: involves stabilising, or fixing the form of the
language through the production of grammar and dictionaries.
3) Elaboration of function: aims at an expansion of the language
functions, it serves for scientific and technical discourse, by
developing new registers and the creation of new lexical items.
4) Acceptance by the community: placed in the category of status
planning, involves conscious dissemination of the standard and
orchestrated efforts to persuade the community to accept the norm.
● Codification lies in the domain of corpus planning
● Elaboration: is a combination of corpus and status planning.
