ZNOTES.

ORG

UPDATED TO 2023-2025 SYLLABUS

CAIE IGCSE
GEOGRAPHY
SUMMARIZED NOTES ON THE THEORY SYLLABUS
Prepared for Kavya for personal use only.
CAIE IGCSE GEOGRAPHY
Overpopulation Under population

1. Theme 1: Population and Causes/reasons.

High birthrate and low Low birthrate and
death rate high death rate

Settlement High fertility rate Low fertility rate

Increased family
Lack of family planning planning and access
to contraception.
1.1. Population Dynamics High level of
Low level of education
education for women
The world population is increasing day by day. for women, hence
to have careers and
An area can be either: married early.
marry late.
High infant mortality Low infant mortality
1. Overpopulation occurs when more people live in an
area than there are resources available. Limited religious
Religious beliefs beliefs relating to a
2. Underpopulation occurs when fewer people live in number of children
the area than there are resources available.
Greater life expectancy Low life expectancy.
3. Optimum population: This occurs when there is a
More ageing
balance between the number of people and the Lack of water,
population, hence
resources available. Impacts sanitization, housing,
more people in
and food.
retirement age.
Keywords:
High crime rate and
Low crime rate
Birth rate: average number of live births in a year for poverty.
every 1000 people Unemployment Shortage of workers
Death rate: average number of deaths for every 1000 There is no pressure
people Increased pressure on on health and
health, education, education; hence,
Natural increase of a country: Birth rate minus death water, and sanitization. costs increase as the
rate population ages.
Soil erosion, Few people pay
deforestation. taxes.
Resources are not
Lack of resources \n exploited fully,
Inflation reducing the
potential
More air and water, Lack of services due
noise pollution, and to low demand,
shortage of housing. particularly in rural
Traffic congestions. areas and innovation

There are two ways in which a population can change:

Migration: the action of moving from one place to
another.
Natural population change: deducting death rate from
birth rate.

1.2. Migration

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Origin: Push factors Destination: Pull factors
Keywords: Unemployment More job opportunities
Migration: Movement of people from one place to
War Better salary
another
good health and education
Immigrants: People who arrive in a country to live Pollution and congestion
services
there permanently Bad weather Peaceful and safe
Emigrants: People who leave the country to live in
Friends and family may already
another country permanently High crime rates
live there.
Net migration: Number of immigrants minus the Poor education and healthcare Citizenship
number of emigrants
Poor housing A higher standard of living
Types of migration:
Famine Closer to relatives
Internal migration: When people move from one
place to another within the country. Drought Freedom of speech
International migration: When people move from Inaccessibility Better lifestyle
one country to another; involving the crossing a Pollution Fewer hazards
country’s border.
Temporary migration: When people stay in an area Impacts of Migration on Country of Origin:
for a limited time.
Advantages Disadvantages
Permanent migration: When people move and
Less pressure on healthcare Labour force reduced.
never return home.
Brain drains more
Involuntary (forced) migration: When people are skilful/educated labour leave
forced to move. Decline in birth rate.
the country - fewer
Voluntary migration: When people choose to move. innovations.
Refugees: A person who has been forced to leave Migrants bring back new skills. Division of families
their home and their country due to a natural Money is sent back Left with elderly population -
disaster, war, religious or political persecution (remittances) less income.
Asylum Seekers: Someone seeking refuge more job opportunities hence
(residency) in a foreign country because their life is in the unemployment rate Tax increase
danger in their home country. decrease
Reasons for population migration: Decrease traffic congestion More ageing population
Push factors: Reasons for people to move away from and pollution. (retirement age)
their home country. Increased quality of education Depopulation in rural areas
Pull factors: Factors that attract migrants to their and healthcare affects agriculture.
destination.
Country of Destination
Advantages Disadvantages
Overcomes labour shortage. Competition for jobs
More pressure on healthcare,
Dirty unskilled jobs done.
education and public services
Brings expertise to the country. Traffic congestion
Skilled migrants bring Less religious amenities for
innovations. immigrants
Cultural diversity and Discrimination and racial
enrichment problems
Will work long hours for a low
Increased pollution
salary.
Boosts local economy.

Impacts on Migrants Themselves

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Positive Negative Too few Too Many
Culture shocks, racism and Taxes for public schools
More job opportunities Closure of child-
discrimination. Young from the government
related services;
Better salary & access to a Difficulty in finding houses to dependents: and more child-related
fewer jobs.
wider variety of good stay services are needed.
Better access to education & Fewer consumers and
Language barriers taxpayers in the More people in the
healthcare
Different cultures may be future and fewer working population in
Safer & peaceful people to take over future hence
difficult to integrate.
the working unemployment.
Separated from friends and population.
Higher pay
family.
An increase in the age Increased dependency
A higher standard of living Higher cost of living. of the population ratio
Send remittances to family Not used to weather Pressure on healthcare
back home. conditions. Less labour in future
and education
Better quality of life Visa and weather conditions The strain on pension More pensions to be
Old
systems; decrease in paid, increased
dependents:
1.3. Population Structure retirement age. retirement age.
Population structure More pressure on
Keywords: changes. public transportation
Ageing population: Old dependents (people above Expensive medical
pressure on healthcare
60 years old) and health care.
Dependent population: People who don’t work; are Not enough labour
Loneliness
force
retired and have young children.
Difficult to evacuate old
Increased residential
Population Pyramid: a type of graph that shows the age dependents during
costs.
and sex structure of the country; the distribution of age, sex, natural disasters.
and population of different countries is known as population
structure and is represented on a population pyramid. Different Types of Population Pyramids

Implication of Dependents:
1.4. Population Density & Distribution

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\n
Keywords: \n
Population density: number of people per unit of
area (typically per kilometre square)
Sparsely populated: an area with low population
density
Densely populated: an area with high population
density
Factors influencing:
An isolated, Buildings are strung
Sparse Population Dense Population building or a group along a line of Buildings are
Harsh areas; of two or three communication, for grouped, initially
Physical
mountainous or uneven Flat relief buildings, example, a main road, for defence or a
Factors
relief separated from the a river valley, or a common resource.
Extreme/harsh climates Favourable climates next by 2 or 3 km. canal
and bad weather and good weather
Availability of natural Site: describes the physical nature of where a settlement
High risk of flooding resources for industry is located – the actual piece of land
and manufacturing. Situation: describes settlement about other settlements
Infertile soil Fertile land for crops and physical features around it – this determines
Locations with frequent No or few natural whether the situation will grow into a large city or remain
natural disasters disasters. a small town or village
Good water supply i.e. a Factors influencing settlements:
No water supplies.
river. Wet point site: this has a good water supply
Economic No economic Many jobs Drypoint site: this has less risk of flooding
factors opportunities opportunities Building material: availability of stone, wood, clay, etc.
No infrastructure Good infrastructures Defensive site: in a river meander or on a hill with
Many transport routes steep-sided and commanding views
No transport routes.
to travel easily. Fuel supply: for heating and cooking
Bad communication Good communication Food supplies: land suitable for farming
Social factors High crime rates Low crime rates Nodal points: where routes converge
Cultural and religious Bridging point: river shallow enough to build a bridge
No Cultural and
beliefs of having big Aspect: settlements often on the sunny side of a
religious beliefs.
family. valley
Political Reliable and stable Shelter: from cold prevailing winds and rain
Government corruption
factors government Climate: A good climate attracts more people.
Poor public services Fertile land: brings in more farmers.
such as healthcare and Good public services
Location: access to trades and raw materials.
education
Civil war No threats or wars.
Hierarchy of Settlements
Low birth rate and high High birth rate and low
death rate. death rate.
A hierarchy is when settlements are ordered and classified
based on:
1.5. Settlements (Rural & Urban) and
Service Provision
Settlement Patterns

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Factories were built:

1.6. Urban Settlements As close as possible to the CBD but with enough
space
Urban Settlements tend to have several land uses Next to canals and railways to transport materials
The Central Business District (CBD):
Next to rivers for cooling, power source or waste
Centre point of the city and has the highest land
disposal
prices Next to land where lots of workers could live
The most accessible point in the city
High-rise buildings and skyscrapers Urban Growth in Urban Areas
Functions: retail, entertainment, financial services, and
other professional services Urban Growth/Sprawl: rapid urbanisation due to
Land uses: building in the rural-urban fringe and land reclamation
Leisure and recreation - may include open land
Residential - High/multi-storey buildings. Problems of urban growth in urban areas:
Transport - road and rail networks, train stations and For People For Environment
airports Overcrowded Loss of vegetation
Business and commerce - offices, shops, and banks Unable to obtain jobs/low pay Loss of habitats
Industry - factories, warehouses, and small Pressure on schools/hospitals Impacts on food chains
production centres Increased crime rates Pollution of rivers
The CBD is in the centre because it is: Difficulties of waste/litter Death of fish/other species
A central location for roads/railways to converge Traffic congestion Pollution of groundwater
The most accessible location for workers Noise pollution Air/atmospheric pollution
Accessible to most people for shops and businesses Lack of sanitation Rivers dry up
Problems that CBD face: congestion, pollution, and lack Poor quality of life
of space Food shortage
Old inner-city area:
Typically found next to CBD
It has mainly terraced houses in a grid-like pattern 1.7. Urbanisation
Suburbia:
Urban sprawl and owning cars led to the construction Urban Growth in Rural Areas
of well-planned and spacious houses Many rural areas seek & experience rapid urban growth
Larger than inner city terraces & most have a garden for several reasons:
Typically, detached or semi-detached Better transport links, e.g. road, rail, river
Roads are arranged in cul-de-sacs and wide avenues Better trading prospects
Land prices are cheaper than in CBD and inner city Nearby natural resources, e.g. fuel
Demand can make some areas expensive Better job prospects
Outer-city estate: Better schools and hospitals
Located on the fringes of cities with varied housing Better supply of electricity, gas and water
People relocated here when the inner city was being Varied entertainment
redeveloped
Rural-urban fringe: Rural-Urban Migration
This is found at the edge of a town or city
A mixture of land uses, e.g. housing, golf courses, Movement of people from the countryside towards cities
allotments, businesses, parks and airports. Rural-urban migration is the main cause of urbanisation
It is caused by several push & pull factors:
Industrial Areas

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Push factors from a rural
Pull factors from urban areas
area
No/poorly paid jobs More jobs
Mechanisation of farming Good schools/healthcare
Agricultural products have low
Good transport/comms
prices
Poor schools/healthcare Reliable supply of resources
Lack of entertainment Better entertainment
Better quality & quantity of
Poor housing quality
houses
Drought/famine pace and excitement
Shortage of resources government support
Poor transport/comms.
Feature Characteristics
Urban Wedges: urban growth is allowed to take place in Lava Magma that reaches the surface
wedges, ensuring some green areas are protected Clouds of mixed poisonous gases and
Pyroclastic flow
throughout the city ash
Housing density: increasing housing density means less Ash Very fine-grained volcanic material
land will be destroyed Snow and ice melt and combine with the
Lahars
ash, creating lahars.
Squatter Settlement Main vent Central tube through the volcano
Eruptions from other vents lead to the
A squatter settlement is a rural residential area which Secondary cones formation of secondary cones on the
has developed without legal claims or permission to sides.
build on the land. Bowl bowl-shaped basin at the top of the
Crater
volcano
It has: Magma chamber A large underground pool of magma
Extremely high home density
How do volcanoes form?
Extremely high population density
Magma rises through cracks in the Earth’s crust
Houses built from mud for walls, iron for roofs
Pressure builds up (inside Earth)
No electricity
Pressure and tension are released → Plate
No running water or sewage
movement
Diseases spread easily
Magma explodes to the surface, causing an eruption
The pungent smell of human waste
Lava cools and forms a new crust
No infrastructure or privacy
Over time, rock builds up, and new crusts form on
top, forming a volcano.
2. Theme 2: The Natural Impacts of Volcanic Eruption:
Environment
2.1. Earthquakes and Volcanoes
Volcanoes
A volcano is formed when magma erupts onto the earth’s
surface as lava through the vent in the earth's crust.

Features of a Volcano

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Environmental Human
Pyroclastic flow Loss of life and injury
lava flow collapse and destruction of buildings
volcanic bombs transport network damaged
Laharas Loss of jobs and businesses
earthquakes Loss of crops
ashfall Power and water supply damaged
landslides
Tsunami
acid rain
ash fallout Low viscosity (runny lava) -
Viscous (thick) - andesitic lava
basaltic lava
Low in height, gently sloping High in height, steep-sided
Opportunities of Volcanos:
sides with a broad base volcanic cones
The cooled lava contains minerals,
Fertile soils Low silica content (covers long High silica content (covers
leading to a high yield of crops.
distances) short distance)
Many people want to visit the area and
Tourism Frequent eruptions but low in Rare eruptions but in high
study it.
magnitude magnitude
Minerals and They can be sold, providing more work
precious stones and income. High temperature Low temperature
Low gas content High gas content
the magma gives out heat, which can be
Geothermal energy There is little build-up
used to generate geothermal energy. Enormous build-up pressure
Creating new land once the lava and ash cool forms new pressure.
areas fertile land.
Causes of eruptions:
Stages of Volcanoes: At constructive margin, plates move away from each
Active: has erupted recently and is likely to erupt other; magma rises to fill the gap;
again. At the destructive margin, oceanic crust melts from
Dormant: has not erupted recently but may in future friction and heat from the mantle; newly formed
Extinct: no evidence to erupt again. magma is lighter, so it rises to the surface
Types of Volcanoes:
Distribution of Volcanoes:

Earthquakes

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Earthquakes Effects of earthquakes
An earthquake is a sudden violent shaking of ground A large number of deaths
followed by a series of vibrations or movements in the Fires breaking out
earth's crust. Water pipes burst
Water contamination, diseases
How earthquakes happen:
Corpses: human & animal
Tectonic plates move; they strike.
Pressure and tension build up as the plates try to Accessibility difficult
move. Building damaged/destroyed
Eventually, they jolt free and pressure and tension Tsunami can follow
are released inside the crust as energy. Reconstruction costs
The energy passes through the earth’s crust as
waves, an earthquake. Reduce impacts of earthquakes:
Features of earthquake:
Prediction Preparation
Measure earth tremors, Build earthquake-proof
pressure, and release of gas buildings
Use maps and facts to find
Train emergency services
patterns in time/location
Unusual animal behaviour Set up a warning system
Seismometer Create evacuation plan
Richter scale Emergency food supply
Prepare earthquake kit

Earthquake-proof buildings:

Features of earthquakes
Focus: point of earthquake
Epicentre: point directly above the focus, on the ground
Seismic waves
Shaking ground
Subduction zone: occurs at a destructive margin; one plate
goes under the other
Magnitude: the amount of energy released.

Tectonic Plates

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Diagram Description

Collision: occurs when two

continental plates move
towards each other.

Example: Indo-Australian and

the Eurasian Plate

Types of Plate Boundaries:

Constructive/divergent: occurs
when two plates move away
from each other.

Example: North American and

Eurasian Plate

Conservative/transform: occurs
when two plates slide past each
other.

Example: North American Plate

and the Pacific Plate

Destructive/subduction/converg
ent: occurs when a continental
plate subducts an oceanic plate.‎

Example: pacific plate and the

Eurasian plate

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Plate boundary Volcanoes Earthquakes Fold mountains Drainage basin - the area of land drained by a river.
Constructive Gentle Gentle No
Destructive Violent Violent Yes
Collision None Violent Yes
Conservative None Violent No

Structure of the Earth

Catchment area - the area within the drainage basin.

Watershed - the edge of a highland surrounding a
drainage basin. It marks the boundary between two
drainage basins.
Source - The beginning or start of a river.
Confluence - the point at which two rivers or streams
join.
Tributary - a stream or smaller river joins a larger
Crust stream or river.
The mouth is where the river ends, usually when
There are two types of crust: entering the sea.
The oceanic crust is thinner (5-10km) but heavier and Drainage basins act as a system with:
denser
The continental crust is thicker (25-90km) but is older Inputs: precipitation
and less dense. Transfers: infiltration, percolation, surface runoff,
The oceanic crust is continually being created and throughflow & groundwater flow
destroyed due to plate movement, where it is denser Stores: interception, surface storage, soil moisture
and subducts under the continental crust. storage & groundwater storage

2.2. Rivers Outputs: evaporation & transpiration or evapotranspiration

The Hydrological Cycle Drainage Basin Features

The hydrological cycle is where water is constantly recycled

through the system.

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Attrition: large particles such as boulders collide and

break into smaller pieces.
Hydraulic action: flowing water that hits against the
riverbanks and beds.
Abrasion: smaller particles rub against the riverbanks
and bed like sandpaper.
Solution: acid in rivers dissolves rocks; it occurs at any
Bed: The bottom of the river channel part of the river
Bank: The sides of the river channel
A river has two banks Types of Erosion
Width: The distance between the two banks of a river
Depth: The distance from the water surface to the bed Vertical erosion: dominant in the upper course of rivers.
of a river It increases the river's depth and valley as the river
Speed of flow: how fast the water in a river is moving; erodes downwards.
different speeds arise at different parts of the river Lateral erosion: dominant in the middle and lower
Wetted perimeter: length of the bed and banks in course of rivers. It increases the width of the river and
contact with the river valley as it erodes sideways.
Channel: The route course (between bed and banks)
that a river flows. The flow of the river is often described Transportation
as channel flow.
Thalweg: The fastest part of the river, always near the
middle of the river channel, where there is the least
friction

River Processes
1. Erosion
2. Transportation
3. Deposition

Erosion
Erosion is the wearing away of surfaces.

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Traction: rolling stones along the bed

Saltation: small particles bounce along the bed in a
leapfrog motion
Suspension: silt and clay-sized are carried within the
water flow
Solution: minerals dissolve in the water

Deposition
When a river lacks the energy to carry its load, it deposits
the heaviest particles.
It happens when there is less water or where the current
slows down
Large boulders are deposited at the top, and very small V-shaped valley:
particles are deposited at the end, resulting in sorting

River Profiles
Long profile:

Interlocking Spurs
Cross Profile

River Landforms and their Formation

Water Fall and Gorges: Meanders

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Causes of flooding:
No vegetation
Deforestation
Urbanization
Poor drainage
Steep slopes
Rock type (impermeable rocks do not absorb water)
Wet soil (over saturation)

Impacts Opportunities
Water supply (drinking,
People can be killed.
washing)
Homes destroyed. Fishing industry
Oxbow Lake Spread of waterborne diseases Transportation for trading
Shortage of clean water and
Tourism
food
Infrastructure damaged Fertile soil
Businesses destroyed. Powerplants (dams)
Sports/recreation

Flood Management Techniques

Floodplains and Levees

2.3. Coasts
The sea forms coasts and winds working together in 3
essential tasks: erosion, transportation and deposition
Components of a wave:
Swash: when a wave breaks & washes up the beach
Backwash: when the water drains back into the sea
Floods
Types of Waves

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Constructive Destructive
Low wave height High wave height Waves approach the coast at an angle
Swash moves up the beach at an angle
The beach gradient is gentle The beach gradient is steep
Backwash drains straight back down the beach
Spill forward gently Plunge forward
Gradually moving material along the beach in a zig-zag
Creates a strong swash Swash is weak
motion
Water drains through beach Rotation of water causes a
material strong backwash
Backwash is weak Erodes beaches
Deposits material
Builds up beaches

Erosion:

Abrasion: larger rocks and sediments like boulders grind

against the riverbed
Corrosion: salts and acids slowly dissolve a cliff
Attrition: smaller sediments collide with each other
while moving in the flow, making them rounder and
smaller Coastal Opportunities Coastal Threats
Hydraulic action: the force of waves compresses air in Sports/recreation Hurricanes
cliffs
Groundwater recharge Coastal storms
Transportation: Habitat for fish Tsunamis
Transport (shipping goods) Landslides
Tourism Flooding
Job opportunities Coastal erosion

Coastal Management
Hard Engineering:

Longshore Drift:

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Soft Engineering:
Name Description Advantages Disadvantages
Increases
distance
between
Sand/shingle
Beach waves and Effectiveness is
added to the
nourishment cliffs → Waves uncertain
beach
lose energy →
Less erosive
power.
Tourism is
Good barrier
affected as dunes
Land Protect and against coastal
are marked out
management rebuild dunes flooding and
of bounds to the
erosion
general public Caves, Arches, and Stack:
Break up
waves and A band of weaker rock extends through a headland.
reduce speed Erosion produces caves on both sides of the headland.
and power of More erosion produces an arch through the headland.
waves → Effectiveness is
Marshland
Limits area uncertain
Eventually, the roof is weak & collapses, forming a stack.
which waves
can reach →
Prevents
flooding
Widen beach
and reduces
Planting dead
Beach wave energy, Effectiveness is
trees in sand
stabilization lowers the uncertain
to stabilize
profile of the
beach

Landforms
Cliffs and wave-cut platforms:
Beaches:
Wave erosion is concentrated at the foot of the cliff
A wave-cut notch is formed In bays, the waves diverge outwards.
The cliff is undercut & collapses The wave energy is dissipated, creating a low-energy
Repeated collapse causes retreat of the cliff environment. Hence, deposition to form beaches.

Bays and Headland:

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Mangrove swamps are trees and shrubs that grow in

saline coastal habitats in the tropics and subtropics
Provide habitat and protection for many fish & other sea
animals, especially when young
They slow water flow, encouraging any sediment to be
deposited, keeping sea water clear
Protect the coast from erosion, storm surges, hurricanes,
and tsunamis
They are a source of food and material
Conditions required for the formation of mangrove
swamps:

Bays are formed due to softer rock getting eroded easily

Headlands are usually formed since they are made of
resistant rock and are eroded more difficultly.

Spits:

Coral Reefs:

Coral reefs support a great diversity of life

Built from the limestone remains of coral skeletons &
coralline algae
Conditions required for the growth of coral reef:
Warm water/seas; temperatures 20 - 30C
Spits form when the coastline changes direction
Shallow water; not more than 60 meters deep
Longshore drift carries material in the same direction
Water free from sediment/clear/availability of light
Sand & shingle is built up to form a spit
A plentiful supply of oxygen in water/unpolluted
End of spit curves due to wave refraction or wind.
A plentiful supply of plankton
Sand Dunes: Lack of strong current

Dunes form behind wide sandy beaches Salt Marshes:

Onshore winds pick up the dry sand from above the
high-water mark & carry it landward by saltation
If they encounter an obstacle, the wind loses energy &
deposits sand in the lee of the obstacle
Eventually, a dune is formed
Plants grow on it, which stabilizes it & traps more sand
Mangrove Swamps:

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Made of a hollow cylinder (C) containing:

2.4. Weather Funnel (A) to collect the water.
Container to collect water, which may be graduated
Weather: Emptied once every 24hrs
The mix of events that occur in our atmosphere,
Rain is measured in millimetres.
including changes in temp., rainfall and humidity
Sunk into the ground, but not level, so splashes or
It can vary from day to day and from place to place surface water can’t get in.
Protip: essential to know the features of Stevenson’s screen Anemometer: Measures wind speed
Stevenson’s Screen: contains the thermometers
Painted white to reflect the sun with a double lid for
insulation
Slatted sides to let the air circulate, but slanted
downwards to prevent light from getting in
Legs 1m long to prevent heating from the ground
On short grass for the same amount of reflection

Three light rotating cups (mounted on a high pole) are

blown around by the wind the revolutions are counted &
converted into m/s, km/h or knots
Sunshine Recorder (Heliograph): records the amount of
sunshine at a given location

Protip: important to know what weather instruments look

like and have brief knowledge of how to use
Rain Gauge: has a fixed diameter so that they collect the
same amount of water & so comparisons can be made

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Burns a timeline A dry bulb is a normal mercury thermometer, and it

Trace sunshine not the hours of daylight measures actual air temperature
The glass ball focuses the light The wet bulb is the same but is covered with a fine cloth
This burns a line onto the card connected to a water reservoir.
Water evaporates from the cloth & cools temperature so
Max-min thermometer: Records max. & min. Temp. over it reads a few degrees lower than air temp.
24hr period Both wet & dry bulb temperatures read.

Barometer: Measures air pressure

Protip - Unit used: mb/millibars (was asked in 2021
Geography paper 4)

Max thermometer contains mercury & min contains

alcohol
As temp. rises, mercury expands & pushes up a metal
index, and when it cools, mercury contracts, and the
index is left in place at highest temp An aneroid barometer has a vacuum chamber
As temp. falls, alcohol contracts & pulls metal index with As air pressure rises & falls, the chamber contracts &
it; but as alcohol expands, it flows past index, leaving it at expands
its lowest temp Levers conduct this movement to a spindle, which moves
Both indexes read from the bottom once every 24hrs the pointer on the dial, which records the air pressure in
mmHg
Wet & dry bulb thermometer (hygrometer): Used to
calculate the humidity of the air Wind Vane: Records wind direction

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Latitude: closer to the equator = higher temperature

Distance from the sea: coastal area = warmer winters
and cooler summers
Prevailing winds: The seasonal difference in heating
between land and the sea affects the temperature of the
prevailing wind. Warm prevailing wind = rise in
temperature
Ocean currents: warm currents raise winter
temperatures in coastal areas; cold currents cool them
down in summer
Altitude: higher altitude = lower temperature (1° per
100m)
The wind blows the fletching so that the arrowhead Tropical Rainforest
points into the wind.
Mounted on high places (rooftops) Distribution:
Make sure no trees are blocking

2.5. Climate & Natural Vegetation

Weather
Describes the condition of the atmosphere, e.g.
sunny, hot, windy
Climate
This is the average condition over a longer period,
usually a few years.

Factors Influencing Climate Characteristics:

Structure:

Climate:

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Vegetation Animal
They are close to the equator, so they have very similar Camel have humps to store
climates all year around Seeds remain dormant
water
Temp. is constant between 25-30°C Waxy leaves to reduce Foxes have big ears to reduce
Rainfall all year around, monthly amounts vary slightly transpiration heat
Days start warm & then temp. and humidity build-up Thorns to protect from Shelter in underground to
Hot air rises, causing low pressure. predators avoid heat
Only comes out at night to
Adaptations: Long roots to search for water
hunt
Plants Animals Thick stem to store water
Drip tips - plants have leaves Light colours to reflect sunlight
with pointy tips. This allows The sloth uses camouflage and
water to run off the leaves moves very slowly, making it
quickly without damaging or difficult for predators to spot. Climate:
breaking them.
Deserts are extremely dry (arid) places
Drip tips - plants have leaves
with pointy tips. This allows The spider monkey has long,
Have less than 250mm of rainfall per year
water to run off the leaves strong limbs to help it to climb Air is dry because:
quickly without damaging or through the rainforest trees. Most of the moisture has precipitated over the
breaking them. equator
Epiphytes are plants that live The flying frog has fully Air travelling to the desert travels over land, not the
on the branches of trees high webbed hands and feet and a sea
up in the canopy. They get flap of loose skin that stretches No moisture leads to very few clouds, exposing them to
their nutrients from the air and between its limbs, which allows high levels of incoming radiation from the sun
water, not the soil. it to glide from plant to plant.
Causes day-time temps. to be very high
Lianas - vines which use the The lack of cloud cover allows outgoing radiation to
tall
escape
trees as support to reach the
Causes night-time temps to be low
The toucan has a long, large The annual temperature range is very low
bill to allow it to reach and cut
sunlight Daily temperature range is very high
fruit from branches too weak
to support its weight.
Deforestation of Tropical Rainforests
Hot Deserts Causes:
Population growth
Distribution: Economic growth
Mining
Road building
Agriculture
Urbanisation
Exploitation of land by TNCs
Effects:

Vegetation & Animal Adaptations:

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Local environment Global environment People
Death of local Gross National Product (GNP) per capita: wealth of a
Loss of vegetation Melting ice country averaged per person.
tribes people
Global Gross Domestic Product (GDP) per capital: the total
More carbon value of goods and services produced within a country in
Causes floods warming/increase
dioxide a year divided by the country's population.
temperatures
Threatens species Birth Rate: number of births in a year per 1000 of the
Rising sea levels Less oxygen
with extinction total population
Reduction of Death Rate: number of deaths in a year per 1000 of the
Changes in climate materials total population
Loss of habitat
patterns e.g. drought available to build Literacy rate: the percentage of people who can read
buildings and write.
Reduction of food Loss of species such as Life expectancy: the amount of time one is expected to
supply polar bears live
Soil erosion Infant Mortality: average number of deaths of infants
Food chain under 1 per 1000 live births per year.
disrupted
Composite indices like the Human Development
Index (HDI): measure the disparities between countries.
3. Theme 3: Economic Economic Sectors
Development Economic activity involves making, providing,
purchasing, or selling goods or services.
3.1. Development Economic activity can be divided into 4 categories:
Primary.
Development is the process of a country where it Secondary.
improves its quality of life for its people, making its place Tertiary.
more independent. Quaternary.
Stages of development:
Least developed countries → developing countries →
newly developed countries → Developed countries.
Quality of life is the person’s well-being in terms of
environment, security, health and happiness.

Indicators of Development

Sectors of the Industry:

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Majority tertiary.
Few in the secondary sector primary.
Primary is larger than secondary.

Comparing Nations:

An MEDC, e.g. UK

Low proportion in the primary sector.

Numbers are falling in the secondary sector.
The tertiary sector is the primary growth area.

Globalisation
Process in which the world is becoming increasingly
interconnected through economic, cultural, political and
An LEDC, e.g. Ghana tourism processes.
The majority are in the primary sector. Causes of globalisation:
Few in the secondary sector. Improvements in transportation
Tertiary may be larger than secondary. Freedom of trade
Improvements of communications
Labour availability and skills

Impacts of globalisation:
Positive Negative
Economic growth Economic Inequality
Job Displacement and Labor
Job Creation and Employment
Exploitation
Access to Goods and Services Environmental Degradation
Cultural Exchange and
Cultural Homogenization
Diversity
Exploitation of Developing
Technological Advancements
Countries
Access to Information and Social Disruption and
A NIC, e.g. Brazil Communication Inequality
Environmental Awareness and
Public Health Risks
Sustainability

TNCs (Transnational Corporations

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Companies that operate in more than 1 country, usually

in foreign countries or overseas.

Advantages Disadvantages
Job opportunities Labour drain.
Improvement in skills and Damage to the environment -
communication. factories create air pollution.
Good education, healthcare Cultural dilution or loss of
and good quality of life. cultural identity.
Social mobility is limited to
Invest in infrastructure.
urban areas.
Cheaper products Profits going overseas.
Natural resources are being
Greater choice of goods
over-exploited.
Movement of people, transport
High level of income from
ownership and loss of
tourism, exports, imports
biodiversity increases globally.
Access to vast levels of skills
Daily living costs increased.
and resources.

3.2. Food Production

Agriculture
Farming types:

Commercial and subsistence

Arable, Pastoral and mixed
Intensive and extensive

Factors influencing the type of agriculture:

Food Shortages & Famine

When demand for food exceeds the supply of food,

leading to undernourishment
Prolonged undernourishment can damage people's
health and eventually lead to starvation

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Human Causes Physical Causes
Increasing population- supply Too hot or cool temperatures Effects:
cannot keep up with demand. can kill crops and animals. Hunger and rising food prices.
Overgrazing reduces the Susceptible to infectious diseases.
integrity of the soil and can Shortage of rainfall kills most Impair physical and mental development.
cause topsoil erosion and soil crops or requires irrigation. Reduce labour productivity,
degradation. Undernutrition and malnutrition.
Too much rain can flood & kill Wasting.
Over cultivating causes soil
crops or wash away topsoil, Soil erosion and desertification.
degradation, using up and not
reducing soil fertility and Migration.
giving nutrients recovery time.
leading to low yield. Solutions:
Deforestation of woodland Natural disasters can destroy
damages the integrity of the large areas of agricultural land
soil and its source of nutrients. and kill or injure farmers.
If soil is infertile because the
Farming and industrial
bedrock contains few minerals,
pollution can both degrade
cultivating land can be hard,
land and reduce crop yields.
leading to low yields.
Diseases: these reduce yields
Corruption of government, war
and can result in livestock
and conflict.
deaths/

3.3. Industry
Industrial systems have inputs, processes and outputs.

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Input: resources that need to start the process can be Increased income of money and leave allowance.
physical. Easier travel.
Processes: turning raw materials into usable things. Faster and easier transport.
Outputs: product + profit or loss + waste materials Improved communication.
Types of Industry: Increased natural attractions.
Manufacturing: produces goods that are physically Increased manmade human attractions.
used by consumers, e.g. toys More advertisement of places.
Processing: turns raw materials into other materials
used in manufacturing, e.g. metal production Factors that Change Tourist Patterns
Assembly: using materials and a design scheme to Transport & accessibility.
put together a finished product, e.g. electronics Scenery: landscape & visual appearance of places
Hi-Tech: specialized industries that mostly do
Weather: Climate is important, e.g. cold place for a ski
research but often have small sections dedicated to trip
each of the 3 standard types of industry Accommodation: quality/price of hotels, camps, resorts
Industry Input Processes Output Impact Amenities: various recreational, historical, and leisure
Electric Steel, facilities & sites offered.
Noise, dust,
Alloy: furnace, sheets,
Steel
chromium oxygen, waste,
smell and Advantages and Disadvantages of Tourism
production water Advantages Disadvantages
and cobalt rolling, slag,
pollution. Increased in skills Loss of land
cutting. gases.
Iron ore, Iron, slag, Increased diversity of culture Illegal behaviour of tourists
Blast Noise, air,
Iron coke, gases, Creates job opportunities Often low-paid seasonal work.
furnace, ore, smell, water
production limestone, heat and Congestion and pollution is
coke. and waste. New infrastructure is built
water, iron. water. caused
Money is brought to the Money often goes to big
Factors influencing location of an Industry country’s economy businesses
Tax revenues are provided Economic leakage
Foreign language skills are Local language and traditional
promoted values can erode
Nature conservation areas Nature can be destroyed for
awareness can be increased land use
Money from tourism can be
Tourism leads to more
used to protect the
pollution
environment
Increased greenhouse gas
Improves sustainable practices
emissions from travelling
The activity of tourists disturbs
Preserve area or species and damages the habitat and
wildlife
Electricity and water supply
Racism and discrimination
3.4. Tourism improves
Improved roads, healthcare
Shortage of supplies
Tourism: when a person travels to another destination for and education
more than 24 hours but less than one year. It is a leisure
activity done for enjoyment in free time. Managing Tourism
Reasons for Growth of Tourism

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Ecotourism: holidays that involve eco-related activities & Non-Renewable energy: Fossil fuels are formed from
are sustainable, e.g. hiking, bird-watching, horse riding living organisms' remains (plants/animals). These are
Sustainable Tourism: tourist activities that are socially, non-renewable as they cannot be replaced at a speed
environmentally & economically sustainable which keeps up with consumption.
How? Coal
Built National Parks with entrance fees → Money Oil
raised can be spent on conservation/improvement of Gas
parks
Ban hunting/fishing Advantages Disadvantages
Fence-prohibited or protected areas The cost of production is
Put up signs such as “no littering” high, produces a lot of
It lasts 300yrs, now
GH gases, is dangerous,
Impose fines for littering or breaking any rules Coal become more efficient,
open cast = visual
Vehicles prohibited in certain areas needed to make coke
pollution, costly to
Create paths for people to walk on transport, acid rain
It lasts only 50-70yrs; oil
More efficient than coal,
3.5. Energy more accessible to
spills release greenhouse
Oil gases, prices fluctuate,
transport, diversity of
The demand for energy across the globe is rising. refineries use a lot of
uses, petro-chemicals
space, acid rain
Population growth and development are the two leading
It releases methane,
causes of the increase in energy demand. Cleanest of fossil fuels,
explosives, prices
Gas cheaper than oil, easy to
fluctuate, acid rain, and
distribute
greenhouse gases.
- Plenty of radioactive
- Risk of nuclear
supply as fuel \n - Very
accidents \n - Risk of
low amounts of
nuclear plants as
greenhouse gases made
terrorist targets \n -
\n - Reduces
Nuclear technology can
Nuclear dependency on fossil
be used to make WMDs
power fuel countries \n -
\n - Remains radioactive
Nuclear waste stored
for a long time &
safely underground \n -
expensive \n - Uranium
Electric supply altered
mining is dangerous and
quickly based on
polluting
demand
Renewable Energy is energy which comes from natural
resources: 3.6. Water
Solar energy: energy derived from the sun through
solar radiation. ​ ater is a scarce and limited resource. There are many
W
Wind energy: conversion of wind energy into a uses, such as:
useful form of energy. Uses of Water
Hydro energy: the power derived from the force or
energy of moving water.
Geothermal energy: energy obtained by tapping the
heat of the earth itself.
Biomass: is a renewable energy source, biological
material from living.

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Agriculture: to water plants Dams: barrier placed across a river made from concrete
Industrial: Reservoirs: the artificial lake that develops behind a
Heated to make steam to turn turbines dam
Cooling down reactors Wells: a shaft sunk into the ground to obtain water
Domestic: Desalination:
Household e.g. cooking, cleaning, drinking Thermal: evaporation of water to remove salt
Recreational, e.g. swimming, sports Reverse Osmosis: forces water through semi-
Environmental: preserving water in a dam permeable membrane to remove salt
Sewage Treatment:
Evolution of Global Water Use Removal of contaminants from wastewater &
household sewage
Requires physical, chemical & biological processes to
remove all the contaminants and make safe

Causes of Water Shortages

Population Growth: increased pressure on water

sources as world's population grows
Water Use in Different Economies Pollution: water sources are being polluted by industries
LEDC - Bangladesh MEDC - UK Demand: as development increases globally, so does the
amount of water needed
Sewage: lack of proper sewage treatment means that
waste is often pumped directly into water sources
Climate Change: global warming may be releasing
freshwater from glaciers & ice shelves, but much of it is
running directly into oceans; inaccessible
Political: water sources are often shared; some people
control large percentages of the shared resource, leading
to shortages for others
Mismanagement: water is used inappropriately, causing
water shortages

Impact of Water Shortages

Methods of Water Supply

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Drought: below-average supply of water over a

prolonged period
Famine: crops fail/livestock die due to water shortage
Conflict arises when sharing a limited supply of water
People may be forced to relocate due to famine/drought
Stagnant dirty water = increased risk of diseases
Eutrophication due to run-off
Dirty water/eutrophication causes loss of biodiversity
Eutrophication:
Run-off from farms containing fertiliser causes excess
growth of algae in water
Water does not oxygenate properly/receive light
Causes plants & animals to suffocate & die

Solutions to Water Shortages

Desalination: governments should invest more in

desalination plants
Sewage Treatment: governments should enforce better
policies regarding disposal and reuse of wastewater
Conservation:
Half-flush toilets & showering instead of bathing
Watering the garden at dusk to prevent evaporation
Collecting rainwater to use in the garden
Using appropriate plants for the climate
Using drip irrigation rather than sprinklers
Water Charities:
Building wells to access groundwater
Building toilets to reduce sewage & pollution
Teaching appropriate farming techniques
Low-cost schemes to filter and clean water
Irrigation Projects: use irrigation systems to
redistribute water & water the land

3.7. Environmental Risks of Economic

Development

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CAIE IGCSE
Geography

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