Year 11 Chemistry

Exam Notes
Module 1 - Properties and Structure of Matter
INQUIRY QUESTION 1 - How do the properties of substances help us to
classify and separate them?

Gravimetric Analysis

Gravimetric analysis is an analytical technique used to accurately find the masses of

components in a mixture or compound, or the percentage composition of components
in a mixture or compound.

To find the masses of components in a mixture/compound, the following formula is used:

mass of components = m(sample) x %(component)

To find the percentage composition of components in a mixture/compound, the following

formula is used:

% composition of components = m(component)/m(mixture/compound) x 100

Methods of Separating Mixtures

Many different techniques can be used to separate mixtures. Some of these include:

●​ Sedimentation - a process in which undissolved solids settle to the bottom of a

container containing a liquid.
●​ Sieving - the process of separating solid particles through a perforated barrier
based on particle size.
●​ Decantation - the process of pouring off the liquid component of a mixture while
leaving the solid component undisturbed.
●​ Distillation - the process of separating a liquid from a solution by boiling it and
condensing the vapour back to a liquid.
●​ Filtration - the process of separating an undissolved solid from a liquid by passing it
through a filter.
●​ Magnetic separation - the process of separating the magnetic and non-magnetic
components of a mixture by passing it through a magnetic field.
●​ Crystallisation - the process of converting a dissolved solid in a liquid into a
crystalline state in ways such as freezing it or causing it to form a precipitate.
●​ Centrifugation - the process in which components of a mixture are separated
based on density by spinning the mixture at a high speed.
●​ Fractional distillation - a variety of distillation used to separate combined liquids
with similar boiling points by heating the mixture at designated intervals.
●​ Separating funnel - a funnel used to separate liquids based on their density.
●​ Chromatography - the process in which a mixture is dissolved and passed through
a substance that causes each component to travel at a different speed, separating
them.

Atomic Structure

Atoms are made up of several subatomic particles. Protons and neutrons are found in
the nucleus, and electrons are found around the nucleus in subshells. Protons and
neutrons can be grouped together as nucleons, which are subatomic particles found in an
atom’s nucleus.

Different states of matter are structured differently.

●​ In solids, the particles are packed very tightly together and are held together by
strong forces of attraction.
●​ In liquids, the particles are packed more loosely and are held together by weaker
forces of attraction.
●​ In gases, the particles are very loosely packed and are held together by extremely
weak forces of attraction.

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In an atom, the nucleus comprises the majority of the mass. It also contains the positive
charge of the atom. The electrons orbiting it make up a very small fraction of the mass,
but make up the negative charge of the atom.

The electrons in the outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons. The octet
rule states that atoms tend to form compounds that give them full valence shells of 8
electrons (valency of 0).

The periodic table classifies elements based on their number of protons, or atomic
number. Atomic number increases by one across a period. Elements are also arranged into
groups based on their properties. Group one, the alkali metals, all have one valence
electron. Group two, the alkali earth metals, all have two valence electrons. Group 7, the
halogens, all have 7 valence electrons. Group 8, the noble gases, all have 8 electrons and
are chemically inert.

Atomic Models

Model 1 - Solid Sphere Model

●​ The solid sphere model was proposed by John Dalton in 1803, and it drew on
Democritus’ theory of atoms.
●​ Dalton stated that atoms were small, indivisible solid spheres that made up all
matter. He also stated that atoms of the same element were uniform in size and
shape but atoms of different elements would differ in these ways.

Model 2 - Plum Pudding Model

●​ The plum pudding model was proposed by JJ Thomson in 1904, following his
discovery of the electron during experiments with cathode ray tubes.
●​ Thomson stated that atoms were made up of electrons embedded in a cloud of
positive charge. This model identified electrons within the atom, but failed to
identify the nucleus.

Model 3 - Nuclear Model

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●​ The nuclear model was proposed by Ernest Rutherford in 1911 after his discovery
of the nucleus in his gold foil experiment.
●​ Rutherford stated that atoms consisted of mostly empty space with a
positively-charged nucleus at the centre with negatively-charged electrons
orbiting it.
●​ This model identified the nucleus within the atom, but failed to explain how
electrons orbited the nucleus without causing the atom to collapse.

Model 4 - Planetary Model

●​ The planetary model was proposed by Niels Bohr in 1913 and built on the nuclear
model.
●​ Bohr stated that electrons orbited the nucleus in discrete energy levels and that
they could only occupy these spaces. He also stated that electrons could jump
between orbits by either absorbing or releasing energy.
●​ This model provided stable electron orbits for lighter atoms and explained the
emission spectrum of some atoms, especially hydrogen. However, it failed to
provide stable orbits for heavier elements and failed to explain how atoms did
not collapse in on themselves because of the energy emitted by moving electrons.
It also failed to apply Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle.

Model 5 - Quantum Model

●​ The quantum model was proposed by Erwin Schrodinger in 1926 and built on the
planetary model.
●​ Schrodinger stated that electrons move in waves rather than fixed orbits. This
means it is impossible to know where an electron is at any moment, which is stated
by Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. Schrodinger predicted where electrons
were most likely to be by creating clouds of probability called orbitals.
●​ This model provided stable electron orbitals for all elements and applied
Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle. It is still accepted as the most accurate atomic
model to this day. Neutrons were added to the model following their discovery in
1932 by James Chadwick.

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●​ Schrodinger’s model contains four types of orbitals: s, p, d, and f orbitals. S orbitals
have the lowest energy and f orbitals have the highest. S orbitals correspond to
groups one and two, p orbitals correspond to groups 3 to 8, d orbitals
correspond to transition metals, and f orbitals correspond to lanthanoids and
actinoids. Orbitals with the lowest energy are always filled first.
●​ Each orbital contains a number of sub-orbitals. Each sub-orbital in an orbital must
first be filled with a spin-up electron before a second spin-down electron can
be added (like monopoly houses).

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Year 11 Chemistry

Exam Notes
Module 1 - Properties and Structure of Matter
INQUIRY QUESTION 2 - Why are atoms of elements different from one
another?

Isotopes

An isotope is a variant of an element with the same number of protons but a different
number of neutrons that another variant of the same element (i.e. same atomic number
but different mass number).

Isotopes vary in abundance. The atomic mass for each element on the periodic table is an
average of the atomic mass of each isotope for the element, taking into account the
relative abundance of each.

To calculate the relative atomic mass of each isotope of an element, its atomic mass is
multiplied by its abundance.

Radioisotopes

Radioisotopes, unlike stable isotopes, are isotopes with unstable nuclei (i.e. they undergo
radioactive decay). An atom’s nucleus is unstable if it has more than 83 protons or if its
neutron to proton ratio is not close to 1:1 for lighter elements (Z<21) or 1.5:1 for heavier
elements (72<Z<84).

Radioisotopes can be natural or synthetic. Natural radioisotopes are found naturally in

the Earth’s crust. Synthetic radioisotopes are produced through scientific methods, such as
bombarding a lighter nucleus with neutrons.

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Radioisotopes undergo radioactive decay to become stable. A radioisotope’s half-life is
how long it takes for half of the atoms in a sample of the radioisotope to decay. This
is a nuclear reaction because it takes place in the nucleus of an atom and does not
involve the valence electrons.

Unstable nuclei release radiation and radioactive particles, including:

Property Alpha (α) Radiation Beta (β) Radiation Gamma (γ) Radiation

Structure Helium-4 Nucleus (2 Electron High-frequency

protons, 2 neutrons) electromagnetic waves

Charge +2 -1 Zero

Penetration power Low (2-10cm in air, Medium (5m in air, High (can penetrate
blocked by paper) 2mm in aluminium) several cm of lead)

Deflection in a Towards the Towards the No deflection

magnetic field negative pole positive pole

Ionising Power High Medium Low

When atoms undergo alpha decay, their atomic number decreases by two and their
mass number decreases by 4. When atoms undergo beta decay, their atomic number
increases by one and their mass number stays the same. When atoms undergo gamma
decay, their mass number and atomic number remain unchanged.

Radiation can be detected in several ways, such as by using a Geiger-Muller counter, by

using liquid scintillation counting, or by using an ionization chamber.​
​
Two more examples of radioactive decay:

Positron emission: the daughter nucleus is reduced in atomic number, but the mass
number remains the same. A proton is converted to a neutron by emitting a positron.​
Electron Capture: occurs when one of the inner orbital electrons is captured by the
nucleus. The effect is that a proton is converted into a neutron.

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Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter

Physical properties are properties that can be observed or measured without changing
the composition of the substance. (e.g. colour, lustre, ductility, malleability, etc.)

Chemical properties of a substance describe how it reacts with other substances. (e.g.
reactivity with water, flammability, etc.)

Property Metals Non-metals

Melting and boiling point High Low

Electrical and thermal conductivity High Low

Appearance Lustrous Dull

Ductility High Low

Malleability High Low

Density High Low

Physical properties can be used to determine the purity of an element (e.g. the melting
point can be measured and compared with the actual value).

Spectra

Emission spectra​
Emission spectra show the wavelengths at which electromagnetic radiation is emitted
from a substance. This is represented with a series of coloured lines against a black
background. There are two types of spectrum: emission spectrum and absorption
spectrum. Emission spectrum is when a substance is exposed to heat or another kind of
energy. The increase of energy causes the electrons to jump up energy levels (note: this is

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part of the bohr model. Sir did not explain in relation to schrodinger(It doesn't really matter
as it is the same principle but instead of energy levels, they jump to their next orbital - 1s
will go to 2s , 2p to 3p etc.) The electrons are then referred to as excited. The electrons are
not stable in their new levels and hence drop energy levels releasing energy in the
form of photons. The energy level that they fall determines the wavelength of the
photons (what colour they are) released. A spectrometer can detect this and displays this
on a black background. Each atom’s electrons jump to different levels and hence release
different colours.

Absorption spectra​
Absorption spectra show the wavelengths at which electromagnetic radiation is absorbed
by a substance. This is represented with a series of black lines against a coloured
background. In the opposite manner to the emission spectrum the absorption spectrum
measures what energy isn’t absorbed by the atoms. A spectrum of electronegativity is
shone through a gaseous form of a substance. The electrons absorb some of the spectrum
to jump levels but much passess through. This is measured by a spectrometer, and the
sections that are absorbed are black lines on a coloured background. The black lines in the
absorption spectrum of an element will always line up with the coloured lines in the
emission spectrum of the same element.

Continuous spectra​
Continuous spectra show all of the possible wavelengths of electromagnetic radiation as a
coloured rectangle.

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Year 11 Chemistry

Exam Notes
Module 1 - Properties and Structure of Matter
INQUIRY QUESTION 3 - Are there patterns in the properties of elements?

Ionisation Energy

The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one mole of
electrons from one mole of atoms in the gaseous state.

Successive ionisation energies can be measured with the formula:

+
X (g) → X2+ (g) + e-

First ionisation energy increases across a period. This happens because atomic number
increases across a period, which causes an increase in effective nuclear charge. This
increases the electrostatic attraction between the nucleus and valence electrons,
making it harder to remove electrons.

First ionisation energy decreases down a group. This happens because the electron
removed is a valence electron, and although the number of protons increases, the
effective nuclear charge remains about the same due to the increased number of
shielding electrons. This means that the increased distance between the nucleus and
electrons weakens the electrostatic attraction between the two, making it easier to
remove electrons.

Group 3 elements have lower first ionisation energies that group 2 elements because p
orbitals have higher energy than s orbitals.

Group 6 elements have lower first ionisation energies than group 5 elements because
the electron removed from a group 6 element is taken from a doubly occupied p orbital.
This electron is easier to remove because it is repelled by its partner.

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Electronegativity

Electronegativity (χ) is a chemical property that refers to the ability of atoms to attract
electrons to themselves in chemical bonds.

The scale used to measure this is the Pauling scale, ranging from 0.7 to 3.98 (the higher
the number, the higher the electronegativity). The scale can also be used to determine what
type of bond will form during a reaction.

Generally, non-metals are electronegative as they tend to gain or share electrons when
bonding. Generally, metals are electropositive as they tend to lose electrons when
bonding.

Atomic Radius

The atomic radius (r) of an atom is defined as one half of the distance between two nuclei
of atoms of the same element. It is typically measured in picometres (1pm = 1 x 10-12m).

Atomic radius decreases across a period. This occurs because the number of protons
increases across a period while electron shielding stays constant, causing an increase
in effective nuclear charge. This leads to an increase in electrostatic attraction
between the nucleus and valence electrons, pulling them in closer to the nucleus and thus
decreasing the atomic radius.

Atomic radius increases down a group. This occurs because although the number of
protons increases, the number of shielding electrons also increases, causing the
effective nuclear charge to stay constant. This means the electrostatic attraction
between the nucleus and valence electrons decreases due to the increased distance
between the two, causing the atomic radius to increase.

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Melting and Boiling Points

In periods two and three, melting and boiling points increase until they peak at group 4
before decreasing until the end of the period. This happens because the interatomic
forces experienced in the giant covalent structures of carbon and silicon are much
stronger than the interatomic forces experienced by the metals, which are in turn
stronger than the non-metals.

In periods four, five, and six, melting and boiling points increase until peaking at group
4B before decreasing until the end of the period. This happens because chromium,
molybdenum and tungsten all experience much stronger interatomic forces than
other transition metals, which means more energy is required to break their bonds. The
rest of the metals in these periods have higher melting points than the non-metals because
the interatomic forces in metallic bonds are stronger than the intermolecular forces in
covalent structures.

In group one, melting and boiling points decrease down the group. This happens because
more electron shells are added down the group, causing the electrostatic attraction
between the nucleus and valence electrons to decrease (i.e. The effective nuclear charge is
weaker). This means the bonds formed by these structures are weaker and need less
energy to break.

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13
Year 11 Chemistry

Exam Notes
Module 1 - Properties and Structure of Matter
INQUIRY QUESTION 4 - What binds atoms together in elements and
compounds?

Electronegativity & Bonding

Non-polar covalent bonds occur when the difference in electronegativity between atoms
is below 0.4 and both elements are from the right-hand side of the periodic table. In
these bonds, electrons are equally shared.

Polar covalent bonds occur when the two atoms in the bond have a difference in
electronegativity between 0.4 and 1.7. Electrons are unequally shared and the atom with
the greater electronegativity gets the greater share of the electrons. This gives the atom
with greater electronegativity a slightly negative charge and the atom with slightly lower
electronegativity a slight positive charge.

Ionic bonds occur when the difference in electronegativity between two atoms is greater
than 1.7. Ionic bonds are the electrostatic force of attraction between positive and
negative ions.

Van Arkel-Ketelaar Triangle

This triangle is a representation of the three types

of bonds that can exist between elements on a 2D
continuum.

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Polarity

The degree of polarity in a covalent bond depends on the difference in electronegativity.

The larger the electronegativity, the stronger the dipole.

To determine the polarity of polyatomic molecules, the following are considered:

●​ The polarity of each bond

●​ Whether or not the dipole moments cancel each other out (the directions of
the forces cancel out).
●​ A molecule can have polar bonds and be nonpolar and vice versa.

The shape of the molecule is also important in determining the polarity. Generally:

●​ Symmetrical molecules are nonpolar

●​ Asymmetrical molecules are polar

Representing Molecular Substances

Structural formulas use sticks to join atoms. These sticks represent covalent bonds.
Structural formulas:

●​ Provide information on how atoms are bonded

●​ Give no information about a molecule’s shape
●​ Only show molecules as two-dimensional structures

Perspective drawings can be used to show their three-dimensional shape.

Space-filling models give a more accurate representation of the three-dimensional

structure of molecules, including the relative sizes of atoms.

Ball and stick models can give an idea of the relative sizes of atoms and provide some
information about bond lengths and angles.

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Lewis Dot Diagrams

Lewis electron dot diagrams are often used to simplify the drawing of molecules. They:

●​ Only show the valence shell electrons of an atom

●​ Allow the bonding and non-bonding electrons to be distinguished

Pairs of non-bonding electrons are known as lone pairs.

There are only two rules in lewis dot diagrams: the dots only represent the valence
electrons and you must show the atomic symbol in the middle. All other things are
suggestions.

When displaying ionic compounds it is suggested that you enclose the ions with brackets

as this keeps them nice and tidy. e.g. Sodium Chloride . It is suggested that the
charge of the ion is placed at the top right.

When drawing covalent bonds the atoms are drawn next to each other. The bonds may
be circled horizontally, vertically or not at all. There is no rule but circling makes
identification a tad easier. (Note all the drawings in this
segment are Ryan’s.)

Reaction notes (Yr. 10 Prerequisite)

An acid is a substance that will ionise completely in an aqueous solution and is defined as being
able to donate positive ions and take electrons usually used in reactions diluted in water and
usually have hydrogen ions. A base is the opposite of this and releases hydroxide ions in a
solution. An acid has a Ph below 7 and bases have a Ph above 7. Salts consist of a cation
(derived from base) and an anion (derived from acid). Carbonates (bi-carbonates / hydrogen
carbonates).

Acid-Base

Acid + Base → salt + Water

Hydrochloric acid + sodium hydroxide → sodium chloride + water

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Acid-metal

Acid + Metal → salt + hydrogen gas

Hydrochloric acid + Copper (II) → Copper (II) Chloride + Hydrogen gas

Acid-Carbonate

Acid + Carbonate → Salt + Carbon di-oxide + water

2H3PO4 + 3K2CO3 → 2K3PO4 + 3CO2 + 3H2O

Precipitation

Soluble salt A + Soluble salt B → insoluble salt C(S) + soluble salt D

Barium nitrate + Caesium sulphate → Barium sulphate(s) + caesium nitrate

Combustion

Complete:
Fuel + Oxygen → Carbon dioxide + water
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O

Incomplete:
Fuel + not enough oxygen → Carbon monoxide (+ soot) + water
2C8H18(l) + 13O2(g) → 8COg + 8Cs + 18H2Ol

Net ionic Net Ionic Equations | Chemistry for Non-Majors (lumenlearning.com)

Hydrocarbons/alkanes/alkenes

MOLAR EQUATIONS STOICHIOMETRY

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*Year 11 Chemistry

Exam Notes
Module 3 - Reactive Chemistry
INQUIRY QUESTION 1 - What are the products of a chemical reaction?

Chemical Change

Physical Change: involves the weakening or breaking of bonds without any

intramolecular bonds being changed.

In a physical change:

●​ No new substances are formed

●​ They are typically easy to reverse
●​ They typically involve small inputs/outputs of energy

Chemical change: involves the breaking of intramolecular bonds as well as

intermolecular bonds, allowing new substances to form.

In a chemical reaction:

●​ New substances are formed

●​ They are typically difficult to reverse
●​ They generally involve a large input/output of energy

Synthesis Reactions

Synthesis reactions involve the combination of two or more substances to form a new
substance

i.e. A + B → AB

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Decomposition Reactions

Decomposition reactions result in a compound being broken down into simpler

compounds and/or elements.

i.e. AB → A + B

This can be done by:

●​ Heating (thermolysis)
●​ Passing an electric current through (electrolysis)
○​ NB: electrolysis is only used when the reactant is a liquid
●​ Exposing it to light (photolysis)

In general:

●​ Simple binary salts decompose to form a metal and a nonmetal

●​ Carbonates decompose to form an oxide and carbon dioxide
●​ Nitrates decompose to form an oxide, oxygen gas, and nitrogen dioxide gas
○​ NB: silver and mercury nitrates decompose to give the metal instead of the
metal oxide
●​ Oxides decompose to give the metal and oxygen
●​ Metal hydroxides decompose to form a metal oxide and water

Precipitation Reactions

Precipitation reactions occur when two solutions react to form an insoluble solid. A
solubility table can be used to determine if a precipitation reaction has occurred/will
occur.​

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Precipitation table:

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