GRADUATE SCHOOL OF STUDIES

MASTER OF ARTS IN GENERAL EDUCATION

MINDANAO STATE UNIVERSITY
GENERAL SANTOS CITY

MODULE

PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL

FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

(EDUC. 201)

JIOHARIA L. NICART, PhD.

MASTER OF ARTS IN GENERAL EDUCATION

MODULE ON PHILOSOPHICAL AND PSYCHOLOGICAL

FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

(EDUC. 201)

JIOHARIA LIM NICART, PhD.

Hello Dear Teachers! Welcome to this module on Philosophical
and Psychological Foundations of Education, (Educ. 201). This module
requires you a mastery of the scope, mature, components, implications
and contributions of philosophy and psychology to education. This also
covers the strategies and techniques you employ in your area of
specialization and discipline which were apparently derived from the
different theories, practices contributed by the World’s Greatest
Philosophers, Psychologists, Thinkers this is self-instructional and allows
you to know and explore at your space and pace.

THE WRITER

First and foremost, my gratitude to the

authors from different references, whom
most of their views were taken and some
were adopted in this presentation.
As both of us are teachers by profession, you and I share many
things in common- from dealing with our learners and their ambivalent
attitudes in the classroom setting-to dealing with the complexities of
teaching and the challenging discipline.

This module will enrich and urge us to realize the huge contributions
and implications of the Great Philosophers and Psychologists. To be an
effective teacher is a never- ending quest and remain as a challenging
legacy from the children of generation to generation.

JIOHARIA LIM NICART, PhD.

OVERVIEW

This module is designed to provide teachers for mastery of the

different philosophical and psychological outlook that have influenced to
educational theories and practices in terms of administration, curriculum,
instruction, and other aspects of education. This focuses on the
frameworks of the relation of philosophy and psychology of education
and their implications, contributions for the improvement of teaching and
learning situation.

This is a research-based instructional strategies.

Major activities are topical oral presentation via online or verbal

conferencing.

It is hoped that this module will achieve its aim of providing you the
concise self-learning material of the insights and significant issues about
the course and in carrying out all of these challenges in your classroom
setting.
OBJECTIVES

After going through this module, you should have the:

1. Mastery of the greater insights into the scope, nature and

importance of philosophical and psychological foundation to
education, its implications and contributions to administration,
curriculum, instruction and other aspects of education for the
improvement of teaching and learning situation;

2. Mastery of the different philosophical and psychological out look

that have influenced to educational theories and practices,

3. Mastery of the repertoire of effective instructional strategies in the

teaching-learning process.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

Part I- PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

Lesson A Philosophy, Education, Foundation and Educational Philosophy defined

● Importance of Philosophy

● Branches and Subdivision of Philosophy

LESSON B. The Educational Philosophies of the World’s Greatest Philosophers and

Thinkers

●Plato, Aristotle, Socrates, Confucius, Lao-Tze, Comenues, Locke, Rosseou Pestallozzi,

Froebel, Spencer and Dewey

LESSON C. Philosophical Thoughts of the Great Thinkers

C. 1 Education as a necessity of life.

C.2 Education as a social function

C.3 Education as a Direction

C.4 Education as Growth

C.4 Education as Formation

C.5 Education as a Democratic Social Function

C.6 Education as a Training Faculties

D. Classical and Contemporary Philosophies

1. Naturalism, Idealism, Progmatism, Existentialism, Behaviorism, Progressivism,

Humanism, Reveneilism, Essentialism
PART II PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

A. Theories
● Psychoanalysis
● Logotherapy
● Gestalt Psychology
● Cognitivism
● Motivation Theory
● Arousal Theory of Motivation
● Hedonistic Theory
● Incentive Theory

B. COMPONENTS OF EDUCATIVE PROCESS

1. TEACHER

1. Teacher as a Person
2. Roles of Teachers

3. Attitudes towards the Learning Process

4. Attitudes toward Teaching Effectiveness

C. LEARNER
1. Basic Principles in Growth and Development
2. Stages of Development
D. LEARNING SITUATION
1. Theories of Learning
2. Learning Theories and their application to classroom
3. Communication and a Basic Tool in Learning
Answer Key
Metaphor of the Mountain
References
PRETEST
It is exciting to flip over the pages and begin with the lesson. But, make sure that you
answer the pretest to measure how much you can remember your past lesson and
know the topic.

A. Directions: Read each item carefully. Choose the letter of the best answer.
Please write your answer on a separate paper.

1. What philosophy supports the teacher’s practice of giving lectutres and

requiring the students to memorize rules and regulations after the lecture?

A. Realism
B. Existentialism
C. Idealism
D. Perennialism
2. What philosophy believes that discussion of social needs on problems must
be included in the curriculum?

A. Perennialism
B. Social Reconstructionism
C. Progressivism
D. Existentialism
E.
3. What philosophical beliefs describes the world to make of real substantial and
material things?

A. Realism
B. Pragmation
C. Idealism
D. Social Constructionism

4. What is the Existentialist point of view relative to the aim of education?

A. To develop cognitive and power

B. To re-engineneer socially
C. To acquire productive skill
D. To know themselves and their place in society

5. What educational aim is postulated by social efficiency?

A. Idealist
B. Realist
C. Essentialist
D. Pragmatist

6. What in the following is an example of applied behaviour analysis being to

manage serious behaviour problem?

A. Giving constant reminders

B. Praising students who are behaving
C. Allowing students to be busy on meaningful task
D. Selecting punishes criteria for punishment and reinforce criteria for
reinforcement.

7. What do you call a teacher’s management technique that sets positive climate
and develops quality relationship between the teacher and students?

A. Management of Instruction
B. Management of Time
C. Management of Relationships
D. Management of Physical environment

8. Which among the given techniques is/are applicable to manage good

instructional processes?

A. The Teacher ensures that all students are involved in the lesson
B. The Teacher stays focus on the lesson and avoids jumping with out topic
transition
C. The Teacher gives students complete freedom to explore possibilities to
lean
D, Both A and B
9. Which is not an evidence of pedagogical expertise of a teacher?

A. Communication of the course objectives to the students

B. Awareness of alternative instructional strategies
C. Selection of appropriate methods of instruction
D. Adhering to the Code of Ethics of Professional Teacher

10. Why is the teacher’s authority import and in managing classroom?

A. To convince the students to behave properly

B. To make students obey all the orders of the teachers
C. To motivate the students to internalize self-discipline
D. To sow fear of the teacher to make students focus on a classroom
learning

11. All of the statements refer to

Jean Jacques Rosseau as a realist except one

A. He proposed that the progress of knowledge had made governments

more powerful
B. He minimize the importance of book learning and recommends that a
child’s emotions should be educated before his reason
C. He placed a special emphasize on learning by experience
D. Teaching should proceed from the known to the unknown (Principle of
Aperception) from the learner’s immediate lesson to the distant and
remote.

12. The Great philosopher that emphasized that the aim of education was the
social regeneration of humanity

A. Comenius
B. Rosseau
C. Pestalozzi
D. Locke
13. AN English Philosopher who postulated that, A good life was a life of pleasure
and the mind of the child at birth is similar to a blank sheet of paper which the
world proceeds to write its compression

A. Aristotle
B. Broudy
C. Locke
D. Plato

14. The founder of Pragmatism

A. James
B. Peirce
C. Dewey
D. Rorty

15. The proponent of Social Reconstrictionism

A. George Counts
B. Dewey
C. Theodore Brameld
D. Freire

16. The Brazilian Philosopher who experienced living in poverty and led him to
champion education and literacy as the vehicle for social change

A. Theodore Brameld
B. Paulo Neves Freire
C. Ivan Illich
D. Counts

17. The principles of John Amos Comenius are the following statements except
ONE statement.

A. Nature observes a suitable time

B. His major emphasis was on helping the children to learn by experience
and observation, rather than by verbalism and memorization.
C. Nature prepares the material, before she begins to give it form
D. In all the operation of nature, development is from within.

18. Classical conditioning is based on the basic stimulus-response sequential

relationship about behaviour changes. The proponent is:

A. Kilpatrick
B. Locke
C. Carl Jung
D. Ivan Pavlor

19. The following statements below are the assumptions made by Albert Bandura
except ONE statement

A. It is assumed that infants possess innate or inborn reflexes

B. Humans have a symbolizing capacity to process/ transform experiences
into models that can guide future actions
C. Individuals can learn by observation and not by trial and error
D. Any behaviour that reduces the aversive stimulation accompanying the
punishment will be reinforced.

20. The proponent of the Theory of Operant Condiiting is;

A. Ivan Pavlor
B. B. F. Skinner
C. Albert Bandure
D. Edward Thorndike
PART I. PHILOSOPHICAL FOUNDATION OF EDUCATION

(TEACHING AND LEARNING)

Lesson A. Philosophy, Education, Foundations, Educational Philosophy, Teaching

Defined.

1. Philosophy

→ It is defined as the love of wisdom.

→ It is an attempt to explain and appreciate life and the universe as a whole.

→ It signifies wisdom that would influence the conduct of life (Dewey).

→ It is a way of life and a way of looking at life, nature and truth.

→ It is the of general and fundamental problems concerning matters such as

existence,
knowledge, values, reason, mind and language (Wikipedia).

→ It is the guiding principles where education is primarily based on tenets, origins,

sources, concepts and in the attainment of its goal.

→ It is not a panacea of the problems of men, but it is that which emerges cut of the
methods employed by them to solve the problems (John Dewey).
● Origin of philosophy

The birthplace of philosophy was the seaport town of Miletes, located across the sea
from Athens on the Western part of Dona in Asia Minor.
It is a wealth made according to Julio, (2008) possible the leisure, without which the
life of art and philosophy could hardly develop, the broadmindedoress of its people
created it congenial atmosphere of the intellectual activity that was to become
philosophy.

Four Branches and Area of Philosophy

 Metaphysics. This concerns with the fundamental of existence and reality.

 Epistemology. This refers to the theory of knowledge that has something to
do with approaches to teaching and learning.
 Logic. This focuses in the formal structure of truthful arguments
 Axiology. This sets the values describes to live in by at any given time or
place.

2. Education

→ This course defines education as a change for better. A man learns many things,
but if these things do not change a man into a better person, then has not acquired
education.
→ It is a continuing voyage of discovery, an everlasting quest to achieve the fullest
wisdom and statue that God meant for us.
→ It is a lifelong learning process that can take place in an infinite variety of
circumstances (Knight 1980)
→ It is the process of living through a continuous reconstruction of experience. It is
the development of all those capacities in the individuals which will enable him to
control his environment and fulfil his possibilities. (John Dewey).
3. Foundations

→ Education originated from the foundations. Foundation means as the bases,

supports, principles, origins, and tenets that are built upon and within it.
→ The development of education is based on the foundation.
→ The curriculum content is influenced by the foundations and the people connected
with each discipline.

4. Educational Philosophy

This is a system of rationally supported assumptions and beliefs of education. It uses

traditional philosophical concepts, and methods to show how children experiences, if
organized in accordance with certain assumptions will result in the achievement of
what way be considered the good life. (Tulio, 2008).
This also represents a multifarious role in the educative process. It says that
basically, it is an essential tool of a teacher, school administrative and curriculum
maker. This furnishes direction to and orientation in all educational efforts and criteria
for the existing theories and practices.
This acts as a “screen of educational objectives and how these objectives, desired
goals be attained.

5. Teaching

Is an interpersonal interactive activity especially involving verbal communication

which is undertaken for the purpose of helping students to learn and change the way
in which they can behave.
LESSON B RELATIONSHIP OF EDUCATION AND PHILOSOPHY

Education and Philosophy are two disciplines which are closely related. The act of
education cannot be completed without philosophy and philosophy cannot convert
others to its aims and values without education. There is a close interaction between
the two; one without the other is unserviceable.
Philosophy is a way of life while education is the dynamic side of philosophy. It is the
active aspect and the practical means of realizing the ideals of life. Education is a
sacred necessity of life. So, Philosophy provides the purpose or the aim and it is
education which makes it practical. Philosophy shows the way and education moves
on in that direction. Hence, education is defined as the modification or behaviour, the
direction in which, modification to be carried out is determined by philosophy.

LESSON C Importance of Philosophies of Education

Philosophies of Education are important because they perform certain functions that
make educational system effective and efficient. The functions are the following:

1. It provides in the formulation of educational policies and programs in the

construction of curricular. ( PROGRESSIVISM)

2. It provides direction toward which all educational efforts should be exerted.

(SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTIONISM).

3. It provides theories and hypothesis in education that may be tested for their
effectiveness and efficiency (ESSENTIALISM)

4. It provides norms or standards for evaluating purpose. (EDISTENTIALISM)

Teachers Philosophy in Teaching

1. In accord with the philosophy of education of the State and that of the educational
institution he serves.
2. The teacher’s philosophy of teaching must have a religious outlook.
3. The teacher’s philosophy of teaching must be in accord with the acceptable social,
spiritual and ethical standards.
4. The teacher’s philosophy of teaching must be characterized by a strong desire to
mold the individual child into a self-reliant, independent, and reasonable citizen
equipped with a proper cooperative and leadership qualities.
5. The teacher’s philosophy of teaching must be characterized by love and service for
learners.
Activity 1

Discuss AND ELABORATE the characteristics of teacher’s philosophy in teaching.

Activity 2

The philosophy in every function is specified and stated. Discuss why you employ
such philosophy.
Activity 3.
Discuss each important function of the philosophy of Education. Cite examples based
on the Department of Education (DepEd) circulars and memoranda.

Activity 4

Here are the samples of Teacher’s Philosophy in Teaching.

Discuss and elaborate this as utilized in your classroom.

1. Aims and objectives in accord with the philosophy of education of the State and
that of

2. Well-prepared lessons including mastery of subject matters.

3. Punctuality in attendance

4. Diligence in teaching
DISCUSS:

Avtivity 5 Explain the origin of philosophy.

LESSON D III- The Educational Philosophies of the World’s Greatest
Philosophers

EXPLORE

Discuss the historical contribution of the following Great Men to Education

● Plato

● Confucuis
• Comenius

• John Locke

• Jacques Rosseau
• Pestalozzi

• Freidrich

• Herbert Spencer
• John Dewey
LESSON C

C. 1 Education as a necessity of life.

C.2 Education as a social function

C.3 Education as a Direction

C.4 Education as Growth

C.4 Education as Formation

C.5 Education as a Democratic Social Function

C.6 Education as a Training Faculties

D. Classical and Contemporary Philosophies

Activity 1 Discuss the contributions of the World’s Greatest Philosophers and Thinkers To
Education
Activity 2 Discuss and elaborate the different elements or thoughts by the Great Thinkers
about Education

LESSON E: Classical and Contemporary Philosophies

NATURALISM
It is considered as the oldest philosophic thought in the west. Nature is the be-all and end-all
of reality. It’s antithesis is supernaturalism. Nature is the aggregate of things around us.

•Contribution: educational theme is harmony with nature as exemplified in Rousseau’s

Emile and the hedonistic principle of pleasure in the educative process. Laws of nature, and
human development.

•Implication: Truth can be discovered only through nature. Education should be a practical
preparation for life.

•Application: Physical education and natural sciences in Teaching.

•Nature is the be-all and end-all of reality. Its antithesis is supernaturalism. Nature is the
aggregrate of things around us.

•Its chief educational spokesman is Herbert Spencer who believed that there is some kind
of an absolute being. He also believes that the goal of education is complete living.

•The child (pupil) is viewed as a child of nature and so inherently good.

EDUCATIONAL AIMS OF NATURALISM

•To develop the individual in accordance with

- laws of nature

- human development

CURRICULAR EMPHASIS

• Physical Education

• Natural Sciences

CONTENTS STUDIED

History was taught as biography

• Astronomy and geography were learned through observation

• Counting and weighing things, measuring distances, drawing and singing

• Women were taught only singing, dancing, embroidery and home chores to please their
men

LESSON F:

IDEALISM

Idealism is a system of thought that emphasizes the importance of mind, soul or spirit. Truth
is to be found in consistency of ideas. Goodness is an ideal state, something to be strived
for.

Idealism believes in refined wisdom. It is based on the view that reality is a world within a
person’s mind. It believes that truth is the consistency of ideas and that goodness is an ideal
state to strive to attain.

As a result, school exist to sharpen the mind and intellectual processes. Students are taught
the wisdom of past heroes.

NATURE

•One of the oldest schools of thoughts with its origin traced back to Plato’s ideas.

•Stresses the mental, moral and spiritual nature of an individual and his universe.

•Advocates that education is both a basic need and a basic right of man.

EDUCATIONAL AIM

•To develop the individual spiritually, mentally, and morally.

TEACHING METHODS

• Lecture-Discussion Method

• Excursion

• Question Method

• Project Method

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT
• Imitating examples of heroes

ROLE OF TEACHERS

• Chief source of inspiration

• Creator of educational environment

ROLE OF SCHOOL

• An agency of the society

• Thinking institution

LESSON G:

PRAGMATISM/EXPERIMENTALISM

Pragmatism is primarily an American philosophy, although its roots go back to Greek

thinking. Pragmatist is primarily conceived with the knowledge process, the relationship of
ideas to action. Basically, this concerns with the method of reflective thinking.

Experimentalism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the view that
reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works right now and that
goodness comes from group decisions.

As a result, schools exist to discover and expand the society we live in. Students study
social experiences and solve problems.

NATURE

• Encourage people to find processes that work in order to attain desired goals.

• The doctringe that practical consequences are the criteria of knowledge.

•Conservative

EDUCATIONAL AIM

• For social efficiency

• Train the students to continuously and actively quest for information and production of new
ideas needs to adjust to an ever-changing society.
TEACHING METHODS

•Experimentalism methods

Steps:

[Link] of the problem

[Link]

[Link] or data gathering

[Link] hypotheisis

[Link] conclusions

•Other methods:

[Link] and constructive projects

[Link] trips

[Link] work

[Link] work

•Activity-cantered

•Pupil –cantered

•Opportunity to practice democratic ideals

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

•Making group decisions in light consequences

ROLE OF TEACHERS

•Keeps order in the class

•Facilitates group work

•Encourages and offers suggestions, questions and help in planning

•Curriculum planner

ROLE OF SCHOOL
•A miniature society

•Gives child balance and genuine experience in preparation for democratic living.

•Place where ideas are tested, implemented and restructured

LESSON H:

PROGRESSIVISM

It assumes that the world changes, which in the universe that is not particularly conceived
with him, man , can rely only upon his ability to think straight. In education, this means that
the child must be taught to be independent, self-reliant thinker, learn to discipline himself, be
responsible for the consequences of his behaviour.

Progressivism emphasizes the concept of progress which asserts that human beings are
capable of improving and perfecting their environment.

NATURE

•Exactly opposite of perennialism

•Stresses the child’s needs and therefore child-centered.

EDUCATIONAL AIM

•To provide the pupil the necessary skills to be able to interact with his ever changing
environment.

TEACHING METHODS

•Cooperative Learning Strategies

•Reflective strategies

•Problem Solving Strategies

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT
•Improvement and reform in the human condition

ROLE OF TEACHERS

•Act as resource person

•Guide or facilitate

•Teaches students how to learn and become active problem solvers.

ROLE OF SCHOOL

•Develop personal and social values

•Set up a classroom environment along the lines of democracy

LESSON I:

ESSENTIALISM

Essentialism is often called traditionalism or conservatism. It assumes that the values of men
are embedded in the universe, waiting to be discovered and understood. In education, there
are some things the child must learn which tend the curriculum relatively static. There is a
core of essential and traditional subjects; certain literary classic, language, religion,
mathematics, science and history, and other materials.

NATURE

•Emphasis is on race experience or the social heritage.

EDUCATIONAL AIM

•Education provides sound training of the fundamental skills.

•Education develops individuals to perform justly, skilfully, and magnanimously.

TEACHING METHODS

•Deductive method

•Drill method
•Recitation

•Giving assignments or homework

•Testing and evaluating

•Systematic analysis and synthesis

CHARACTER DEVELOPMET

•Values of discipline, hard work, and respect for authority.

ROLE OF TEACHERS

•Provide stimulating activities for learning

•Prepare well-organized lesson to prove he is an authority of instruction.

ROLE OF SCHOOL

•Ensure master of essential skills

•Prepare students for real life situations

LESSON J:

EXISTENTIALISM

Man has no fixed nature and he shapes his being as he lives. The existentialist sees the
world as personal subjectivity, where goodness, truth and reality are individually defined.
Reality is a world of things, truth subjectivity chosen, and goodness, a matter of freedom.

Experimentalism believes that things are constantly changing. It is based on the view that
reality is what you experience. It believes that truth is what works right now and that
goodness comes from group decisions.

As a result , school exist to discover and expand the society we live in. Students study
social experiences and solve problems.

If school existed at all, they would be places that assist students in knowing themselves and
learning of their place in society.
If subject matter existed, it would be a matter of interpretation such as the arts, ethics or
philosophy.

Teacher- student interaction would center on assisting students in their personal learning
journeys. Change in school environments world be embraced as both natural and necessary
phenomenon.

NATURE

•Focuses on the experiences of the individuals

•Offers individuals a way of thinking about the meaning of life.

EDUCATIONAL AIM

•To train individual for significant and meaningful existence.

CURRICULAR EMPHASIS

•Subject- centered

•Literature

•History

•Arts for Aesthetic expression

•Humanities for ethical values

TEACHING METHODS

•Inquiry Approach

•Question- Answer Method

CHARACTER DEVELOPMENT

•individual responsibility for decisions and preferences

ROLE OF TEACHERS

•Good provider of experiences

•Effective questioner

•Mental disciplinarian

ROLE OF SCHOOL

•Create an atmosphere for active interaction

•Plan better solutions to their everyday problems

•Discuss the different situations based by an individual.

LESSON K:

RECONSTRUCTIONALISM

The belief that man to a significant degree plan and control his society, that in a democratic
society this should be done in public interest, and that the school have a significant part to
play in the process.

The philosophy of reconstructionism contains two major premises:

[Link] is in need of constant reconstruction or change, and

[Link] social change involves a reconstruction of education and the use of education in
reconstructing society.

NATURE

•Social change

•Schools should have initiative in reconstructing the present social order.

•Believes that educational philosophies are based on one’s culture

EDUCATIONAL AIM

•Education enlivens the students’ awareness of different societal problems.

•Education based on the quest for a better society.

CURRICULAR EMPHASIS

•Stresses learning that enables the individual to live in a global milieu

•Controversial national and international issues.

•Emphasis on social sciences and social research methods; examination of social

economics and political problems; focus on present and future trends.

TEACHING METHODS

•Provide vision for better world

ROLE OF TEACHERS

•lead the young in designing programs for social, educational, practical and economic
change.

ROLE OF SCHOOL

•Primary agent of social change

•Critical examination of cultural heritage

•Center of controversy where students discuss controversial issues, political and

educational.

Activity 1

Identify the proponent and contribution of each philosophy to education

1.1 Realism

1.2 Idealism

1.3 Pragmatism

1.4 Essentialism

1.5 Perennialism

1.6 Pregessivenism

1.7 Recontructionism

1.8 Experimentalism

Activity 2

Discuss its implication to education.

Activity 3

NAME: DATE:
Based on the philosophies you have read, make a comparison of the philosophies guided
by the categories provided in the matrix below.

Comparison Matrix of Major Philosophies

Philosophies

Aims of Education

Role of Teachers

Role of Students

Curriculum

Activity 4

By means of a Venn diagram,. Compare the following philosophies:

Perennialism and Essentialism

Progressivism and Social Reconstruction

VENN DIAGRAM OF EDUCATIONAL THEORIES

PERENNIALISM ESSENTIALISM
PROGRESSIVSM SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION

Compare you Venn diagrams with the diagrams on the feedback sheet.
Activity 5

Name: _____________________________ Date: __________________

Reflecting Chart of Philosophies and Theories in Education

A. Reflecting on the different elements of these philosophies/theories, specify the

elements that appeal to you most. List them on the column provided for. Indicate the
elements utilize in your classroom.

IDEALISM REALISM ESSENTIALISM PROGRESSIVISM

Activity 6

Complete the analytical web below

Analytical Web of Educational Theories

PRAGMATISM

PROGRESSIVISM

HOW ALIKE?
SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION
Activity 7

HOW DIFFERENT?

PRAGMATISM PROGRESSIVISM SOCIAL RECONSTRUCTION

PART II PSYCHOLOGICAL FOUNDATIONS OF EDUCATION

LESSON A RELATIONSHIP OF PSYCHOLOGY IN EDUCATION

Education depends to a great extent upon psychology because the nature and
kind of education that a learner may acquire is conditioned by his psychological attributes:
general mental ability, temperament, aptitude, interest and physical condition. So the
principles of education are basically based on the various theories and principles of
psychology.

LESSON B: STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT

Stages of Development

The pattern of human development will certainly help a teacher to know what to expect of
children and what approximate ages certain pattern of behaviour may appear. So, instruction
should be based on certain developmental principles which will determine the extent and
amount of learning are appropriate for different groups. Thus, teachers must learn to
recognize the significance of this knowledge to their teaching success and to the learning
process.

Activity 1.

1. As you look back on your on adolescence, what do you consider the most important
events as experiences which were evidence of your achieving independence from
adults?
LESSON C

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

This is about the study of human development and behaviour, developmental

psychologists have come up with a variety of theories. These theories which have
served as tools in testing their ideas and concepts have helped them in
understanding the organization and course of human development.
To gain further insight into the behavioural changes at various stages of
development, four theories of development which have influenced contemporary
concepts about the nature of individual development.

LESSON D: BASIC PRINCI PLE

Basic Principles of Development

[Link] follows an orderly sequence which is predictable.

[Link] rate of development is unique to each individual

[Link] involves change

[Link] development is more critical than later development

[Link] is the product of maturation and learning

[Link] are individual differences in development

[Link] are social expectations for every developmental period which are often
referred to as developmental tasks.
Activity 1.
Discuss the basic principles of development
LESSON E: TRILOGY IN FFECTIVE TEACHING

There are three components of educative process

They are Learner, Learning Process and Learning Situation

LESSON F: THE LEARNER

The center of the educative process in school is the learner. There will be no teaching
without the learner. It is the task of the teacher to guide the learner in the learning processes
on various stages of the learners’ development. The success of the teacher will depend
greatly upon his insight into the various factors basic to growth and development and his
knowledge of developmental characteristics of the learner.

a. Learners Growth and Development

There two terms should not be used interchangeably. They are both parallel but imply
different definitions.

[Link]- essentially refers to quantitative changes in an individual as he progresses in

chronological age. It may refer to increases in size, height, or weight.

2. Development- on the other hand, refers to the progressive series of changes of an

orderly and coherent type leading to the individual’s maturation. This definition implies that
for development to be progressive, there is a direction in the manner in which changes
occur. Development is also coherent, essentially because the sequence of changes that
occur are related to each other and do not occur haphazardly or abruptly.

From these definitions, one can see that although both growth and development imply
contrasting types of changes in the individual, both are, nonetheless, related and
complementary processes.
LESSON G: THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT

Signmund Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory

Freaud’s theory views personality development according to stages experienced in the

growing years of infancy and adolescence. These stages are:

1. the Oral stage (0 to 2 years);

2. he Anal stage (2 to 4 years);

3. the Phallic stage (4 to 6 years);

4. the Latency stage (6 to 12 years); and

5.t he Genital stage (12 years and up).

Referring to these stages as psychosexual development, Freud gave prominence to sexual

feelings or emotions in describing the stages of development.

The oral stage predominates during the first two years of life when the center for pleasure is
the mouth. Infants derive much pleasure in sucking activities sush as sucking of fingers,
toes, or nipples.

Between the ages of two and four children’s attention is directed to the anal region. This
stage where in children begin to receive pleasure from the elimination process marks the
anal stage.

Between four to sis years, pleasure gratification of children shifts from the anal to the genital
region which Freud calls the phallic stage. Children derive pleasure from activities
associated with stroking and manipulating their sex organs. This is the stage when young
boys experience rivalry with their father for their mother’s attention and affection. This is
state a called Oedipus complex. Seeing his father as a powerful and threatening figure, the
boy is caught between desire for his mother and anxiety about his father’s power. This
conflict is resolved by the boy’s repression of his feelings for his mother.

In the same way that boys experience the Oedipus Complex, girls experience a similar crisi
at this time of life which Freud called the Electra Complex. In this stage, a girl sees her
mother as a rival for her father’s attention but her fear for her mother is less.
After the Oepidal conflicts are resolved by children, a relative calm follows which Freud
called the latency stage. This occurs between the ages of sic and twelve. Many of the
disturbing and conflicting feelings of children are buried in the sun-conscious mind. Their
energies are now absorbed by such concerns as school learning, peer relations, sports and
other recreational activities. The latency years are described as a relatively calm and stable
period.

The final stage postulated by Freud, the genital stage, starts with the onset of puberty. Many
of the Oedipal feelings are reactivated and directed toward other persons of the opposite
sex.

PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

One aspect of development with which schools are most concerned with is cognitive
development. This refers to the manner through which an individual comes to know and
understand the world. It refers to activities that involve thinking, perceiving, and problem-
solving. It is the development of knowledge or general understanding.

One of the well-organized theories on how the intellect develops was formulated by Jean
Piaget. Central to Piaget’s theory is the idea that children’s cognitive development follows a
well-defined sequence of stages whereby they acquire structures or schemes that enable
them to deal with the world. Thus, processes in cognitive development are defined into four
well-organized stages. Although the stages or ranges are defined by age, these are by no
means precise and binding, but merely approximate. Changes within and between these
stages are continuous, and qualitative changes are emphasized as progress in the stages
achieved.

From infancy to adulthood, the child is said to be assimilating data from the world around
him, accommodating these data, and organizing his knowledge with a system of structures.
Therefore, Piaget emphasized the active organizing of knowledge as the most important
force in the child’s development, aside from maturation, experiences with the environment,
and direct teaching.

Erickson’s Phychosocial Theory

Erik Erickson, a psychoanalytical theorist, indentified eight developmental stages throughout

the whole life cycle. In his view, for each stage development some kind of psychosocial crisis
is likely to occur. If a person is provided with a social and psychological environment that is
conducive to development, he will be able to deal adequately with the crisis and problems at
ach stage. If he fails to develop the strengths and skills needed at each stage, he will
subsequently find difficulty in dealing with psychosocial crises in the succeeding stages of
development.

In infancy the child learns either trust or mistrust. At this stage, he is totally dependent upon
others for survival. The fundamental task in this stages is the achievement of a basic sense
of trust that someone will, protect care for, and nurture him.

During the second stage, the child learns to walk, talk and use his hands. When children at
this stage, for instance , are punished excessively, receive harsh toilet training, or are
overprotected, they may develop a negative sense of self and may not be ready to move into
the tasks of the next developmental stage.

In stage three, the child begins to explore his social and physical worlds, discovering what
he can accomplish. Erickson refers to this as a time for developing a sense of initiative or a
positive attitude of personal accomplishment. At this time, the child gradually becomes
aware of the various social roles presented by his environment. He begins to identify with the
appropriate adult sex role and to imitate aspects of the adult’s behaviour.

In stage four, the child’s world broadens. Technical skills are learned and feelings of
competence, enlarged. Children enter the new world of the neighbourhood and the school.
They become more concerned and involved in learning to relate with their peer groups.

The fifth stage, according to Erickson, is characterized by an identify-formation crisis.

Erickson believes that when it becomes too difficult for an adolescent to establish a clear
picture of his self-identity, a sense of role confusion results.

By establishing a clear ideal of who he is and what he can be as an adult, the adolescent is
prepared to move on to the sixth stage which Erickson labels the age of intimacy. In this
stage, the individual develops a warm and intimate relationship with another person.

The middle years of stage seven comprise the productive years of adulthood. In this stage,
the individual’s productivity is gauged by his contributions to his family and to society.
According to Erickson, the person who fails to develop this sense of generativity becomes
preoccupied instead with his personal needs and interests or both with a sense of self-
absorption.

In the last stage, a person comes to terms with the temporal limits of his life. It is the
fulfilment and culmination of psychosocial development of the previous stages. In Erickson’s
view, it is the achievement of a sense of integrity resulting from identification with mankind. If
a person, however, develops an attitude of regret and fear of the end of life, then a sense of
despair emerges instead.

Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development

The development of a conscience or acquisition of values a particular society deems

necessary to govern one’s behaviour is of utmost concern to schools, particularly in
Philippine education. How children develop a set of values or principles regarding correct,
appropriate or good behaviour has been the subject of study of developmental
psychologists. Several views about the development of morality have been proposed, and
one of the most widely accepted explanations is that of Laurence Kohlberg.

Kohlberg believes that children experienced related stages of moral development. While
children are thought to be influenced by many individuals or groups, much of their moral
development is generated by maturational factors and is related to cognitive growth.
Individuals are able to solve more complex moral problems as their cognitive development
occurs. Kohlberg’s concern in his study is primarily on children’s moral judgement rather
than on moral actions.

Gestalt Psychology

This school of psychology upon which most of cognitive psychology is based was
developed by Wolfgang Kohler, Marx Wertheimer, and Kurt Koffka in 1921. In their
study, the primary focus was perception. Their studies led to the principles or laws
that govern how people assign meanings to visual stimuli.

Several laws were develop from their research.

1. Law of Continuity
This law states the perceptual organization tends to preserve smooth continuities
rather than abrupt changes.

For instance, when people look at the figures below, they tend to perceive the
zigzag lines as letters A and V with lines cutting across, while the remaining
triangles on both ends looks like upper and lower triangles.
2. Law of closure
This law states that incomplete figures tend to be seen as complete. For
instance, the following figures will be perceived better as complete circles and
squares.

3. Law of Proximity
This law holds that things close together are grouped together in perception.
Lines drawn close together seem to be grouped as in this figure:
4. Law of Similarity
This law refers to the perception of similar objects that tend to be related.

In the example below, even though the horizontal and vertical distances among
the letters are the same, most people perceive rows rather than columns
because the letters are the same.

A A A A A
B B B B B
C C C C C
Z Z Z Z Z
M M M M M
Q Q Q Q Q

5. Law of Pragnanz
This law came about as an overarching principle of Gestalt psychology.
Developed by Koffka (1933), it states that of all the possible organizations that
could be perceived from a visual stimulus, the one that will most likely occur is
the one that possesses the best, simplest, and most stable form.
LESSON B: Psychoanalysis

Psychoanalysis is a type of psychodynamic therapy or insight oriented therapy, a therapeutic

technique for the treatment of neuroses and some psychoses.

Other uses of the concept are treated in:

 Psychoanalytic movement, the movement, particularly as led by Freud, to

secure and defend acceptance of the theories and techniques of
psychoanalysis.
 Psychoanalytic training, the techniques used to train psychoanalysts. A basic
requirement of psychoanalytic training is to undergo a successful analysis.
 Psychoanalytic method, the use of psychoanalytic techniques as a scientific
method to develop knowledge and theory regarding the psyche.
 Psychoanalytic personality theory, the theoretical constructions developd by
Freud and later psychoanalytic theorists regarding the psyche.
 Psychoanalytic theory, psychoanalytic theory as applied by Sigmund Freud,
Herbert Marcuse, and others to problems posed by philosophy and other
disciplines.


Psychoanalysis is a family of psychological theories and methods based on the pioneering

work of Sigmund Freud. A science by its supporters and pseudoscience by many critics, as
a technique of psychotherapy psychoanalysis is the unconscious patters of life as they
become revealed through the analysand’s (the patient’s) free associations. The analyst’s
goal is to help liberate the analysand fro, unexamined or unconscious barriers of
transference and resistance- that is, past patterns of relatedness that are no longer
serviceable or that inhibit freedom.
LESSON C LOGOTHERAPY

Frankl believed that humans are motivated by something called a "will to meaning," which
equates to a desire to find meaning in life. He argued that life can have meaning even in the
most miserable of circumstances and that the motivation for living comes from finding that
meaning. Taking it a step further, Frankl wrote:

Everything can be taken from a man but one thing: the last of the human freedoms—to
choose one's attitude in any given set of circumstances.

This opinion was based on his experiences of suffering and his attitude of finding meaning
through suffering. In this way, Frankl believed that when we can no longer change a
situation, we are forced to change ourselves.

Core Properties

Frankl believed in three core properties on which his theory and therapy were based:

1. Each person has a healthy core.

2. One's primary focus is to enlighten others to their own internal resources and provide
the tools to use their inner core.
3. Life offers purpose and meaning but does not promise fulfilment or happiness.

An example that is often given to explain the basic tenets of logotherapy is the story of
Frankl meeting with an elderly general practitioner who was struggling to overcome
depression after the loss of his wife. Frankl helped the elderly man to see that his purpose
had been to spare his wife the pain of losing him first.

Basic Assumptions

Logotherapy consists of six basic assumptions that overlap with the fundamental constructs
and ways of seeking meaning listed above

1. Body, Mind, and Spirit

The human being is an entity that consists of a body (soma), mind (psyche), and spirit
(noos). Frankl argued that we have a body and mind, but the spirit is what we are, or our
essence. Note that Frankl's theory was not based on religion or theology, but often had
parallels to these.

2. Life Has Meaning in All Circumstances

Frankl believed that life has meaning in all circumstances, even the most miserable ones.
This means that even when situations seem objectively terrible, there is a higher level of
order that involves meaning.

3. Humans Have a Will to Meaning

Logotherapy proposes that humans have a will to meaning, which means that meaning is
our primary motivation for living and acting and allows us to endure pain and suffering. This
is viewed as differing from the will to achieve power and pleasure.

4. Freedom to Find Meaning

Frankl argues that in all circumstances, individuals have the freedom to access that will to
find meaning. This is based on his experiences of pain and suffering and choosing his
attitude in a situation that he could not change.

5. Meaning of the Moment

The fifth assumption argues that for decisions to be meaningful, individuals must respond to
the demands of daily life in ways that match the values of society or their own conscience.

6. Individuals Are Unique

Frankl believed that every individual is unique and irreplaceable.

LESSON D: Cognitivism

A major contribution of the cognitivists was the selective preparedness hypothesis.

An organism must have the necessary psychological predisposition and mental equipment in
order to make appropriate behavioural responses. In other words, there must be “species
specific” characteristics. For example, in training racoons to drop coins in a piggy bank, may
never succeed, because the rational behaviour of these animals is to store than to give up
what they have collected.

The normal human being samples from the environment information around him and
the operates upon his data in some ways His operational system will depend upon many
thins: his goal, his past experience; his energy level, and the resources available to him. So
many variables are involved that it may seem impossible to understand how his mind is
working.
Lesson E MOTIVATION THEORY

Motivational theory is tasked with discovering what drives individuals to work towards a goal
or outcome. Businesses are interested in motivational theory because motivated individuals
are more productive, leading to more economic use of resources.

Most motivational theories differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic factors: the former are
concerned with an individual's interest, enjoyment and willingness to partake in an activity.
People with higher self-confidence and beliefs that their own abilities will lead to success are
more likely to have high levels of intrinsic motivation. Extrinsic motivations focus on the
outcome of the activity i.e. individuals are driven by the outcome rather than the activity
itself.

Frequently-cited motivational theories include the escape-seeking dichotomy model, drive-

reduction theory, cognitive dissonance theory, and motivations driven by Abraham Maslow's
Hierarchy of Needs.

Mono-motivational theories reduce the aspects that drive individuals to act into one term.
Evolutionary psychology and economics both provide mono-motivational theories – survival
and self-interest respectively. Some theories break down motivational drive into conscious
and unconscious factors, which both influence behaviour. Self-interest, for example, could
be the unconscious factor influencing the desire to work, with duty to family the conscious
factor.

Machiavellianism is a personality trait said to influence motivation, characterised by

narcissism, self-interest and the desire for power and strength. Some commentators argue
that Machiavellianism is more common among high-powered individuals, such as CEOs and
sportspeople, than in the general population, although it may be that these positions
encourage Machiavellian qualities to develop – 'those in power crave more power.'

Extrinsic Motivation

Extrinsic motivation comes from outside us. We do it because we are impelled to, for
example because we are told to by someone who has power over us.
Many employment motivation systems work on the principle of extrinsic reward, where
people are 'bought' and then commanded. Whilst this is effective for simple activities, it is
less useful when you want a person to be self-driven.

Intrinsic Motivation

Intrinsic motivation is done for internal reasons, for example to align with values or simply for
the hedonistic pleasure of doing something.

In work, people are intrinsically motivated by working for an inspiring leader or in areas
where they have a personal interest.

Introjected Motivation

Introjected motivation is similar to intrinsic motivation in that it is internalized. The distinctive

aspect of this is that if it is not done, then the person feels the tension of guilt.

Identified Motivation

Identified motivation is where a person knows that something needs doing but has not yet
decided to do anything about it.

[Link]

1. Arousal Motivation

According to the arousal theory of motivation, each person has a unique arousal level that is
right for them. When our arousal levels drop below these personalized optimal levels, we
seek some sort of stimulation to elevate them.

For example, if our levels drop too low we might seek stimulation by going out to a nightclub
with friends. If these levels become too elevated and we become overstimulated, we might
be motivated to select a relaxing activity such as going for a walk or taking a nap.
One of the key assumptions of the arousal theory is that we are motivated to pursue actions
that help us maintain an ideal balance.

When we become overly aroused, we seek soothing activities that help calm and relax us. If
we become bored, we head in search of more invigorating activities that will energize and
arouse us. It's all about striking the right balance, but that balance is unique to each
individual.

Arousal theory shares some commonalities with drive-reduction theory. But instead of
focusing on reducing tension, arousal theory suggests that we are motivated to maintain an
ideal level of arousal.

[Link]

By Kendra Cherry Reviewed by Amy Morin, LCSW

on May 15, 2020

2. Incentive Theory

The Incentive Theory of Motivation is a theory that is supported by many behavioural

psychologists, the most distinguished one being B.F. Skinner. Skinner and other
radical behaviourists believe that a person will more likely avoid an action that is
negatively received. The Incentive Theory is said to be different from other theories
of motivation in such a way that it views the stimulus as something that attracts as
person towards it, rather than something that prompts a person to reduce it or totally
eradicated it. According to Incentive Theory, the stimulus drives or motivates the
individual towards attaining the stimulus.
The theory explains that the behaviour that appears to be motivated by external
stimuli and does not come from the innate aspects of human being. Incentives
become important when individuals have placed value on the reward. If rewards are
given immediately then the likehood of the behaviour being repeated is greater. The
theory focuses on positive reinforcement which encourages positive behaviour.
Positive Incentives are incentives that give a positive guarantee for satisfying an
individual’s needs and wants. These incentives involve the principle of optimism and
are provided to fulfil the person’s psychological requirements. For instance, a teacher
praises a student for a job well done. Other positive incentives include recognition,
promotion, additional allowances, trophies and medals. As opposed to positive
incentives, negative incentives are provided In order to rectify an individual’s
mistakes and errors for the sake of achieving satisfying results. More often than not,
negative incentives are given if the positive incentives do not work, conditioning a
person to act to avoid such negative incentives. These include, penalties and fines.

3. Hedonistic Theories
The term “hedonism” is derived from the Greek “hedone” meaning simply “pleasure”.
In common language, Hedonism has come to mean devotion to pleasure as a way of
life, especially to the pleasures of the senses, and is synonymous with sensualism,
libertinism, debauchery and dissipation.
Hedonism: the philosophical doctrine that all pleasure is intrinsically good, and
nothing but pleasure is intrinsically good.
Hedonism is the philosophy of pleasure. It means doing whatever brings you the
greatest amount of pleasure, regardless of any other effects.
LESSON F : THE TEACHER, THE LEARNER AND LEARNING PROCESS

INTRODUCTION

Teaching has established itself as a profession. Teaching teaches all professionals,

hence for the society to recognize and acknowledge the significant contribution and
dignity of the teaching profession, teachers have to improve themselves, grow
professionally and demonstrate their teaching competencies with which to guide the
learners’ learning.
Teaching and learning are psychological process skilled teachers are in position to
employ various teaching strategies and methods to promote effective teaching and
with these, teachers will be able to deal any educational problems particularly in
various classroom situation.
There are three components of the educative process. These are the teacher as key
factor in learning situation and the learner, and learning process. This discusses the
significant facts about each of these components and their interrelationships in
determining the effectiveness of teaching and learning endeavour.
A. The Teacher: Key Factor in Classroom Learning Situation
As manager of the classroom situation, the teacher is also responsible for setting up
the physical environment most conductive to learning. Such conditions are lighting,
ventilation, and room appearance. She is also involved with establishment of
effective procedures so that class activities proceed with efficiency and with the least
expenditure of time and energy on the part of both teacher and students. In addition
to this, the teacher must be aware of the safety environment where the students are
moving.
As facilitator, the teacher must be knowledgeable of alternative approaches to
teaching. The teacher has to bear in mind that there is no single perfect approach to
teaching which help every student learn everything in every way. There are many
kids of learning and learners methods of teaching. In selecting the methods to be
used, the teacher must consider the kind of group as well as their individuality and
the subject to be taught.
As evaluator, the teacher is expected to understand the most effective use of reliable
and valid instruments of evaluating the outcome of the learning and diagnosing
learning difficulties of the students.
The teacher is the key factor in classroom. He should be an effective teacher. As an
effective teacher is honed and sharpened his skill in the art of teaching. He
demonstrates proficiency in the use of language, adapts varied teaching strategies
recognizes changes and applies innovation, revised techniques for optimum results,
and allows himself to be guided by acknowledged principles and theories in
education.
Aside from the knowledge and skills, he should be compassionate and
understanding. He always considers the learners as unique individuals with peculiar
needs and interests.
Effective teacher should grow professionally. His efficient performance is always the
result of his educational preparation.
He should have a mastery of his subject matter in which case, he must be an
authority in the subject he is teaching.

THE TEACHER AS A PERSON

One of the most elusive questions in education is what human qualities make an
effective teacher. Alexander Mood has provided excellent advice, which is followed,
will be helpful in insuring the success of every teacher.

[Link] attention to what the students are saying

[Link] each student with a sense of personal worth
[Link] each student’s self-confidence and respect his ability to learn
[Link] a posture of moral or intellectual superiority
[Link] conflict with students
[Link] lecturing
[Link] an open and relax atmosphere
[Link] activity among students
[Link] on guard against apathy and boredom
[Link] concern for the well-being of each student in the class
[Link] not to let students fall behind
[Link] teaching
[Link] your students about your teaching
[Link] the best you can
[Link] with colleagues
[Link] down grading systems
[Link] a model

Teacher….
1 .He sees himself, or behaves much like, as the wisest person based on love and
argument. He should not be deliberately assertive.
2. He is always seeking consensus and cooperation among the members of the
class. He is more of as moderator
3. He perceives himself as genuine model for the students. He is concerned with how
the students learn to live. He is a parent-surrogate and a boss. He should have a
bearing leader and executive.
4. He says the law, school rules and regulations, and ensures and demands
obedience from the students. He should communicate to the students with clarity.
Students should follow what the teachers say.
5. He is corporate professional. He should portray a bearing of an executive in a big
agency or company.

Attitudes Toward Self

The way teachers perceive and feel about themselves is a major determinant of
classroom atmosphere and student performance. Self-confidence, poise, self-control,
an eagerness to lead a class of children will obviously set the tone for cooperation
and learning in the class. Similarly, a super anxious, trembling, insecure teacher will
set the opposite tone. How we see ourselves is a most important component in
determining classroom atmosphere.

B. Roles of Effective Teacher

Teachers have significant roles in what young people learn, in how they learn to learn
and how they come to view learning itself.
They can influence young people’s personal dispositions towards others and toward
their own future. The teacher’s influence for goodness extends well beyond the
duration of schooling as anyone who remembers teachers they have had, can attest.

Attitudes of Teachers Toward the Learning Process

There are many psychologist and theorists who developed the system of instruction
and showed how these elements fit in actual classroom interaction. One of which is
the Ned Flander’s Theory.
NED FLANDER’S THEORY

MODEL 1 MODEL 2 MODEL 3

The Transmitter of Inductive Inquiry Interpersonal

knowledge

Uses advanced Involves inquiry or A positive classroom

organization and direct discovery based teaching atmosphere is a central
teaching methods are the component
main features
Gives public basic facts Emphasizes direct Stresses the development
and information before methods and opened of warm human
they can be expected to questions and building on relationship between the
think for themselves students ideas teacher and the students
Assumptions are clear Develops the students
potential to reason more
openly and independently

Teacher’s expertise is
needed
Elements of Teaching Effectiveness

1. Academic Learning Time

It is difficult if not impossible, to measure what is going on in a student’s mind at a
specific moment. The students who appeared to be paying attention were actually
thinking about non-academic issues. Students soon learn the importance of putting
on a good face in order to protect their privacy.

2. Use of Reinforcement
By far the single most significant instructional variables is the use of positive
reinforcement. However, it has turned out that the effect of praise, even when
properly applied, varies according to student characteristics. Students from middle-
class backgrounds are not susceptible to praise as are students from lower and/or
working-class backgrounds. The method still works but not as powerfully. Praise by
itself, them, has to used carefully in order to produce desired effects.

3. Cues and Feedbacks

The use of cues and feedbacks is related to the process of questioning. Through
cueing, the teacher provides some help in students answers. A second component of
cueing is wait time which gives the students some time to think about the question.
This process will increase academic achievement and decrease anxiety.
Constructive feedback, on the other hand, provides the students with information on
which to build learning.

4. Cooperative Learning
Such procedure encourages student participation and also results in improved
academic performance.

5. Classroom Learning
Feeling of cohesiveness, satisfaction, goal direction, and students perception of a
friendly atmosphere make a positive difference is learning. There is a need to create
a relatively relaxed learning environment within a task-orientation focus.

6. Higher-Order Questions
Recently, there has been a remarkable upsurge in the “teaching of thinking”. Such a
process, which involves local analysis and argumentation principles, is most
encouraged by higher order questioning.

7. Advanced Organizers
It involves the use of the deductive approach. It helps the students focus attention on
the key points. On the other hand, the effects is positive but not particularly strong.
Since some learners need a clear road map of the main points in a lesson in
advance, the method should not be ignored.

A teacher must be able to manage his students no matter how much potential you
have in order to control the students in the classrooms.
C. Components of Effective Teaching

1. Analytic/Synthetic Approach

a. Teacher discusses points of view other than his own view

b. Teacher contrasts implication of various theories
c. He presents origin of ideas and concepts
d. He gives references of more interesting and involved points
e. He presents facts and concepts from related fields
f. He emphasizes conceptual understanding

2. Organization/ Clarity

a. Teacher explains clearly

b. Lessons are well proposed and organized
c. He gives lectures that are easy to outline
d. He gives precise answers
e. He summarizes major points
f. He states objective every class session
g. He identifies importance of each issue
h .He encourages group interaction
I He clarifies thinking by identifying reasons for question

3. Dynamism/Enthusiasm

a. Teacher shows dynamic and energetic person

b . He enjoys teaching
c . He shows self-confidence
d .He varies the speed and tone of his voice
e. He has sense of humor
f. He has an interesting style of presentation.

ACTIVITY 1
1. Enumerate and discuss the roles of an effective teacher.

ACTIVITY 2
2. Cite and discuss your roles of being an effective teacher in the classroom setting
and in the community.
Activity 3
Discuss each of the component of effective teaching and how you apply these in your
classroom.
LESSON G: LEARNING PROCESS

Formal education is based on the premise that the learning process can be directed and
facilitated. Such direction and facilitation of learning, however, is not a simple task. Unless a
teacher has a clear knowledge and understanding of this process, he will find it difficult to set
the conditions that will facilitate learning success on the part of the learners. Thus, to place
teaching upon a firmer foundation, the teacher should understand the nature of the learning
process and the facts relating to the conditions under learning takes place. A teacher needs
to understand also the psychological principles, theories, and laws relating to learning.

THE SIGNIFICANCE OF LEARNING

The value of learning in any society is its role in the transmission of knowledge and the
maintenance of society’s norms and values. It is also the avenue by which individuals learn
basic skills, attitudes, and competencies. In fact without learning, the transmission of culture
and technology will not be made possible. For every individual in society, the capacity for
continued learning contributes to the evolution of a highly diverse and specialized lifestyle-
where some people could become more interested in a specific field. Individuals benefit
greatly from learning because it endows them with the capacity to achieve goals and
lifestyles, or even the creative capacity to survive.

DEFINING LEARNING

Learning has been defined by psychologists in various ways. Learning may be defined as a
relatively permanent change in behaviour potentiality that occurs due to experience and
reinforced practice. This definition would be ascribed more to a behavioural position towards
learning.

Learning has also been defined as “ a process inferred from relatively stable changes in
behaviour that result through practice or interaction with and adaptation to the environment”
(Goodwin and Klausmeier, 1975:178)

Another definition briefly states that it involves a particular kind of change, “the development
of new associations as a result of experience” (Good and Grophyy, 1977:135).

Still another definition considers learning as “the modification of an organism’s behaviour as

a result of maturation and environmental experience” (Garrison and Magoon, 1972:175)

TYPES OF LEARNING

1. Sensory-motor learning involves understanding the external world through the

senses and muscles. The chief outcome is the development of movement as reaction
to stimuli resulting in speed and precision in performance.
2. Cognitive learning is concerned with the development of ideas and concepts. It
covers much of what academic learning demands. It includes everything from
associations between stimuli and responses to the development of problem-solving
skills.
Associative learning involves the development of associative patterns by which ideas
and experiences are stored in memory.
Problem-solving learning involves a process of overcoming difficulties that appear to
interfere with the attainment of a goal. It is the framework or pattern within which
creative thinking and reasoning takes place.
Applied to learning, problem-solving involves the ability to apply previously learned
ideas and principles in the solution of a given problem through analytical and
constructive thinking.
3. Affective learning involves experiences within which emotions and affect take
precedence. It involves the assimilation of values, mental understanding, emotional
reactions, the sense of pleasure and satisfaction. The process essentially revolves
around the acquisition of attitudes, ideas, judgement and knowledge from
participating in two types of appreciative experiences.
a. Aesthetic appreciative experiences
b. Intellectual appreciative experience
BASIC THEORIES OF LEARNING

Various questions relating to the learning process have been raised in the field of
psychology. Psychologists are not in agreement as to the exact nature of the learning
process. As a result, different theories have emerged in attempts to answer questions as to
how people learn and retain learning since acquired.

There are several learning theories which have been the results of various researchers in
the field of psychology. There are two broad groups into which the various learning theories
are classified, namely the association theories and the cognitive field theories.

Association theories emphasize the establishment and strengthening of relationships

between the stimulus (S) and the response (R) and emphasize the role of reinforcement in
the learning process.

The cognitive field theories, on the other hand, do not see learning as just a stimulus
response interaction. They focus rather on the cognitive structures of man as a basis for
learning.

ASSOCIATION OR STIMULUS-RESPONSE THEORIES

A. Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism/Associationism

The basic concept of associationism was formulated shortly before 1900 by Edward
Lee Thorndike. The findings of Thorndike’s studies were based mostly on
experiments conducted with animals. The basic premise of this theory is that human
activity is based on association between stimulus and response. Any activity is seen
as: (1) a situation which influences or affects the individual; (2) a response which the
individual makes to the situation; and (3) a connection between the situation and the
response by means of which the former is enabled to produce the latter. This
connection is called the S-R bond.
Thorndike’s concept views learning as a process of putting together units to form
total experiences and complex forms of behaviour. It places emphasis on the role of
prior learning and experience, conceives of the whole as being no more nor less than
a combination of simple habits which add together to equal the whole. It sees the
learner vary his responses by trial and error until he achieves a solution.

1. Law of Effect
This law states that a satisfying state of affairs following the response
strengthens the connection between the stimulus and the behaviour, whereas an
annoying state weakens the connection. Thus, a person tends to repeat what has
previously been satisfying and to avoid what has been dissatisfying or annoying.
In the classroom situation, this law implies that teaching should attempt to make
the learning experiences of children pleasant and gratifying so that they will want
to continue learning.

2. Law of Exercise
This law describes the conditions implied in the adage “Practice makes perfect.”
Repetition of an experience increases the probability of a correct response.
Nonetheless, repetition in the absence of satisfying state of affairs does not
enhance learning (Thorndike, 1913 in Bell-Gredler,1989).

3. Law of Readiness
This law implies that teachers must either wait for readiness or accept the
present level of readiness and be satisfied with a slower learning rate in
introducing any new learning experiences.

B. Conditioning Theory
There are two names which are closely associated with conditioning in learning- that
of Ivan Pavlov on classical conditioning and B.F. Skinner on instrumental or operant
conditioning

Learning refer to conditioning as the formation of some sort of stimulus-response

sequential relation that brings about behaviour change. The two points of view,
however, differ in their basis of response change.

REFLEX OR CLASSICAL CONDITIONING OF IVAN PAVLOV

Classical conditioning is based on the basic stimulus-response sequential

relationship about behaviour changes. It is based on the adhesive principle which
means that a response is attached to a stimulus through the stimulus occurring just
prior to the response so that the recurrence of the stimulus will evoke or cause the
response. Hence, conditioning occurs without reinforcement.
Classical conditioning methodology, the naturally occurring stimulus and reflex
response are unconditioned. That means that these occur without training and are
referred to as unconditioned stimulus (UCS), and unconditioned response (UCR).
After training, the new stimulus that elicits the response, such as a light signal
becomes a conditioned stimulus.
Hence, classical conditioning involves the formation or strengthening of an
association between a conditioned stimulus which elicited the original response.

Classical conditioning theory explains the simplest form of learning which relies on
the relatively mechanistic process of reinforcement for the formation and
strengthening of associations between stimulus and response. This theory involves
several principles, among which are excitation, extinction, stimulus generalization
and spontaneous recovery.
Excitation. This law is also known as the law of acquisition. This happens when a
previously neutral stimulus acquires the property of eliciting the conditioned response
(i.e.; the buzzer/metronome sound (CS) elicits salivation (CR)).
Extinction. This process is also called unlearning. This occurs when the conditioned
stimulus because the conditioned stimulus was constantly presented without the
paired stimulus.
Stimulus generalization. This process occurs when the conditioned response is not
only elicited by the original condition stimulus but by other stimuli similar to the
conditioned stimulus. Thus, a similar sound of another buzzer may elicit salivation
from the subject. The opposite of this process is discrimination, in which a subject
learns to respond to one stimulus but not to a similar stimulus.
Spontaneous recovery. A conditioned response which does not appear for
sometime re-occurs without further conditioning. If the dog is brought out of the
experimental set up for sometime and then brought back, it may salivate (CR) at the
sound of the buzzer (CS).

B.F Skinner’s Theory of Operant Conditioning

The operant conditioning theory is based on Skinner’s experiments with animals. Skinner
uses the term operant behaviour to refer to his idea that an organism has to do something in
order to get a reward that is, it must operate on its environment. His basic premise is that
any organism (including man) tends to repeat what it was doing at the time its behaviour was
reinforced and that the task is a matter of baiting each step on the way, thus gradually
leading the subject to the required performance.

C. Social Learning Theory of Albert Bandura

Albert Bandura and Richard Wallace hold another view on the role of reinforcement
in learning. The social learning theory (or social cognitive theory) is derived from
Skinner’s operant conditioning theory. Their theory maintains the importance of the
stimulus-response connection in learning, but its emphasis is on observational
learning, which includes self-instruction and self-reinforcement, rather than on the
presence of reinforcement.

It assumes that individuals learn specific cognitive structures from observing the
behaviour of others and that these strategies account for the acquisition of social
behaviors. Thus, imitation often leads to reinforces individuals seek. It also embodies
the principle of vicarious reinforcement where reinforcement obtained by the model is
sufficient to reinforce behaviour, and involves conceptual learning.

LESSON H: COGNITIVE THEORIES OF LEARNING

The modern cognitive field theories of learning in psychology are extensions of the principles
formulated by the Gestalt school of psychology. Deriving from the associations perspective,
the cognitive field theorists or cognitivists, place emphasis upon the concept that learning is
a process of discovering and understanding relationships, and of organizing and finding
significance in the sensory experiences around by the external situation.

Kohler’s Insight Theory

Kohler held that animals and human beings are capable of seeing relationships between
objects and events and act accordingly to achieve their ends. They have the power of
looking into relationships involved in a problem and in coming up with a solution. Such
solution to a problem presumably does not involve trial-and-error learning.

LESSON I: COMMUNICATION: BASIC TOOL IN LEARNING

A basic tool of learning is communication. Do you agree? Psychologists and teachers

agreed on the fact that students who cannot communicate cannot learn. An essential
objective to education therefore, is to develop the communication skills of students; namely:
speaking, writing, listening and reading. It is the teacher’s responsibility to develop
communication skills in the classroom. The teacher as facilitator of learning is assumed to
have the greater communicative skill. At the same time, teacher as a manager of the
classroom setting, he is assumed to be in a position to set up a psychological climate in the
classroom that will facilitate communication. In any learning situation, learning can be more
effective if communication does not take a one-way channel but rather a two-way
communication relationship between teacher and students in ascending order of their
effectiveness. Teachers must be open to any type of communication relationship between
him and among his students so that learning will always takes place in the classroom
situations. He should learn to accept his errors and learn to correct their errors. Whichever
type of communication relationship is adopted by a teacher depend of course to great extent
on the particular theory of teaching he holds and on the particular kind of learning situation
he encounters.

Experience is basic to learning. Communication is not only an experience, but it is an

experience about other experiences. Therefore, communication is a helpful tool for learning.

Communication is the basic of learning because human easily remember what has been told
by other people rather than they read themselves. Most of the learning especially outside
from what we learnt from school can be gain from discussion which also stimulate the brain
and gain from different level of people.

LESSON J: EVALUATION

Evaluation or assessment of students learning allows teachers to identify the strengths and
weakness of the learners. Once the teacher has identified the weakness of the learners,
teacher should provide appropriate strategies or reinforcement of skills. Evaluation will allow
for the restructuring of learning activities well.

LESSON K: LEARNING SITUATION

Learning situation is one important aspect of educative process. The learning situation refers
to conditions outside the learner which affects his learning. This is considered as the key
factor in student learning. The teacher assumes as a model to his students in desirable
patterns and behaviour and values. As a manager of the classroom situation, the teacher
determines the strategies f psychosocial climate in the classroom. As a facilitator of student
learning, the teacher utilizes that will suit to the needs and interests of the learner. As
evaluation of student learning, teacher utilize results of evaluation as a basis for further
learning of the students. This also includes communication and motivation are two aspects
of teaching instruction. These aspects established the relationship between teacher and
learner

ACTIVITY 1

Discuss the following questions

1. Discuss what implications the school of psychology and theories have for personality
development?
ACTIVITY 2

Identify and give illustrations of the basic contents of psychological foundation in education
in promoting and influencing learning.

ACTIVITY 3

From your observation give classroom situations where the principles of motivation have
been applied in a classroom.
ACTIVITY 4

Show how certain factors and conditions of motivational theory promote the cognitive,
affective and psychomotor domains
Activity 5

Discuss why is communication a basic tool to learning. Justify.

Activity 6

Discuss and justify how motivation can affect the learning process
Activity 7

Explain why learning situation is considered an important aspect of educative process

Activity 8

Explain the “pleasure principle” and its implication to learning

Activity 9

What is the purpose of evaluation in classroom teaching? What are the competencies a
teacher ought to develop to do a good job of evaluating learner’s learning?
Activity 10

Write an Essay about your goal as an educator and relate this to the article about the
metaphor of the mountain.

ANSWER KEY OF THE PRE TEST

1. B

2. C
3. A

4. D

5. D

6. C

7. C

8. B

9. D

10. C

11. D

12. C

13. C

14. C

15. C

16. B

17. B

18. D

19. D

20. B

ARTICLE

I have here the metaphor of a mountain to identify the salient qualities of a professional
teacher. This was taken from one of the LET reviewers 2016.

POINTS TO PONDER!!!
“ The mountain is a huge creation that stands towering all over all other structures in the
land. It stands majestic and impressive providing a soothing effect when viewed from a
distance. Its statue is a symbol of strength and stability.

Because of its elevated position, the mountain receives the first rays of the sun at dawn. The
radiance of the sun’s rays on the summit creation a beautiful panaroma to behold. It is a
spectacular scene to lay the eyes on. “

Activity 1

1. Draw and illustrate a mountain

2. Explain what does this article mean

REFERENCES

Bustos, Alicia S. and Socorro C. Espiritu. Psychological, Anthropological and Sociological

Foundations of Educations I. Quezon City: KATHA Publishing Co. Inc. 1996

Calderon, Jose F. Foundations of Education

Manila; Rex Publishing Co 2002

Lacuesta, Manuel, Philosophical Foundations of Educational Theory and Practice on the

Philippines. Manila; Delco Publishing 1982
Lacuesta, Manuel, el al. Historical, Philosophical and Legal Foundations of Education II.

Katha Publishing Co. Ins and PATTE, 1986

Laraga, Roberta O. Historical, Philosophical and Legal Foundations of Education.

Quezon City; Geat Books Publishing 2005

Tulio, Douis D. Psychological, Anthropological and Sociological Foundations of Educatiion I

Mandaluyong City National Book Store 2008-2010

Tulio, Douis D. Historical, Philosophical and Legal Foundations of Education 2

Mandaluyong City; National BookStore 2008

Thimson, S. Online Collaboration: Tools and Strategies 2014

Zalueta Francisco and Elda Maglaya. Historical, Psychological, Anthropological, and

Sociological

Foundations of Education. Mandaluyong City: National Book Store Inc. 2004

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