Topic: Cells

Sub topic: Cell Theory

Parts of a Plant Cell
Parts of Animal Cell

INTRODUCTION:
This module on the course Biological Science provides information about theories created about
cells. It also presents parts of animal and plant cells together with its differences.

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of this module, you should be able to:
1. examine the concept of Cell Theory;
2. identify parts and functions of Plant and Animal Cell; and
3. compare and contrast parts of plant and animal cells.

CELL THEORY
Cell theory is a proposed and widely accepted view of how most life on Earth functions. According
to the theory, all organisms are made of cells. Groups of cells create tissues, organs, and organisms. Further,
cells can only arise from other cells. These are the main tenants of cell theory.

3 Parts of Cell Theory

Cell theory has three major hypotheses:

 First, all organisms are made of cells.

 Second, cells are the fundamental building blocks used to create tissues, organs, and entire
functioning organisms.
 The third, and probably most important part of the theory is that cells can only arise from other
cells.
Thus, all organisms start as single cells. These cells grow, divide through mitosis, and develop into multi-
celled organisms. Mitosis is a form of cell division that produces identical cells. These cells can then
differentiate when given different signals to produce different types of tissues and organs. This is how large
and complex organisms are made. Single-celled organisms divide as well, but when they divide, the cells
separate into two new individuals. This is known as asexual reproduction.

Cell Theory Examples

A. Single-Celled Organisms

Single-celled organisms are a great way to study cell theory. With modern microscopes, the
processes behind cell theory can easily be viewed and studied. A great example of watching cell theory
in action can be accomplished by putting a drop of pond water under a microscope. Euglena organisms
are seen in the water just after reproduction. Minutes before, these two cells were one. Euglena
reproduces through simple cellular division. The DNA in the parent organism is duplicated, as are the
internal organelles. Then, the large cell divides into two equally-sized smaller cells, as seen in the picture.
These two cells are now independent organisms. Each will try to survive, grow, and eventually reproduce
again.

b. In Plants

Cells were first discovered in plants. Plants, unlike the other examples in this article, have large
structures called cell walls, which enable the plant to remain rigid. These cell walls are easily visible, even
with the first microscope invented in 1665. Robert Hooke, the man who first identified cells, did so using a
simple microscope aimed at a thin slice of cork. He drew what he saw, and published it in a book about
microscopy. In a thin slice of cork, Hooke was clearly looking at cells. In fact, with a better microscope, he
likely could have seen the cells in action and the many organelles inside. Instead, Hooke did not come to
the immediate conclusion that all organisms were made of cells. He assumed the structures were limited
to the tissues of plants. It was not until the 1840s that cell theory would be largely accepted by science.

c. In Animals

In 1839, scientist Theodor Schwann presented evidence that animals, like plants, were also
fundamentally composed of different types of cells. Modern microscopy techniques allow scientists a much
more comprehensive and accurate view of cells compared to early scientists. A scanning electron
micrograph of red blood cells, distinctly shows how our red blood cells are separate, functional units of the
human body. Like red blood cells, every part of the body is composed of different types of cells. According
to cell theory, all of these cells are derived from the zygote, which is a single cell that results from
the fertilization of an egg with a sperm. This cell then divides, replicates, and begins to differentiate into
the many different cell types of the body. Eventually, a fully-functional organism is formed.
PARTS OF A PLANT CELL

Plant cells are the basic unit of life in organisms of the kingdom Plantae. They are eukaryotic cells,
which have a true nucleus along with specialized structures called organelles that carry out different functions.
Plant cells have special organelles called chloroplasts, which create sugars via photosynthesis. They also
have a cell wall that provides structural support.

Animal and plant cells share many common organelles. However, there are some specialized
structures in plant cells, including chloroplasts, a large vacuole, and the cell wall

Parts of a Plant Cell

A diagram of a plant cell with the organelles labeled

The plant cell has many different features that allow it to carry out its functions. Each of these
structures, called organelles, carry out a specialized role.

1. Chloroplasts

Chloroplasts are disk-shaped organelles that are surrounded by a double membrane. Chloroplasts
are specialized organelles found only in plants and some types of algae. These organelles carry out the
process of photosynthesis, which turns water, carbon dioxide, and light energy into nutrients from which the
plant can obtain energy. There can be over one hundred chloroplasts in certain plant cells.
Between the outer and inner membrane is a thin intermembrane space that is about 10-20
nanometers wide. The center of the chloroplast that is enclosed by the double membrane is a fluid matrix
called the stroma. Within the stroma, there are many structures called thylakoids, which look like flattened
disks. Thylakoids are stacked on top of one another in vascular plants in stacks called grand. Thylakoids
have a high concentration of chlorophyll and carotenoids, which are pigments that capture light energy from
the sun. The molecule chlorophyll is also what gives plants their green color.

Labeled diagram of a chloroplast

2. Vacuoles

Plant cells are unique in that they have a large central vacuole. A vacuole is a small sphere
of plasma membrane within the cell that can contain fluid, ions, and other molecules. Vacuoles are essentially
just large vesicles. The central vacuole of a plant cell helps maintain its turgor pressure, which is the pressure
of the contents of the cell pushing against the cell wall. A plant thrives best when its cells have high turgidity,
and this occurs when the central vacuole is full of water. If turgor pressure in the plants decreases, the plants
begin to wilt. Plant cells fare best in hypotonic solutions, where there is more water in the environment than
in the cell. Under these conditions, water rushes into the cell by osmosis, and turgidity is high.

3. Cell Wall

The cell wall is a tough layer found on the outside of the plant cell that gives it strength and also
maintains high turgidity. In plants, the cell wall contains mainly cellulose, along with other molecules like
hemicellulose, pectin, and lignin. The composition of the plant cell wall differentiates it from the cell walls of
other organisms.
Plant cells have a primary cell wall, which is a flexible layer formed on the outside of a growing plant
cell. Plants can also have a secondary cell wall, a tough, thick layer formed inside the primary plant cell wall
when the cell is mature.

Other Organelles

Plant cells have many other organelles that are essentially the same as organelles in other types of
eukaryotic cells, such as animal cells.

 The nucleus contains deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA), the cell’s genetic material. DNA contains
instructions for making proteins, which controls all of the body’s activities. The nucleus also
regulates the growth and division of the cell.
 Proteins are synthesized in ribosomes, modified in the endoplasmic reticulum, and folded,
sorted, and packaged into vesicles in the Golgi apparatus.
 Mitochondria are also found in plant cells. They produce ATP through cellular respiration.
Photosynthesis in the chloroplasts provides the nutrients that mitochondria break down for use
in cellular respiration. Interestingly, both chloroplasts and mitochondria are thought to have
formed from bacteria being engulfed by other cells in an endosymbiotic (mutually beneficial)
relationship, and they did so independently of each other.
 The liquid within the cells is the cytosol. It is mostly made of water, and also contains ions,
proteins, and small molecules. Cytosol and all the organelles within it, except for the nucleus, are
called the cytoplasm.
 The cytoskeleton is a network of filaments and tubules found throughout the cytoplasm of the
cell. It has many functions; it gives the cell shape, provides strength, stabilizes tissues, anchors
organelles within the cell, and has a role in cell signaling. The cell membrane, a
double phospholipid layer, surrounds the entire cell.
PARTS OF ANIMAL CELL

1. Centrioles - Centrioles are self-replicating organelles made up of nine bundles of microtubules and
are found only in animal cells. They appear to help in organizing cell division, but aren't essential to
the process.
2. Cilia and Flagella - For single-celled eukaryotes, cilia and flagella are essential for the locomotion of
individual organisms. In multicellular organisms, cilia function to move fluid or materials past an
immobile cell as well as moving a cell or group of cells.
3. Endoplasmic Reticulum - The endoplasmic reticulum is a network of sacs that manufactures,
processes, and transports chemical compounds for use inside and outside of the cell. It is connected
to the double-layered nuclear envelope, providing a pipeline between the nucleus and the cytoplasm.
4. Endosomes and Endocytosis - Endosomes are membrane-bound vesicles, formed via a complex
family of processes collectively known as endocytosis, and found in the cytoplasm of virtually every
animal cell. The basic mechanism of endocytosis is the reverse of what occurs during exocytosis or
cellular secretion. It involves the invagination (folding inward) of a cell's plasma membrane to
surround macromolecules or other matter diffusing through the extracellular fluid.
5. Golgi Apparatus - The Golgi apparatus is the distribution and shipping department for the cell's
chemical products. It modifies proteins and fats built in the endoplasmic reticulum and prepares them
for export to the outside of the cell.
6. Intermediate Filaments - Intermediate filaments are a very broad class of fibrous proteins that play
an important role as both structural and functional elements of the cytoskeleton. Ranging in size from
8 to 12 nanometers, intermediate filaments function as tension-bearing elements to help maintain
cell shape and rigidity.
7. Lysosomes - The main function of these microbodies is digestion. Lysosomes break down cellular
waste products and debris from outside the cell into simple compounds, which are transferred to the
cytoplasm as new cell-building materials.
8. Microfilaments - Microfilaments are solid rods made of globular proteins called actin. These filaments
are primarily structural in function and are an important component of the cytoskeleton.
9. Microtubules - These straight, hollow cylinders are found throughout the cytoplasm of all eukaryotic
cells (prokaryotes don't have them) and carry out a variety of functions, ranging from transport to
structural support.
10. Mitochondria - Mitochondria are oblong shaped organelles that are found in the cytoplasm of every
eukaryotic cell. In the animal cell, they are the main power generators, converting oxygen and
nutrients into energy.
11. Nucleus - The nucleus is a highly specialized organelle that serves as the information processing
and administrative center of the cell. This organelle has two major functions: it stores the cell's
hereditary material, or DNA, and it coordinates the cell's activities, which include growth, intermediary
metabolism, protein synthesis, and reproduction (cell division).
12. Peroxisomes - Microbodies are a diverse group of organelles that are found in the cytoplasm, roughly
spherical and bound by a single membrane. There are several types of microbodies but peroxisomes
are the most common.
13. Plasma Membrane - All living cells have a plasma membrane that encloses their contents. In
prokaryotes, the membrane is the inner layer of protection surrounded by a rigid cell wall. Eukaryotic
animal cells have only the membrane to contain and protect their contents. These membranes also
regulate the passage of molecules in and out of the cells.
14. Ribosomes - All living cells contain ribosomes, tiny organelles composed of approximately 60
percent RNA and 40 percent protein. In eukaryotes, ribosomes are made of four strands of RNA. In
prokaryotes, they consist of three strands of RNA.
Animals, fungi, and protists are made of at least one eukaryotic cell. In contrast, bacteria and
archaea are made up of a single prokaryotic cell. Plant cells are differentiated from the cells of other
organisms by their cell walls, chloroplasts, and central vacuole.

Other organisms, such as animals, rely on this oxygen and glucose to survive. Plants are
considered autotrophic because they produce their own food and do not have to consume any other
organisms. Specifically, plant cells are photoautotrophic because they use light energy from the sun
to produce glucose. Organisms that eat plants and other animals are considered heterotrophic.

.For example, fungi cell walls contain chitin, and bacterial cell walls contain peptidoglycan.
These substances are not found in plants. Importantly, the main difference between plant and animal
cells is that plant cells have a cell wall, while animal cells do not.

Many animal cells also have vacuoles, but these are much smaller and tend to play a less
crucial function.