Species concepts:
1) Biological species
● Can interbreed to produce fertile offspring
● Not reproductively isolated
Limitations: does not include species that do reproduce asexually, and sometimes two species
that CAN breed together but usually DON'T like wolves and dogs.
2) Morphological species
● Organisms that look alike/ have similar morphology are the same species
Limitation: sometimes different species are morphologically indistinguishable.
3) Ecological species concept:
● Population of individuals that share features and live in the same area at the
same time
Limitations : different species live in the same area at the same time. Two of the same species
may live in different areas.
● Species are named by: genus+species → example Nesomimus trifasciatus
Differences between bacteria and archaea
1. Archaea have membrane lipids unique to them
2. Archaea have a circular chromosome while bacteria have circular non linear DNA
3. Archaea have cell walls but not made of peptidoglycan
4. Archaea have 70s ribosomes but the small subunit is more similar to eukaryotic
ribosomes.
Other similar features of both bacteria and archaea
● No cell organelles
● Binary fission as reproductive method
● No nucleus
● Cell wall
● Infolding of cell surface membrane
● Some have cilia
● Plasmids present
● Exist as single cell of groups of similar cells
Kingdoms of Eukarya
1) Protoctista
● Some are plant like and have chlorophyll and cell walls
● Some are animal like and no chlorophyll and no cell wall
● Mostly single cells
2) Fungi
● Heterotrophic autotrophic nutrition
● Reproduce by spores
● Exist as single cells or thread like ‘hyphae’ which can form complex and large
multicellular fungi
● Cels replicate by mitosis
● No chlorophyll
3) Plantae
👍
● Autotrophic
● Chlorophyll
● Cell wall present and organelles present
● Large central vacuole
● Few different types of differentiated tissue
● Mitosis and meiosis for gamete production
● Male gametes have flagella?? Creepy.
4) Animalia
● No cell walls
● Mitosis and meiosis
● Cell organelles present
● Large multicellular organisms with many differentiated types of tissue
● Organs and specialized tissue
● Communication by nervous and hormonal coordination
● Small temporary cell walls
● Some cells have cilia (ciliated epithelium in respiratory tract)
Viruses
● Not alive!
● Use host machinery to replicate genetic material and produce ‘virus proteins’ that
eventually kill host
● Since they are not alive, they are classified by the type of DNA they have and the
number of strands
Ecosystem: A self-contained interacting group of organisms and their environment which they
also interact with.
Habitat: a place in which a particular organism or species resides
Niche: Role of an organism in an ecosystem.
✨Sampling✨
Systematic sampling
1) Belt transect method steps:
Using belt transect
● Use a long measuring tape and quadrat to create a belt transect.
● Start at one end of the tape measure and place the quadrat along the tape to collect
sample information
● Use the same sized quadrat for every sample
● Move the quadrat along the tape, placing it at regular intervals and collecting the data
Collecting Data
● Use a method of identifying each species like comparing to an existing photo database.
● Calculate the estimated % cover/ species density/ species frequency using all the data
for each quadrat
● Repeat the method for at least three transects in each plot (area) and calculate an
average to get a more accurate value of species density/ cover/ frequency
● Plot a kite diagram of all the data to study the changes in species abundance and cover.
Precautions
● Wear gloves to protect hands from irritating/poisonous species
● Do not ingest any species such as mushrooms
● Protect hands and body from venomous insects or species using protective clothing
● Keep antivenom handy
● Work in a group to avoid getting lost in the wilderness!!
2) Line transect method:
● Same as belt transect except no quadrats used, instead just observe the species under
the line at regular intervals
● Less accurate because sample may not be representative of species in the general
vicinity/ around it
Random Sampling (comparing species density of two plots for example)
(52/M/J/2016)
Method
● Mark out a 10ft by 10ft (or different) plot in one area
● Generate random coordinates using a random number generating AI(or other method)
● Place a quadrat at each of these locations (at least 5 locations) and record the number
of squares in which the species occurs.
● Use the same sized quadrat for each sample.
● Sample in both areas you are trying to compare
● Take multiple plots in each area and repeat experiment
● Same size plot in each area
Collecting data
● Method of identifying species by comparing it to online database (etc)
● Calculate species density using sample data
● Sample at different times of the year or different seasons
Safety
● Wear sunscreen!!
● Protective gloves/ body covering from harmful plants and species
● Boots
● Stay with a group to prevent getting lost (?????)
Mark-Release-Recapture method
Method
● Collect as many individuals of a species as possible on one day
● Mark them with a device or paint
● Marking method must be non-toxic and must not affect their future survival
● Marking methods must not decrease the rate of survival, or fall off as the animal lives its
life.
● Marking method should be easy to re-identify later.
Collecting data
● Samples must be taken from a large area and the number of individuals collected should
be counted.
● After giving the animals sufficient time to get mixed in with the population again (1
week-1 month) capture as many animals as possible from the same area.
● Calculate number of marked and unmarked animals and use formula to find out
population estimate
Precautions: protect yourself from animals/ wear sunscreen/ handle animals gently/ keep vet
handy.
Correlation
Null hypothesis: there is no correlation between A and B
Pearson’s linear correlation:
● Can be used when correlation is known to be linear
● quantitative data used
● Data follows normal distribution
● Data is continuous
T-Test
Null hypothesis is always: There is no difference between the two mean values (mention what
the value is)
Requirements for a t-test:
● Data is continuous and normally distributed.
● Two means are being compared
● Data has a normal distribution curve
● Standard deviations of two data sets are approximately the same
● n<30
● Data is quantitative
Chi-squared test criteria:
Null hypothesis: There is no significant difference between the observed and expected results
● Data is discontinuous
● Follows bar chart
● Quantitative data
If a chi squared test value comes> the 0.05 p value then you say that ‘any differences
between observed and expected values were due to chance. There are no significant
differences between observed and expected values.
Advantage of simpson’s index of diversity: You do not need to know the names of each
species that you capture just that they are different species.
Criteria for pierson’s linear correlation:
● You have two sets of normally distributed data
● There is a visible linear relationship between the datasets
● Data is distributed normally having a normal curve
● 5< pairs of data
Criteria for pierson’s linear correlation:
● 5< pairs of data
● Data sets not ornally distributed
● Graph shows there is some correlation that is not necessarily linear
Possible variables:
● Temperature
● Light intensity
● Concentration
● Number of something
● pH of a solution
● Volume
● Mass of something
● time
Planning an experiment:
● What is the setup
● What are the standardised variables
● Do a control experiment if possible
● How do you change the independent variable
● How do you measure the independent variable (eg light intensity or mass or dimensions)
● How do you measure the dependent variable
● Any improvements to make your experiment more precise
● How do you interpret the results
● Hazards and risk and precautions
