WHAT IS PHILOSOPHY?

The use of the term philosophy is attributed to Pythagoras as he is said to be the first to
use it when he differentiated the three classes of people who attend the ancient Olympic Games
as (1) lovers of gain, (2) lovers of honor, and (3) lovers of knowledge or wisdom. According to
Pythagoras, the third class of people is the best kind who goes to the games as they are spectators
who seek to arrive at the truth. They neither seek profit (as represented by the first class of
people who sells their wares for money) nor compete in the games for honor (as represented by
the second class of people). He called this class of people philosophers.
When you look for the meaning of philosophy in dictionary, encyclopedia, or any search
engine on the Internet, you will be led to its etymology. The word philosophy is , derived from
philosophia which is a combination of the Greek terms philos (love) and Sophia (wisdom). Thus,
philosophy mean “love of wisdom.”
Many philosophers argue that there is more to philosophy than its etymology. Some say that
philosophy cannot be defined because its definition is one of the problems of philosophy.
Despite the varying definitions of philosophy, it does not mean, however, that there are no
recognized definitions, characterization, or common notions about it.

Philosophy comes from the two Greek words philos, which means “love’, and Sophia which
means ‘wisdom’, hence, philosophy literally means “love of Wisdom.”

The Subject Matter of Philosophy

In the three concepts of Philosophy, Armando Bonifacio explained that characterizing
philosophy can begin with the common conceptions about it. One of the common conceptions
that he agrees to is that people, though unconsciously, have a philosophy in life: “The
fundamental values or some basic assumptions about things, persons, institutions, and others
which form presuppositions that influence one’s beliefs, decisions, and actions.” Another
conception is that the activity of reflecting on and analyzing one’s beliefs or reasons for actions
or decisions could be a kind of philosophy as well. Lastly, philosophy could also be a
reconstructed belief or a value system which shows a universal and comprehensive character as a
result of reflection and analysis in a more comprehensive and systematic manner.
Another view on philosophy is as a study of subjects which can be understood on how
they are talked about. In other words, philosophical understanding is not making some discovery
about the world, but deciding on how to talk. Talking about subjects means (1) investigating the
meaning of concepts or proposal of a new term in order to advance some area of philosophical
inquiry, (2) critiquing the use of these terms; or (3) a combination of both. The question is,
“What subjects can be talked about?”
There are two differences between philosophical and non-philosophical subjects. The
first is the fundamental importance of philosophical subjects to a reflective person. Hence, what
is considered as philosophical subjects are mattering a reflective person believes in, counts as
real, and considers as good which shapes his or her life. The second is the lack of general
agreement on how the subjects of concern may be defined. Philosophers would agree that there
is no one characterization for how a subject may be talked about. There may be one definition
which prevails, but so far, problems in philosophy are still problems because there has never
been one answer yet to questions on philosophical subjects such as the following:
 What is knowledge?
 What is the nature of the self?
 Does God exist?
 What is the standard of beauty?
 Is there a universal morality?
Since philosophers agree that there is a lack of a general agreement to how philosophical
subjects are defined, philosophy becomes an ongoing activity because there may be many and
varied answers to fundamental questions.
Big Idea: Philosophical subjects differ from non-philosophical ones because they have a
fundamental importance to a reflective person and there is a lack of a general agreement on how
subjects of concern may be defined.

The Major Branches of Philosophy

Philosophy covers a wide range of subjects. The following are the major branches of
philosophy.
ETHICS
Ethics, which derived from the Greek term ethos, meaning “moral philosophy,” is
concerned about human conduct. As a normative study, it deals with norms or standards of right
and wrong applicable to human behavior. It is considered as prescriptive as it prescribes what
people ought to do rather than describes what people do. A philosopher engaged in ethics is
concerned in finding out what norms or standards of human behavior lead to ends or goals which
are desirable or undesirable. His or her evaluation and analysis are directed toward knowing
whether there are higher human ends that may be considered as the chief end of man. What
constitutes this end is analyzed through the nature of a human being and his or her moral and
social virtues in relation with others.
The systematic reflections in ethics will lead to an understanding of the concept of right
and wrong and conceptions about morality which affects one’s actions toward others. Thus,
ethics helps people prioritize their values.
AESTHETICS
Aesthetics, comes from the Greek word aisthetikos which means “sensitive” or
“perceptive.” In this branch of philosophy, the philosopher is concerned with the analysis of
aesthetic experience and the idea of what is beautiful. The analysis is directed toward the nature
of aesthetic judgment, standards of beauty, and the objectivity of these standards in response to
the questions raised about the meaning of aesthetic experience.
In aesthetics, philosophers analyze whether beauty is based on utility, experience, form,
pleasure, or expression. For example, if you look at a painting or any kind of artwork, what are
your bases of judgment to say that it is beautiful? How does a panel of judges decide who wins a
beauty pageant? How are paintings priced?

EPISTEMOLOGY
Epistemology comes form the Greek word episteme which means “knowledge”. Thus
this branch of philosophy deals with various problems concerning knowledge. Among the major
concerns in epistemology are the origin of knowledge-whether empiricm (given by experience)
or rationalism (given by the mind prior to experience)-and the verification or confirmation of
knowledge. Other highly specialized problems in this branch of philosophy include the
distinction between belief and knowledge, the nature of truth, the problems of perception, the
external world, and meaning and other minds.
For example, determining whether there is an objective truth and investigating the bases
of certainty are among the specific problems tackled in epistemology. Thus, epistemology can
be helpful in making judgments such as in the courts of law.

LOGIC
Logic is the branch of philosophy that looks into whether there are rules or principles that
govern reasoning. As a study reasoning, logic incorporates the analysis of the methods of
deduction and induction to provide the rules on how people ought to think logically. Knowing
the rules of logic gives a person the techniques to create sound arguments and avoid fallacious
reasoning. Logic also increases one’s ability to reason correctly and distinguish irrational
reasoning.

METAPHYSICS
Metaphysics literally means “after physics.” Early Greek philosophers claimed that it is
the study of the nature of reality. The branch of philosophy analyzes whether everything is
material, and if life, energy, and mind are its different manifestations. Meta physicians reflect on
the subject of appearances (how something looks by how it appears) and reality (that which
actually is).
Some examples of specific questions that meta physicians reflect upon are following:
 What is the meaning of life?
 What is the purpose of life?
 Does God exist?

Thus far, you are introduced to some of the areas that philosophy is concerned with. Each
branch informs you on how reflection and analysis may be used in the discourse of topics and
issues which concern humans. Your understanding of these concepts and philosophical
inquiry and reflection will also allow you to clarify what you believe in, value and recognize
as the source or basis of your actions.

Big Idea: philosophy covers a wide range of subjects such as ethics, aesthetics,
epistemology, logic, and metaphysics.

Brief History of Philosophy

Pre-philosophical Period
Even before the birth of natural philosophy, people had already attempted to explain the
origin of things and the events or occurrences in nature. Such attempts are evident in the
folklores, myths, and legends that the ancient peoples---the ancient Babylonians, Chinese,
Hindus, Egyptians, and the Greeks most notably-believed in. However, these stories are
characterized by religious elements or supernatural powers and not by natural or rational
explanation.

Pre-Socratic period
(Miletians)
Philosophy is said to have begun in the Ionic colonies of Asia Minor around 6th century
BC through Thales of Miletus (Turner, 1903; Russel, 1945). Thales, who is known as the
first Greek philosopher and the father of philosophy, is regarded as the first to engage in the
inquiry of searching for causes and principles of the natural world and various phenomena
without relying on supernatural explanation and divine components. By observing nature, he
believed that the earth floats on water, while it is considered as the first/ultimate substance.
Another Miletian is the philosopher Anaximander who also wondered about the
beginning of the universe and where it came from. More systematic than Thales,
Anaximander claimed that the universe was formed from the boundless (Greek apeiron)
which is both the first principle (arche) and the substance (stoicheion) of the universe. On
the other hand, Anaximenes, another miletian, argued that air was the fundamental element.
Through the process of refraction or compression, the air surrounds Earth in a more or less
compress state.

(Heraclitus of Ephesus and Xenophanes of Colophon)

Heraclitus and Xenophanes continued the Miletian claim of a single, proper substance.
They also offered a cosmological account, but they expanded their focus on the human subject
and investigated the nature of inquiry itself in the physical explanations they provided.
Heraclitus claimed the “unity of opposites” in characterizing the cosmos and went further as to
express that to understand these characterizations is to inquire of the logos (an objective law-like
principle) and be able to speak the language of the logos. Xenophanes, on the other hand,
claimed that there is a single god. He did not subscribe to the idea of an anthropomorphic god,
whom many people believed in his time. Xenophanes suggested that if gods are “human-like”,
then horses, oxen, and lions would have equine, bovine, and leonine gods as well.

(Pythagoras and the Pythagoreans)

This group believes that the cosmos is a structured system ordered by numbers. For
them, things become knowable because they are structured in this way, the structure can
apparently be expressed in a numerical ratio. Hence, they believe that nature can be quantified.
The pre-Socratics and their points of view expressed a tendency toward observation and
analysis. Since these points of view are devoid of any mythical notions, they are already
somewhat “scientific.” Though their main concern is the nature of phenomena or what
constitutes the cosmos, testimonial (reports from ancient authors about the thinkers’ life and
thoughts) and fragments (passages taken to be direct quotations) reveal that they are also
concerned with religious and ethical thought, the nature of understanding, mathematics, and
other areas of concern. Their philosophies have influenced later philosophers and are said to
extend to the whole of Western Philosophy.

(Socrates and the Socratic Schools)

The second period in the history of Greek philosophy is comparatively short but it is
considered the most flourishing. This period was dominated by the three famous philosophers-
Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle. The philosophers in this period mainly had to answer the problem
of how to save the intellectual and moral life of the nation, which was threatened by materialism
and skepticism.
(Socrates)
Socrates left no writings at all and yet he has greatly influenced western philosophical
tradition through Plato’s Dialogues. Socrates is best known for the elenchus, or the Socartic
method. It is a method of question and answer which aims to provoke the one being asked to
think for himself or herself and to clarify his or her conceptions about what is asked. Socrates is
also regarded as the one who urged self-examination and claimed that “the unexamined life is not
worth living.

Medieval Period: Scholasticism

The medieval period in the history of philosophy is described as the confluence of faith
and reason. Philosophers in this period used philosophy as a handmaid of theology. Concerned
with proving God’s existence and understanding what is man in relation with God, scholasticism
directed its inquiry on how reason can be used to provide proofs that God exists. They also
attempted to reconcile Greek philosophy and Christin theology. Among the recognized main
philosophers during this period are St. Anselm, who is known for his ontological argument for
the existence of God in Proslogion; St. Augustine, who promoted the “argument by analogy” or
the philosophical idea that only one’s own existence is the only thing that is real, and St. Thomas
Aquinas, who is famous for his influential work Summa Theologica which explains his views on
the creation and government of the universe, the origin and nature of man, and human destiny,
among others, through Catholic theology.
The medieval philosophers’ attempt to reconcile faith and reason reveals that reflection
and analysis may be used to clarify thought or provide pieces of evidence as proofs for a topic
important to human like religious beliefs. You need to realize as well that philosophy is beyond
a recognized authority because beliefs of the church are placed under reflection, criticism, and
analysis.

Modern Period: Rationalism, Empiricism, and Kant Philosophy

The modern tradition in the history of philosophy is recognized to be concerned about
problems or issues on knowledge. It is often described as dominated by two schools of thought
rationalism and empiricism-and ends with synthesis made by Immanuel Kant. The reflections
and analysis are directed toward answering the questions on the nature of knowledge and the
verification and types of knowledge claims to be known by humans.
(Rationalism)
The rationalists Rene Descartes, Baruch Spinoza, and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz believe
that reason is the sole source of knowledge. Verification of truth is through the Correspondence
Theory of Truth and types of knowledge are limited to analytic or formal knowledge of
mathematics and logic.
(Empiricism)
Empiricists believe that aside from reason, experience is also a source of knowledge. The
five senses connected to the world can be used to determine what can be known; hence, truth is
based on what corresponds to reality, and empirical claims about the world is also accepted as
knowledge.
(Immanuel Kant and Synthetic a Priori Knowledge)
In the Critique of Pure Reason, Kant examined the extent to which human reason is
capable of a priori (formed beforehand) knowledge. His goal is to criticize reason by reason
itself to establish a secure and consistent basis for science, religion, and morality.
The rationalists, empiricists, and Immanuel kant provided different perspectives on one
specific concern the nature of knowledge and knowledge claims. Each school of thought
espouses a conception of knowledge based on its origin which gives knowledge seekers a wider
perspective and increased understanding of an im portant area in the life of humans. In a later
module, you will have an opportunity to reflect upon some important concerns on knowledge
especially about truth and wisdom.
However, the modern period also produced political theorists espousing the nature of a
social contract necessary for achieving a harmonious society based on the very nature of man.

Contemporary Period: The Analytic and the Continental Tradition

The most difficult period to characterize is the philosophical tradition which dominated
western thought in the 20th century. Because of various conceptions and concerns, historians of
philosophy would often distinguish between the analytic and the continental tradition in its
broadest sense.

(Analytic Tradition)
This school of thought, which dominated English-speaking countries, is concentrated on
logical analysis of language to solve the problems which beset philosophy. The philosophers
under this tradition espouse a method of verification which only accepts as meaningful and true
those which can be investigated by science. Among the philosophers who propose analysis in
philosophy are Bertrand Russell, George Edward Moore, and Ludwig Wittgenstein. However,
their conception differs from one another. Russell’s conception involves an analysis of
meaningfulness of descriptions as opposed to names the designate or denote a subject. For
Moore, on the other hand, analysis is decomposing complex concepts into their simple
constituents. Meanwhile, Wittgenstein believes that the task of philosophy is to carefully
analyze ordinary language use, known as linguistic analysis.
(Continental Tradition)
This philosophical tradition dominated the English-speaking countries outside the
analytic tradition during the 19th and the later 20th centuries. German idealism, phenomenology
and existentialism, hermeneutics, Structuralism, post-structuralism, and French feminism are
some of the movements within this tradition. What is common among these movements is their
belief that the scientific method is insufficient to provide an explanation of the world. In the
analysis, continental tradition takes into account the conceptions of the past and the views that
any analysis is contextualized in history. Moreover movements under the continental tradition
focus on the centrality of human action as a constitutive part, and any analysis under the
continental tradition is directed toward metaphilosophy to seek a reconstruction of what
philosophy is and its role in understanding knowledge, experience, and reality.
The history of philosophy is an account of the different philosophical perspectives from
different periods and for topics which were considered important to humans. This history gives
emphasis that the beauty of the philosophic discipline is understanding the world from a variety
of perspectives and reflection and analysis. Thus, a person interested in philosophizing will
scrutinize truths and explanations about the world via analysis, criticism, and deliberate
reflection.
Holistic Perspective and Partial Point of View
At this point, you might be overwhelmed by the ideas already presented. What you were
introduced to seems to be fragmented. You may also be asking, “What’s in it for me?” a
beginner in philosophy like you will have an effective understanding only if you can make sense
of the different perspectives, distinguish them from a partial point of view, and develop a holistic
perspective to see the whole or bigger picture. This manner will give you athe value of
philosophizing.
What you experienced in the previous discussions gives you a perspective of what
philosophy is based on how it is done by the different philosophers and the common notions or
characterizations of it. The discussion on each philosopher and the specific concerns each
inquired about gave you partial points of views on the nature of philosophy. On the other hand,
the synthesis of these partial points of views gave you a holistic perspective of philosophy.
The etymology of philosophy (i.e. “love of wisdom”) gives you a clue on how to
philosophize. When you love, you try to know everything about that which your love is directed
to. At first, you might be interested in knowing the material or physical manifestations of that
thing, but as your love for it grows deeper, you would want to know more about it. Like being
lover, a philosopher takes into account every detail-the partial points of views-in order to make a
synthesis and develop a holistic perspective. Hence, to philosophize is to take part in activities
which do not only give you a partial point of view but a holistic perspective emanating from
reflections and analysis.