Important Measures of Transport Networks (With Diagram)

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Network analysis is an important aspect of transport geography because it involves the

description of the disposition of nodes and their relationships and line or linkage of distribution.
It gives measures of accessibility and connectivity and also allows comparisons to be made
between regional networks within a country and between other countries.

As Fitzgerald (1974) has said, variations in the characteristics of networks may be considered to
reflect certain spatial aspects of the socio-economic system.

The details of important measures of transport networks are given here for proper
understanding and application of these measures for:

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(i) The connectivity of networks;

(ii) The centrality within networks;

(iii) The spread and diameter of networks; and

(iv) Detours.

1. Connectivity and its Measurement:

“The connectivity of a network may be defined as the degree of completeness of the links
between nodes” (Robinson and Bamford, 1978). When a network is abstracted as a set of edges
that are related to set of vertices (nodes), a fundamental question is the degree to which all
pairs of vertices are interconnected.

“The degree of connection between all vertices is defined as the connectivity of the networks”
(Taaffe and Gauthier, 1973). The greater the degree of connectivity within a transportation
network, the more efficient with that system be. Kansky (1963) has studied the structure of
transportation networks, developed several descriptive indices for measuring the connectivity
of networks, i.e., beta, gamma, alpha indices and cyclomatic number.

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Beta Index (β):

The beta index is a very simple measure of connectivity, which can be found by dividing the
total number of arcs in a network by the total number of nodes, thus:

β = arcs/ nodes

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The beta index ranges from 0.0 for networks, which consist just of nodes with no arcs, through
1.0 and greater where networks are well connected.

Some characteristics of P index are:

(i) β value for tree types of structures and disconnected networks would always be less than 1.
It would take zero values when there are no edges in the network

(ii) β value for any network structure with one circuit would always be equal to 1.

(iii) β value exceeds 1 for a complicated network structure having more than one circuit.

Alpha Index (α):

One of the most useful measures of the connectivity of a network, particularly a fairly complex
network, is the alpha index (α). The alpha index (α) for a non-planar graph may thus be defined
as:

α= actual circuit/ maximum circuits

Or

α= e-ν+1/ 2ν-5

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The alpha index gives the range values from 0 to 1 that is from 0 to 100 per cent. If the index is
multiplied by 100 this will convert it into percentage, thereby giving the number of fundamental
circuits as a percentage of the maximum number possible. The higher the index, the greater is
the degree of connectivity in the network.

Figure 4.4 shows two networks having the same number of vertices but different structures. It
may be observed that the maximum number of possible circuits in the two networks is only 5,
that is, (2v – 5). In the case of the first network, the number of actual circuits is zero and hence
it takes the minimum value that is = 0. In the second network, only two circuits have been
formed and hence 2/5 = 0.40.
Gamma Index (ү):

The gamma index (y) is a ratio between the observed number of edges and vertices of a given
transportation network. For a non-planar graph, the gamma index has been defined as:

ү=e/3(v – 2)

Stated in other words, y is a ratio of the observed number of edges (e) to the maximum number
of edges in as planar graph. The connectivity as measured by y index varies from a set of nodes
having no interconnection to the one in which every node has an edge connected to every other
node in the graph.

The connectivity of the network is evaluated in terms of the degree to which the network
deviates from an unconnected graph and approximates a maximally connected one. The
numerical range for the gamma index is between 0 and 1. This measure may be written in the
form of percentage and would thus range from 0 to 100. Figure 4.5 shows the maximal connec-
tivity. It is evident from the figure that for a planar graph, the addition of each vertex to the
system increases the maximum number of edges by three. This proposition is true for any
planar network with more than two vertices.
Cyclomatic Number:

Cyclomatic number is a different way of measuring connectivity. This is based upon the
condition that as soon as a connected network has enough arcs or links to form a tree, then any
additional arcs will result in the formation of circuits. Thus, the number of circuits in a
connected network equals the total number of arcs minus the number of arcs required to form
a tree, i.e., one less than the nodes or vertices. It may be written as:

Cyclomatic number = a – (n – 1)

Or

a–n+1

Where a equals the number of arcs and n the number of nodes. This formula applies to a
connected graph, where there happens to be two or more sub-graphs. Then, the formula for
cyclomatic number is:

a–n+x

where x equals the number of subgraphs. This has also been expressed as:

Cyclomatic number (µ) = e – v + p

e = number of edges or arcs

v = number of vertices or nodes

p = number of non-connected subgraphs

The relationship of the cyclomatic number with the network structure has been examined
through Figure 4.6. Let us consider a network consisting of four nodes A, B, C, and D.

In a disconnected position or a tree type graph it has a cyclomatic number of 0, whereas as the
graph move closer and closer to a completely connected state, the cyclomatic number
increases. The limitation of the cyclomatic number arises since it depends upon the number of
vertices and edges only.

2. Centrality within a Network:

D. Koning has developed an index known as Koning Number for describing the degree of
centrality of any node on a network. The koning number for each node is calculated by adding
up the number of arcs from each other node using the shortest path available. For example, in
Figure 4.7, point D has the lowest number and is, therefore, the most central node in the
network.
3. Spread and Diameter of Networks:

Kansky has developed two useful indices to measure the diameter and spread of a network.
These are Pi (π) index and Eta (η) index.

Pi Index (π):

Kansky (1963) has developed Pi index (π) for the analysis of transport network when the focus
of enquiry is to investigate the relationship between the transportation network as a whole and
its diameter. The ratio between the length of the network and the length of the networks
diameter would always be a real number, analogous to π. Therefore, the π index may be written
as:

π= total distance of network/ distance of diameter

Or

π=c/d

where c = total mileage of a given transport network

d=diameter

The application of π index to transportation network would give a numerical value which would
be greater than or equal to one. Higher numerical values will be ascribed to more complicated
networks and it would reflect higher degree of development of the network.

Eta Index (n):

The eta index () is quite useful when some spatial characteristic of the network are under
examination. This is also indicative of spread of a network. The eta index (n) is given by the
formula:

Η = total network distance/ number of arcs

or
η= M/E

where M = total network length in kms

E = the observed number of edges

Because the numerator is measured in kilometres, therefore, the ratio is not scale free but
represents the average length of an edge of the network. This index is useful in examining the
utility of a given transport network. Kansky (1953) has used this index in analysing the transport
network data for a number of countries.

4. Detours:

The straight routes between two places or direct routes (also known as ‘desire line’) are the
routes, which travellers used to follow because of their shortest distance. But straight routes
are, however, seldom to be found in reality; even the most direct route in practice deviates from
straight line. This type of deflection is very common due to physical obstacles. Such deviations
can be measured by the detour index where:

Detour index= actual route distance/ straight line distance × 100/1

In other words, the detour index is the actual journey distance calculated as a percentage of the
desire line distance. In fact, the actual route distance is almost always longer than the desire
line distance, then the detour index will be greater, in almost all cases, than 100 and in the
nature of things can never be less than 100. It is obvious that lower the detour index, the more
direct is a given route. The detour index is used for assessing the effects which the addition or
abstraction of links produce in a given network.

Accessibility:

One of the most important attributes of a transportation network relates to accessibility, and
the geographer is particularly concerned with accessibility as a locational feature. (Robinson and
Bamford, 1978: 78). When examining a transportation network, a geographer is also interested
in node-linkage associations in terms of accessibility.

The structure of a network, changes in response to the addition of new linkages or the
improvement of existing linkages. These changes are reflected in changes in nodal accessibility.
The measurement of nodal accessibility is based on graph theory.

7 Problems of Urban Transport (Explained With Diagram)

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While urban transport has had a tremendous liberating impact, it has also posed a very serious
problem to the urban impact in which it operates. Buchanan gave a warning in 1963 when he
wrote Traffic in Towns, that “the motor vehicle has been responsible for much that adversely
effects our physical surrounding.

There is its direct competition for space with environmental requirements, and it is greatest
where space is limited… the record is one of steady encroachment, often in small instalments,
but cumulative in effect. There are the visual consequences of this intrusion; the crowding out
of every available square yard of space with vehicles, either moving or stationary, so that
buildings seem to rise from a plinth of cars; the destruction of architectural scenes; visual
effects from the cutter of signs, signals, bollards, railings, etc., associated with the use of motor
vehicles”.

Michael Thomson’s classic book Great Cities and Their Traffic (1977) provides a useful
breakdown of the ways in which most people are dissatisfied with the transport systems of their
cities. He has given seven problems of urban transport, interrelated with each other as shown in
Figure 5.2.

1. Traffic Movement and Congestion:

Traffic congestion occurs when urban transport networks are no longer capable of
accommodating the volume of movements that use them. The location of congested areas is
determined by the physical transport framework and by the patterns of urban land use and
their associated trip-generating activities. Levels of traffic overloading vary in time, with a very
well-marked peak during the daily journey-to-work periods.

Although most congestion can be attributed to overloading, there are other aspects of this basic
problem that also require solutions. In the industrialised countries increasing volumes of private
car, public transport and commercial vehicle traffic have exposed the inadequacies of urban
roads, especially in older city centres where street patterns have survived largely unaltered from
the nineteenth century and earlier.

The intricate nature of these centres makes motorised movements difficult and long-term car
parking almost impossible. In developing countries the problem is particularly acute: Indian and
South-East Asian cities often have cores composed of a mesh of narrow streets often accessible
only to non-motorised traffic.

The rapid growth in private car ownership and use in western cities in the period since 1950 has
rarely been accompanied by a corresponding upgrading of the road network, and these
increases will probably continue into the twenty-first century, further exacerbating the problem.
In less-developed countries car ownership in urban areas is in at a much lower level but there is
evidence of an increased rate in recent decades, especially in South America and South-East
Asia (Rimmer, 1977).

Satisfactory definitions of the saturation level of car ownership vary but if a ratio of 50 cars to
100 persons is taken then in several US cities the figure is now over 80 per 100, whereas in
South-East Asian cities the level rarely exceeds 10 per 100. One factor contributing to
congestion in developing world cities is the uncontrolled intermixing of motorised and animal-
or human-drawn vehicles. The proliferation of pedal and motorcycles causes particular
difficulties (Simon 1996).

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2. Public Transport Crowding:

The ‘person congestion’ occurring inside public transport vehicles at such peak times adds insult
to injury, sometimes literally. A very high proportion of the day’s journeys are made under
conditions of peak-hour loading, during which there will be lengthy queues at stops, crowding at
terminals, stairways and ticket offices, and excessively long periods of hot and claustrophobic
travel jammed in overcrowded vehicles.

In Japan, ‘packers’ are employed on station platforms to ensure that passengers are forced
inside the metro trains so that the automatic doors can close properly. Throughout the world,
conditions are difficult on good days, intolerable on bad ones and in some cities in developing
countries almost unbelievable every day. Images of passengers hanging on to the outside of
trains in India are familiar enough. Quite what conditions are like inside can only be guessed at?

3. Off-Peak Inadequacy of Public Transport:

If public transport operators provide sufficient vehicles to meet peak-hour demand there will be
insufficient patronage off-peak to keep them economically employed. If on the other hand they
tailor fleet size to the off-peak demand, the vehicles would be so overwhelmed during the peak
that the service would most likely break down.

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This disparity of vehicle use is the hub of the urban transport problem for public transport
operators. Many now have to maintain sufficient vehicles, plant and labour merely to provide a
peak-hour service, which is a hopelessly uneconomic use of resources. Often the only way of
cutting costs is by reducing off-peak services, but this in turn drives away remaining patronage
and encourages further car use. This ‘off-peak problem’ does not, however, afflict operators in
developing countries. There, rapidly growing urban populations with low car ownership levels
provide sufficient off-peak demand to keep vehicle occupancy rates high throughout the day.

4. Difficulties for Pedestrians:

Pedestrians form the largest category of traffic accident victims. Attempts to increase their
safety have usually failed to deal with the source of the problem (i.e., traffic speed and volume)
and instead have concentrated on restricting movement on foot. Needless to say this worsens
the pedestrian’s environment, making large areas ‘off-limits’ and forcing walkers to use
footbridges and underpasses, which are inadequately cleaned or policed. Additionally there is
obstruction by parked cars and the increasing pollution of the urban environment, with traffic
noise and exhaust fumes affecting most directly those on feet.

At a larger scale, there is the problem of access to facilities and activities in the city. The
replacement of small-scale and localised facilities such as shops and clinics by large-scale super-
stores and hospitals serving larger catchment areas has put many urban activities beyond the
reach of the pedestrian. These greater distances between residences and needed facilities can
only be covered by those with motorised transport. Whereas the lack of safe facilities may be
the biggest problem for the walker in developing countries, in advanced countries it is the
growing inability to reach ‘anything’ on foot, irrespective of the quality of the walking
environment.

5. Parking Difficulties:

Many car drivers stuck in city traffic jams are not actually trying to go anywhere: they are just
looking for a place to park. For them the parking problem is the urban transport problem:
earning enough to buy a car is one thing but being smart enough to find somewhere to park it is
quite another. However, it is not just the motorist that suffers. Cities are disfigured by ugly
multi-storey parking garages and cityscapes are turned into seas of metal, as vehicles are
crammed on to every square metre of ground.

Public transport is slowed by clogged streets and movement on foot in anything like a straight
line becomes impossible. The provision of adequate car parking space within or on the margins
of central business districts (CBDs) for city workers and shoppers is a problem that has serious
implications for land use planning.

A proliferation of costly and visually intrusive multi-storey car-parks can only provide a partial
solution and supplementary on-street parking often compound road congestion. The extension
of pedestrian precincts and retail malls in city centres is intended to provide more acceptable
environments for shoppers and other users of city centres. However, such traffic-free zones in
turn produce problems as they create new patterns of access to commercial centres for car-
borne travellers and users of public transport, while the latter often lose their former advantage
of being conveyed directly to the central shopping area.

6. Environmental Impact:

The operation of motor vehicles is a polluting activity. While there are innumerable other
activities which cause environmental pollution as a result of the tremendous increases in vehicle
ownership, society is only now beginning to appreciate the devastating and dangerous
consequences of motor vehicle usage. Pollution is not the only issue.

Traffic noise is a serious problem in the central area of our towns and cities and there are other
environmental drawbacks brought about through trying to accommodate increasing traffic
volumes. The vast divergence between private and social costs is one, which has so far been
allowed to continue without any real check. Perhaps more disturbing is that society is largely
unaware of the longer-term effects of such action, and while the motorcar is by no means the
only culprit, it is a persistently obvious offender.

Traffic Noise:

It is generally recognised that traffic noise is the major environment problem caused by traffic in
urban areas. Noise became a pressing problem late in the 1950s and in 1960 the Government
set up a committee to look into the whole issue. This committee, headed by Sir Alan Wilson,
pointed out with reference to London that traffic noise “is the predominant source of
annoyance and no other single noise is of comparable importance”.

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Traffic noise is both annoying and disturbing. Walking and other activities in urban areas can be
harassing and, perhaps more important, traffic noise penetrates through to the interior of
buildings. Working is therefore more difficult since noise disturbs concentration and
conversation. High noise levels can also disturb domestic life as sleeping and relaxation become
affected.

Traffic noise tends to be a continuous sound, which is unwanted by the hearer. It is caused as a
result of fluctuations in air pressure, which are then picked up by the human ear. Whilst other
noise phenomena such as aircraft noise and vibrations from a road drill produce a more intense
sound, traffic noise is a much more continuous and an almost round-the-clock discomfort. Noise
is usually measured on a weighted scale in decibel units, an increase of 10 dB corresponding to
a doubling of loudness.

The Wilson Committee published studies, which showed that a decibel noise level of 84 dB was
much as people found acceptable and they proposed legislation which would make any engine
noise more than 85 dB, illegal. They proposed that there should be a progressive reduction in
acceptable limits, but this has not been achieved. In fact, heavy lorries produce a noise level still
well in excess of the above acceptable level.

The noise from motor vehicles comes from various sources. The engine, exhaust and tyres are
the most important ones but with goods vehicles, additional noise can be given off by the body,
brakes, loose fittings and aerodynamic noise. The level of noise is also influenced by the speed
of the vehicle, the density of the traffic flow and the nature of the road surface on which the
vehicle is operating.

Vehicles, which are accelerating or travelling on an uphill surface, produce more noise than
those moving in a regular flow on an even road. The regulations now in force lay down the limits
of 84 dB for cars and 89 dB for Lorries. Buses, particularly when stopping and starting, motor-
cycles and sports cars as well as goods vehicles produce higher noise levels than the average
private car.

7. Atmospheric Pollution:

Fumes from motor vehicles present one of the most unpleasant costs of living with the motor
vehicle. The car is just one of many sources of atmospheric pollution and although prolonged
exposure may constitute a health hazard, it is important to view this particular problem in
perspective. As the Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution has stated, “there is no firm
evidence that in Britain the present level of these pollutants is a hazard to health”.

Traffic fumes, especially from poorly maintained diesel engines, can be very offensive and added
to noise contribute to the unpleasantness of walking in urban areas. No urban street is free
from the effects of engine fumes and these almost certainly contribute towards the formation
of smog. As traffic volumes increase, however, atmospheric pollution will also increase. In the
United States, with its much higher levels of vehicle ownership, there is mounting concern over
the effects of vehicle fumes. In large cities such as Mexico City, Los Angeles, New York and
Tokyo, fumes are responsible for the creation of very unpleasant smog.

Ecologists believe that the rapid increase in the number of vehicles on our roads which has
taken place without (as yet) any real restriction is fast developing into an environmental crisis.
Exhaust fumes are the major source of atmospheric pollution by the motor vehicle.

The fumes, which are emitted, contain four main types of pollutant:

(i) Carbon monoxide:

This is a poisonous gas caused as a result of incomplete combustion;

(ii) Unburnt hydrocarbons:

This caused by the evaporation of petrol and the discharge of only partially burnt hydrocarbons;

(iii) Other gases and deposits:

Nitrogen oxides, tetra-ethyl lead and carbon dust particles;

(iv) Aldehydes:

Organic compounds containing the group CHO in their structures.

Hydrocarbon fumes are also emitted from the carburettor and petrol tanks, as well as from the
exhaust system.

The Royal Commission provides some interesting statistics on the extent of air pollution. In 1970
an estimated 6 million tonnes of carbon monoxide were emitted into the atmosphere. If
estimates of vehicle ownership are correct, then by the year 2010, this volume would increase
to 14 million tonnes. This figure, however, assumes the current state of engine and fuel
technology. A further and more detailed estimate of emissions is given by Sharp in Table 5.3.
Fears of urban pollution by motor vehicles, are greater in the United States and Japan. In day-
time Manhattan, for example, readings of pollutants of 25-30 parts per million have been
recorded – exposure has the same effect as smoking two packets of cigarettes per day. USA has
imposed certain restrictions on vehicle manufacturers and more stringent levels are proposed,
but as in the earlier case of traffic noise, increasing vehicle ownership levels are liable to offset
some of the benefits which accrue.

Other Environmental Problems:

Traffic presents many other implications for the urban environment. Some of these issues will
be outlined in this final section. It should, however, be stated that individual opinions often
determine what constitutes an environmental problem. The British Transport Federation, for
example, regard visual impact as one of the most important local environmental factors to be
taken into consideration in the design and planning of urban motorways.

They state that “visual problems…are a result of the fundamental conflict in scale and form
between a vast linear motorway and the smaller scale and tightly knit pattern of streets and
buildings in the adjoining areas”. Elevated motorways are particularly conspicuous when they
are closely aligned to houses, shops and other small buildings, which are dwarfed in contrast.

This problem is most sensitive in relation to houses since views of motorway traffic can be a
constant distraction and coupled with traffic noise serve as a round-the-clock reminder of the
motorway’s presence. The loss of privacy is just one part of this problem. Elevated motorways
can also obstruct daylight and sunlight entering nearby houses and recreation or shopping
areas.

Buchanan raises other visual issues: “the intrusion into parks and squares; the garaging,
servicing and maintenance of cars in residential streets…; the clutter of signs, signals, bollards,
railings and the rest of the paraphernalia which is deemed necessary to help the traffic flow; the
dreary, formless car parks, often absorbing large areas of towns and whose construction have
involved the sacrifice of the closely knit development which has contributed so much to the
character of the inner areas of our towns”. These are just some of the added consequences of
our living with the motor vehicle and due to the uneasy partnership which exists the
relationship produces its own form of blight within the urban environment.

4 Models of Transport Development (Explained With Diagram)

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In the reconstruction of a region or a nation, transport systems invariably play a vital role. The
growth and development of transportation provides a medium, contributing to the progress of
agriculture, industry, commerce, administration, defence, education, health or any other
community activity. Many of the regional characteristics that are influencing the layout of the
existing transformational system are the creation of their antecedent transformational features.

The present-day transport network has evolved out of the past framework because as trail
evolves successfully into the pioneer dirt road, then into the improved farm road and finally,
into the present day paved highways with heavy motor traffic. Many factors are involved in the
development of a transport system. The present-day transport system of a country or a region
cannot be explained by one factor alone. In fact, services of interrelated factors are responsible
for the development of transport system as depicted in Figure 3.1.

White and Senior (1983), in their book entitled, Transport Geography considered five basic
factors, which influence the growth and development of transport systems and the ways in
which changes take place.

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These are:

1. The historical factor – this involves the location and pattern of systems, technological
development, and institutional development and settlement, and land-use patterns.
2. The technological factor – the technological characteristics of each major transport mode are
considered together with a discussion of the effects of technological advances.

3. The physical factor – this includes physiographic controls upon route selection, and geological
and climatic influences.

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4. The economic factor – the structure and nature of transport costs are examined, together
with service quality and methods of pricing and charging.

5. Political and social factors – these include political motives for transport facilities;
government involvement in capital, monopolies and competition, safety, working conditions
and coordination between modes; transport as and employer and the social consequences of
transport developments.

The above mentioned factors affect transport in different ways, influencing each other as well as
affecting transport systems directly and indirectly. Transport systems themselves, together with
the physical environment within which they are set, also influence all these different areas of
human activity. Each factor may operate in a positive, negative or neutral way; each may affect
transport on different scales, from the local to the global; and two basic dimensions time and
space are involved.

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The following table indicates examples of some of these factors:

In considering the relative importance of factors affecting transport in a particular county or

area, geographers not only use general models but also emphasise the diversity of place, and
the specific combination of factors, which help to explain the development pattern of a
transport system.

Models of Transport Development:

Several conceptual models have been devised as aids to the understanding of the development
of transport systems and their counterparts in their approach. Ekstrom and Williamson (1971)
recognise an initial phase, with the introduction of a new transport mode, followed by a spread
phase with spatial diffusion of the network and a coordinating phase where the new and
existing modes become integrated. These three may be followed by a concentration phase,
involving an emphasis upon certain flows along selected routes. Finally, there is possibility that
certain routes may decline or demise, termed as the liquidation phase.

Lanchene Model (1965) has been developed to explain the development of transport system
upon a hypothetical isotropic plain (Figure 3.2). It is just like Losch’s approach to the evolution
of an economic landscape, progressing from an initial network of paths and trails arranged in a
grid pattern to the selective growth of towns and villages and culminating in a smaller number
of high-order settlements connected with high-grade routes such as railways and highways.

Taaffe, Morrill and Gould (TMG) Model (1963):

Taaffe, Morrill and Gould, in 1963, undertook a comparative analysis of the development of
transport in developing countries and they were able to show that certain broad regularities
permitted “a descriptive generalisation of an ideal typical sequence of transportation
development”.

Their spatial model of transport network development in developing countries has proved to be
a valuable help in the understanding of transport development and has been widely applied.
The model which Taaffe and his colleagues devised was based upon Ghanaian and Nigerian
experience, but it has been found to be applicable to other developing lands, for example, in
Latin America.

Taaffe et al. identified six stages in their sequence of transportation development. Figure 3.3
illustrates the sequential stages in the evolution of the transport network. The first stage
consists of scattered settlements and small ports along a coast, which arose from colonial
occupation. Such coastal settlements developed trading functions, though in the beginning
these were of a very limited nature and, in consequence, their hinterlands were very restricted.

Furthermore, there was little lateral inter-connection between the scattered settlements, except
for those effected by native fishing craft of occasional trading ships. The second stage evolved
slowly but gradually as lines of inland penetration developed and some of these which linked up
mining settlements or centres of population became more important than the others.

With the emergence of these major lines of penetration, often linked to the best located of the
coastal ports, port concentration begins to develop and these commence to grow at the
expense of their neighbours, some of which eventually disappear as trading centres or at best
linger on as relict ports. This second stage goes on, hand in hand with the growth of an efficient
administrative system and, more particularly, with the expansion of production for export.

The third stage is marked by the development of ‘feeder’ routes which focus more particularly
upon the main ports and the more important centres in the interior. At the same time, as the
growth in the export trade stimulates economic expansion generally in the hinterland, a number
of intermediate centres begin to develop along the major access routes. In the fourth stage,
these intermediate centres begin to develop into nodes which become focal points for feeder
networks of their own.

The beginnings of lateral interconnection also takes place with lands between the major ports
and the major inland towns being affected. Stage five sees the emergence of complete inter-
connections as the various feeder networks grow around the ports, major inland centres and
main-line nodes and begin to link up.

Finally, in stage six, as the economy becomes more developed and integrated, all the principal
centres and many of the minor centres are linked together in the transport system, while a
number of high priority trunk routes develop which link the largest or most important centres.
Aloba (1983) has applied the Taaffe, Morrill and Gould model to a rural area of West Africa as
shown in Figure 3.4.
Gould’s Spatial Exploration Model (1966):

The behavioural model was proposed in 1966 as an alternative to the Taaffe, Morrill and Gould
concepts of transport development. It incorporates a random approach and is based upon a
simulation of search theory, with the development of a transport network within an area, which
contains resources and hazards, or constraints, indicated by isorithms of environmental quality.

The developer aims to tap the resources of a previously unexploited area, depicted as a square,
by building roads from a port on the coast, which forms one side of this square. As road building
proceeds so the developer will encounter the resources and the constraints, such as mountains
or rivers, within the environment. In stage one capital is invested in roads, which diverge from
the port in straight lines.

In stage two, information on the nature of the resources or of the hazards encountered by the
advancing roads is fed back to the development who may react in one of two ways. The
resource already tapped may be exploited by investing in all-weather roads, or the search may
be continued for other resources by extending the road network. Stage three comprises the
construction of further links following the principles outlined in the first two stages (Figure 3.5).
The Vance Model (1970):

Based on his work on the eastern seaboard of America, Vance (1970) developed a five-stage
‘mercantile’ model to illustrate the development of transport links and the growth of the urban
hierarchy in North America (Figure 3.6). Although primarily concerned with trade, his model is
important in that it stresses the impact of exogenous forces on the evolution of transport
networks and their associated spatial patterns.

In the initial stage, an accumulating of wealth in Europe prompted overseas expansion of an

exploratory nature. Stage 2 sees the beginnings of the transatlantic trade routes based on the
one-way trade in staple products such a fish, furs and timber. From 1620, permanent settlement
occurs in North America; this results in Atlantic trade in both directions as settlers begin to
produce commodities for export and consume manufactured products from a rapidly
industrialising Europe (stage 3). Internal transport links are limited but all are externally
orientated, a process that results in linear patterns both along the coast and stretching into the
interior.

The 4th stage of the model is characterised by the development of internal trade and an
internal manufacturing industry. The final stage of the model is reached when internal trade
dominates North America and is matched by a mature transport and urban system in Europe.
Although North America was eventually to lead the world in transport developments, the
historical evolution is still apparent in both its transport network and its urban system.
The Rimmer Model (1977):

Using terminology derived from Brookfield (1972, 1975), Rimmer identified four phases in the
evolving interrelationships between metropolitan and Third World countries in transport terms
(Figure 3.7).

1. A pre-contact phase involved no links between a Third World country and a distant power in
the advanced world. Within the Third World country, a limited network of tracks, together with
navigable waterways, supported a relatively restricted socio-economic and political system.
2. An early colonial phase, secondly, involved the establishment of direct contacts by sea
between advanced and developing countries but did not produce radical changes in Third World
societies, Europeans being largely content to dominate sea transport routes and to establish
foothold settlements such as trading posts and garrisons.

3. A third phase of high colonialism involved more fundamental changes including the
introduction of roads and railways, port facilities and inland transport nodes, and the
diversification of economic activity (including industrialisation and commercial agriculture) and
settlement patterns (including rapid urbanisation).

4. A fourth neo-colonial phase involves a substantial further diversification of the economic

development surface of the Third World country and continuing (if modified) trade links with
the former metropolitan power. The modernisation of the transport system in the Third World
country involves, at this stage, elements of rationalisation, adaptation and selective investment
in response to changing demands. There is, however, no radical adjustment to the systems
inherited from earlier phases.
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4 Important Measures of Transport Networks (With Diagram)

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Network analysis is an important aspect of transport geography because it involves the
description of the disposition of nodes and their relationships and line or linkage of distribution.
It gives measures of accessibility and connectivity and also allows comparisons to be made
between regional networks within a country and between other countries.

As Fitzgerald (1974) has said, variations in the characteristics of networks may be considered to
reflect certain spatial aspects of the socio-economic system.

The details of important measures of transport networks are given here for proper
understanding and application of these measures for:

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(i) The connectivity of networks;

(ii) The centrality within networks;

(iii) The spread and diameter of networks; and

(iv) Detours.

1. Connectivity and its Measurement:

“The connectivity of a network may be defined as the degree of completeness of the links
between nodes” (Robinson and Bamford, 1978). When a network is abstracted as a set of edges
that are related to set of vertices (nodes), a fundamental question is the degree to which all
pairs of vertices are interconnected.

“The degree of connection between all vertices is defined as the connectivity of the networks”
(Taaffe and Gauthier, 1973). The greater the degree of connectivity within a transportation
network, the more efficient with that system be. Kansky (1963) has studied the structure of
transportation networks, developed several descriptive indices for measuring the connectivity
of networks, i.e., beta, gamma, alpha indices and cyclomatic number.

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Beta Index (β):

The beta index is a very simple measure of connectivity, which can be found by dividing the
total number of arcs in a network by the total number of nodes, thus:

β = arcs/ nodes

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The beta index ranges from 0.0 for networks, which consist just of nodes with no arcs, through
1.0 and greater where networks are well connected.
Some characteristics of P index are:

(i) β value for tree types of structures and disconnected networks would always be less than 1.
It would take zero values when there are no edges in the network

(ii) β value for any network structure with one circuit would always be equal to 1.

(iii) β value exceeds 1 for a complicated network structure having more than one circuit.

Alpha Index (α):

One of the most useful measures of the connectivity of a network, particularly a fairly complex
network, is the alpha index (α). The alpha index (α) for a non-planar graph may thus be defined
as:

α= actual circuit/ maximum circuits

Or

α= e-ν+1/ 2ν-5

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The alpha index gives the range values from 0 to 1 that is from 0 to 100 per cent. If the index is
multiplied by 100 this will convert it into percentage, thereby giving the number of fundamental
circuits as a percentage of the maximum number possible. The higher the index, the greater is
the degree of connectivity in the network.

Figure 4.4 shows two networks having the same number of vertices but different structures. It
may be observed that the maximum number of possible circuits in the two networks is only 5,
that is, (2v – 5). In the case of the first network, the number of actual circuits is zero and hence
it takes the minimum value that is = 0. In the second network, only two circuits have been
formed and hence 2/5 = 0.40.
Gamma Index (ү):

The gamma index (y) is a ratio between the observed number of edges and vertices of a given
transportation network. For a non-planar graph, the gamma index has been defined as:

ү=e/3(v – 2)

Stated in other words, y is a ratio of the observed number of edges (e) to the maximum number
of edges in as planar graph. The connectivity as measured by y index varies from a set of nodes
having no interconnection to the one in which every node has an edge connected to every other
node in the graph.

The connectivity of the network is evaluated in terms of the degree to which the network
deviates from an unconnected graph and approximates a maximally connected one. The
numerical range for the gamma index is between 0 and 1. This measure may be written in the
form of percentage and would thus range from 0 to 100. Figure 4.5 shows the maximal connec-
tivity. It is evident from the figure that for a planar graph, the addition of each vertex to the
system increases the maximum number of edges by three. This proposition is true for any
planar network with more than two vertices.

Cyclomatic Number:

Cyclomatic number is a different way of measuring connectivity. This is based upon the
condition that as soon as a connected network has enough arcs or links to form a tree, then any
additional arcs will result in the formation of circuits. Thus, the number of circuits in a
connected network equals the total number of arcs minus the number of arcs required to form
a tree, i.e., one less than the nodes or vertices. It may be written as:

Cyclomatic number = a – (n – 1)

Or

a–n+1

Where a equals the number of arcs and n the number of nodes. This formula applies to a
connected graph, where there happens to be two or more sub-graphs. Then, the formula for
cyclomatic number is:

a–n+x

where x equals the number of subgraphs. This has also been expressed as:

Cyclomatic number (µ) = e – v + p

e = number of edges or arcs

v = number of vertices or nodes

p = number of non-connected subgraphs

The relationship of the cyclomatic number with the network structure has been examined
through Figure 4.6. Let us consider a network consisting of four nodes A, B, C, and D.
In a disconnected position or a tree type graph it has a cyclomatic number of 0, whereas as the
graph move closer and closer to a completely connected state, the cyclomatic number
increases. The limitation of the cyclomatic number arises since it depends upon the number of
vertices and edges only.

2. Centrality within a Network:

D. Koning has developed an index known as Koning Number for describing the degree of
centrality of any node on a network. The koning number for each node is calculated by adding
up the number of arcs from each other node using the shortest path available. For example, in
Figure 4.7, point D has the lowest number and is, therefore, the most central node in the
network.

3. Spread and Diameter of Networks:

Kansky has developed two useful indices to measure the diameter and spread of a network.
These are Pi (π) index and Eta (η) index.

Pi Index (π):

Kansky (1963) has developed Pi index (π) for the analysis of transport network when the focus
of enquiry is to investigate the relationship between the transportation network as a whole and
its diameter. The ratio between the length of the network and the length of the networks
diameter would always be a real number, analogous to π. Therefore, the π index may be written
as:

π= total distance of network/ distance of diameter

Or

π=c/d

where c = total mileage of a given transport network

d=diameter

The application of π index to transportation network would give a numerical value which would
be greater than or equal to one. Higher numerical values will be ascribed to more complicated
networks and it would reflect higher degree of development of the network.

Eta Index (n):

The eta index () is quite useful when some spatial characteristic of the network are under
examination. This is also indicative of spread of a network. The eta index (n) is given by the
formula:

Η = total network distance/ number of arcs

or

η= M/E

where M = total network length in kms

E = the observed number of edges

Because the numerator is measured in kilometres, therefore, the ratio is not scale free but
represents the average length of an edge of the network. This index is useful in examining the
utility of a given transport network. Kansky (1953) has used this index in analysing the transport
network data for a number of countries.

4. Detours:
The straight routes between two places or direct routes (also known as ‘desire line’) are the
routes, which travellers used to follow because of their shortest distance. But straight routes
are, however, seldom to be found in reality; even the most direct route in practice deviates from
straight line. This type of deflection is very common due to physical obstacles. Such deviations
can be measured by the detour index where:

Detour index= actual route distance/ straight line distance × 100/1

In other words, the detour index is the actual journey distance calculated as a percentage of the
desire line distance. In fact, the actual route distance is almost always longer than the desire
line distance, then the detour index will be greater, in almost all cases, than 100 and in the
nature of things can never be less than 100. It is obvious that lower the detour index, the more
direct is a given route. The detour index is used for assessing the effects which the addition or
abstraction of links produce in a given network.

Accessibility:

One of the most important attributes of a transportation network relates to accessibility, and
the geographer is particularly concerned with accessibility as a locational feature. (Robinson and
Bamford, 1978: 78). When examining a transportation network, a geographer is also interested
in node-linkage associations in terms of accessibility.

The structure of a network, changes in response to the addition of new linkages or the
improvement of existing linkages. These changes are reflected in changes in nodal accessibility.
The measurement of nodal accessibility is based on graph theory.

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1. A Case Study of the Spatial Pattern of Road Transport in Ghaggar Plain

2. Road Transport Connectivity Pattern and Economic Development in Rajasthan

3. Structural Analysis of Transport Networks: Network Graphs and Types

4. 3 Important International Transport Systems

A Case Study of the Spatial
Pattern of Road Transport in
Ghaggar Plain
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The Ghaggar plain is a micro-geo-historic region of India

covering Ganganagar and Hanumangarh districts of the
Rajasthan State, as identified by R.L. Singh (1971) and C.D.
Deshpande (1982). River Ghaggar is known as a ‘dead river’
and at present it is simply in the form of dry bed, flooded
during rains. An important characteristic feature of this
region is that it was humid in very ancient period, became
arid afterwards and with the availability of canal water
converted as an agricultural region, not only of the state but
of India. Among various means of transportation, road
transport plays a vital role in the transformation of the
regional economy of the region.

Spatial Pattern:
The simple distribution pattern of road transportation as
shown in Figure 4.12 indicates that although all the tehsils
are well served by roads, yet Suratgarh, Anupgarh, Nohar
and Ganganagar tehsils are having 12.9, 11.2,11.1, and 10.1
per cent of the district road length respectively. In year 1981
the road length per 100 sq. kms was 10.27 kms and per
1,000 populations was only 1.05 kms.
For intensive spatial analysis of road transportation in a
micro-region like Ghaggar plain, there is a need for network
analysis. Transport network, as described by Kansky (1963),
is “a set of geographic locations inter-connected in a system
by a number of routes”. The present analysis is based on
three aspects, viz.,

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(i) Connectivity,

(ii) Accessibility, and

(iii) Traffic-flow.

i. Connectivity:
“The connectivity of a network may be defined as the degree
of completeness of the links between nodes” (Robinson and
Bamfrod, 1978: 74). Connectivity can be measured by beta
index (β) (B = arcs/nodes), alpha index (r = a-n-1/2n – 5),
gamma index (ү =arcs/3(nodes – 2)) and cyclomatic number
= a – (n -1). (Where α equals the number of arcs and n the
number of nodes.) We have selected, Beta and Gamma index
for the analysis of spatial pattern of connectivity. Table 4.1
indicates the tehsilwise value of these two variables.

The value of beta index in the region varies from 1.22 for
Karanpur tehsil to 1.62 for Padampur tehsil. In fact, there is
very little variation in beta index value, thus, indicates the
uniform spatial pattern of connectivity. The gamma index is
a value that always lies between 0.000 and 1.00. The
analysis of gamma index value also shows little variation
0.48 to 0.72 and as many as seven tehsils are having gamma
index value between 0.48 and 0.53. Thus, we can conclude
that connectivity in the region under study is more or less
uniform with little regional variations.

ii. Accessibility:
‘One of the most important attributes of a transportation
network relates to accessibility, and the geographer is
particularly concerned with accessibility as a locational
feature (Robinson and Bamford, 1978: 78). Several methods
have been used to measure and/or represent the
accessibility. The traditional one is the distance measured
along routes or from centres. Thus an area adjoining to a
route or centres is more accessible and inaccessibility
increases with the distance from routes.

Within network, accessibility can be measured in three

ways:
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(i) By shortest path matrix,

(ii) By the associated number, and

(iii) By the Shimbel Index.

For the present study shortest-path matrix method had been

used. The method follows the number of arcs used in the
shortest-path between all possible pairs of nodes. Table 4.2
is the shortest-path matrix between 12 important centres of
the Ghaggar plain, thus indicates the accessibility at these
points. When the totals of each row are added up, the lowest
total indicates the node, which is most accessible, while the
highest number indicates the least accessible node. It
becomes clear from the table that Hanumangarh and
Suratgarh are most accessible followed by Sriganganagar,
while Bhadra and Nohar are having lesser accessibility.
iii. Traffic Flow:
Internal bus-traffic flow is an indicator of the movement
pattern of people. The present analysis is based on daily bus-
traffic flow between important centres of the region. The
daily bus-traffic flow between 14 centres has been examined
by arranging them in a matrix (Table 4.3). The total score of
each centres represents the degree of traffic flow. Thus,
Sriganganagar and Hanumangarh possess highest bus
services, while Tibi, Bhadra and Nohar are having lowest
score in terms of daily bus-traffic flow.
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Transport Network as a Matrix (Explained With Diagram)

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Any network may be represented as a matrix with rows as set of origins and the columns as the
set of destinations. The number of rows and columns would correspond to the number of nodes
in the network. By convention, the horizontal rows of a matrix are identified as a set of origin
nodes and the vertical columns of the matrix are defined as a set of destination nodes. Each cell
entry in the matrix may be used to record some information on the relationship between a pair
of nodes.

Any node which is well connected to other nodes in a network is said to be accessible. Figure
4.8 shows five nodes linked together by a series of arcs and it can be seen at a glance that node
A is the most accessible. But such assessment is not possible in more complex network involving
larger number of nodes and alternative routes.

In such cases, accessibility can be found out by compiling a matrix commonly known as shortest
path matrix as demonstrated in Figure 4.8. In this matrix, A count is made of the number of arcs
separating the various nodes and inserting the appropriate number in appropriate box: for
instance, the number of arcs separating A from B, C, D and E, respectively is 1, 1, 1 and 2 and E
from A, B, C and D respectively 2, 3, 3 and 1. The totals of each row can be added up and the
lowest total indicates the node, which is most accessible. In this case, ‘A’ is having a total of 5
(lowest) thus most accessible while ‘E’ is the least accessible with highest total of 9.

Topologically, accessibility can be measured in three ways:

(i) By shortest path matrix – the number of arcs used in the shortest path between all possible
pairs (as shown in Figure 4.8)

(ii) By the associated number – the number of arcs needed to connect a node to the most
distant node from it; and

(iii) By the Shimbel Index, derived from the shortest path matrix, which indicates the number of
arcs needed to connect any node with all the other nodes in the network by the shortest path.

Figure 4.9 indicates the accessibility, as measured by associated number and Shimbel Index.
From the graph in Figure 4.9, a shortest path matrix has been prepared in the appropriate
squares the number of arcs in taking the shortest path between all the paired nodes. The top
row of figures in the matrix gives the number of arcs in the shortest paths from node A to all the
other nodes; the second row from node B to all the others; and so on.

Since the associated number is the number of arcs needed to connect a node to the most
distant node from it, the associated number is the highest number in each row, e.g., in row A, 4
and in row F, 3. Thus E, with an associated number 2, is the most accessible of all nodes. If we
add up all the associated numbers and divide the total by the number of nodes, we get the
mean associated number and a low mean figure (in this case 23/7 = 3.3).

While Shimbel Index can be derived from the shortest path matrix – the total of each row gives
the Shimbel Index. In Figure 4.9, A and B are having Shimbel Index of 13, C and D 11, E-9, F-12
and G-17. Since E is having lowest value of all the rows, it is most accessible of all the nodes by
the Shimbel Index.

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Nodal accessibility is often explained in terms of degree of a node. According to measures

discussed above the accessibility is obtained directly from the connectivity matrix. A summation
of the individual rows of the matrix produces a column, or vector, or values, in other words, the
degree of a node. But the degree of a node has serious limitations as a measure of accessibility.
For surface modes of transport, accessibility involves more than the direct connection between
nodal pairs.

The indirect connections, i.e., a linkage between a pair of nodes which passes through one or
more intermediate are also important, therefore, a suitable measure should take into
consideration for both direct and indirect connections. It is possible to manipulate the
connectivity matrix to derive two measures of accessibility – one related directly to structure
and another related to topological distance by matrix multiplication. Matrix multiplication
involves the element-by- element multiplication of the row in a matrix by the columns of
another.

To derive a value for the cell of the first row and first column of the matrix, we multiply the first
column times by the first row – that is, we multiply the first element in row 1 by the first
element in column 1. Then, we multiply the second element in row 1 by the second element in
column 1, and so on. Figure 4.10 shows the matrix multiplication in a two-linkage path.

The value can be recorded as:

What is Cij.Ckj? It is indirect connection, or path of two linkages from node i to node j. If we sum
all the matrices recording indirect paths between the nodes, the result is a matrix specifying all
direct and indirect connections between the nodes of the network, as depicted in Figure 4.11 in
which the matrices as c, c2, c3 and c4 are summed to give a matrix T that enumerates the total of
all direct and indirect connections of a sample network. In fact matrix T is a representation of
the accessibility surface of the network. Using the row sums of the matrix T, we can rank nodes
in terms of their relative position (accessibility) on the network. The higher the value of the row
sum the greater the accessibility of the node.
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