[Link] briefly the importance of logic in your field of study?
=Logic is an essential tool in many fields of study, including philosophy, mathematics, computer science,
and artificial intelligence. In these fields, logic is used to analyze and evaluate arguments, to reason
about the world, and to make decisions.
In philosophy, logic is used to study the nature of reasoning and argumentation.
.it helps us to develop the skill needed to construct sound (good) and fallacy-free of one's own and to
evaluate the argument of others.
.it helps us to distinguish good argument from bad argument.
.it helps us to understand and identify the common logical errors in reasoning.
2. Explain briefly the difference between deductive and inductive argument by giving at least two
examples created by you for each of them?
= Deductive arguments move from general premises to specific conclusions. If the premises are true, the
conclusion *must* be true. The conclusion is claimed to follow from the premises with certainty or the
premises are claimed to support their corresponding conclusion with a strict necessity.
A deductive argument is one in which the conclusion is certain and logically follows from the premises.
Here are two examples of deductive arguments:
1, All humans are mortal. Socrates is a human. Therefore, Socrates is mortal.
2, All squares have four sides. This shape is a square. Therefore, this shape has four sides.
3, All birds have feathers. A sparrow is a bird. Therefore, a sparrow has feathers.
= Inductive arguments move from specific observations to general conclusions. The conclusion is *likely*
true, but not guaranteed. It is an argument in wich the premises are claimed to support the conclusion in
such away that it is improbably for the premises to be true and the conclusion false. The conclusion is
claimed to follow only probably from the premises.
An inductive argument, is one in which the conclusion is probable, but not certain, based on the
[Link] are two examples of inductive arguments:
1, Every time I have seen a swan, it has been white. Therefore, all swans are probably white.
2, The sun has risen every day of my life. Therefore, the sun will probably rise tomorrow.
3, Most African leaders are blacks. Mandela was an African laeder. Therefore, probably Mandela was
black.
In summary, the main difference between deductive and inductive arguments is that deductive
arguments lead to certain conclusions, while inductive arguments lead to probable conclusions.
[Link] and shortly explain the type of fallacy of relevance committed below.
A. Mr. Y to his friend: Mr. X you knows that you are my best friend and your wife also
trust you when you are with me. Today, I do not have cents in pocket and I am in serious
addiction right now. Give me 200 birr and let I buy and chew khat. If not, I will inform
your beloved wife the mistake you did last week in that place.
= **Appeal to force (Argumentum ad baculum):** Mr. Y threatens his friend to obtain money,
using the threat of revealing a secret.
[Link] to invigilator on exam cheating. Instructor, you signed on my exam sheet illogically
because I did not facilitate or cheat exam from my nearby student. Instructor, I have health
problem in my abdomen and doctors ordered me to have mini-physical fitness at least one time
in 10 minute and this is why you suspect me due to looking my body movement and signed on
my exam paper. Instructor, I have also economic problem and if you did not erase this signature,
my life become dark. Therefore, surely I did not take part on cheating and please erase this
signature from my exam sheet.
=,**Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad misericordiam):** The student attempts to excuse their
potential cheating by appealing to their health, economic problems, and the invigilator's
supposed illogical behavior.
[Link] heard that Abebe saying that mid-exam should be changed because many students scored
less than ten. Abebe idea should be rejected because of he scored one out of 30.
= **Argument against the person (Argumentum ad hominem):** Abebe's idea is rejected based
on his own poor performance, rather than the merits of the idea itself.
[Link] citizens are constitutionally guaranteed to follow and exercise the religion they want.
Therefore, you have the right to follow the religion you want and exercise it in the class room.
=**Accident:** The general principle of religious freedom is applied inappropriately to
a specific context (classroom).
[Link]: we have to continue giving special tutor for summer female students in
MWU to make them well efficient. Opponents: it follows that you forget that all MWU
lecturers give special tutor for summer female students and no change at all. As result, it
is better to stop giving special tutor for summer female students in MWU
= **Straw man:** The opponent misrepresents the proponent's argument by
exaggerating it to an extreme, making it easier to refute.
[Link]: Do you know, Almaz that Mengistu has got A+ grade in Logic course?
Almaz: I hope you know that Mengistu and Logic teacher are best friends and Mengistu
who is inactive in our class is always running to logic teacher office. So, A+ grade not
totally deserve him.
= **Argument against the person (Argumentum ad hominem):** Almaz questions the
validity of Mengistu's grade based on his friendship with the professor and his lack of
class participation, rather than on the merits of his work.
[Link] brief explanation for the following questions?
A. What is the difference between increasing and decreasing intension and extension
meaning of terms?
The intentional meaning of a term is called intention or connotation, and the extensional
meaning of is called extension or denotation.
=The intension and extension of a term refer to the concept and the set of objects that the
term refers to, respectively.
Increasing intension means adding more specific characteristics to the term, while
decreasing intension means removing specific characteristics from the term. For
example, the term “mammal” has a higher intension than the term “animal,” because
“mammal” refers to a more specific group of animals. On the other hand, the term
“animal” has a higher intension than the term “living thing,” because “animal” refers to a
more specific group of living things.
Increasing extension means adding more objects to the set of objects that the term refers
to, while decreasing extension means removing objects from the set of objects that the
term refers to. For example, the term “dog” has a higher extension than the term
“mammal,” because “dog” refers to a specific group of mammals. On the other hand, the
term “mammal” has a higher extension than the term “mammal,” because “mammal”
refers to a specific group of animals.
B. Explain briefly the difference between Stipulative and lexical definition and give
one example for each of them from your own
.Stipulative Definition
.Assigns a meaning to a word for the first time.
.Creating a new word or give a new meaning to an old word.
.A recommendation or proposal to use a term in a certain manner.
.It becomes lexical definition when it becomes part of established language.
.Can’t be evaluated as true or false.3
.Used to simplifying complex expression
.Used to set up new secret codes
Example: A Zebra + A Donkey = the offspring was called a"zeedonk"
.Lexical Definition
.Used to report the meaning that a word already has in a language.
.Dictionary definitions are all instances of lexical definitions.
.Can be evaluated as true/false.
.Has purpose of eliminating ambiguity of a word. A word is said to be ambiguous when it
can be interpreted as having two or more clearly distinct meanings in a given context.4
Example: Bank = 1, financial institution 2, edge of the river
C. Explain the difference between fallacy of weak induction and fallacy of
presumption?
.Fallacy of Weak Induction: occur when the premises provide a bit of support for the
conclusion, but not enough/sufficient to believe the conclusion. (Not because the premises are
logically irrelevant to the conclusion, as is the case with the previous 8 fallacies of relevance)
There 6 fallacies under FWI
Each of the 6 fallacies of FWI commonly share THREE basic features:-
i. The premises provide a share of evidence to support the conclusion, but the evidences are not
good enough to cause a reasonable person to accept the conclusion.
[Link] connection b/n premises & conclusion is not strong enough
iii. Involve emotional appeal.
.Include:
[Link] to Unqualified Authority (Argumentum ad Verecundiam)
2. Appeal to Ignorance (Argumentum ad Ignorantiam)
3. Hasty Generalization (Converse Accident)
4. False Cause
5. Slippery Slope
6. Weak Analogy4
. Fallacies of Presumption5:These fallacies arise not because the premises are irrelevant to the
conclusion or provide insufficient reason for believing the conclusion but because the premises
assume what they claim to prove.
.A belief that something is true even though it has not been proved. Includes:
a. Begging the question
b. Complex question
c. False dichotomy
d. Suppressed evidence5
=A weak induction fallacy focuses on the over all strength of the evidence presented, Where the
premises might not be strong enough to logically lead to the conclusion, Where as a fallacy of
presumption focuses on underlying assumption in the argument, Where a key premises is
assumed to be true whithout justification.
