MEVE -014

BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION
AND MANAGEMENT

School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary Studies (SOITS)

Maidan Garhi, New Delhi - 110068
1
PROGRAMME DESIGN COMMITTEE
Dr Himanshu Pathak, Director, ICAR-National Rice Research Institute Cuttack, Odisha
Prof. P.A. Azeez, Director, SACON, Coimbatore
Prof I.S. Thakur, School of Environmental Sciences, JNU, New Delhi
Prof Uma Melkania, Dean, College of Basic Sciences and Humanities, GBPUAT, Pantnagar
Prof. Nidhi Rai, University College of Science, M.L. Sukhadia University, Udaipur
Prof. Jitendra Pandey, Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, BHU
Prof. R. Baskar, Department of Environmental Science & Engineering, Guru Jambheshwar
University of Science & Technology, Hisar, Haryana
Dr. Surendra Singh Suthar, School of Environment & Natural Resources, Doon University,
Dehradun
Dr. Tanushree Bhattacharya, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Birla
Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi
Dr. Pulak Das, School of Human Ecology, Ambedkar University, Delhi
Prof. Jaswant Sokhi, SOS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof Neera Kapoor, SOS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. Vijay Kumar Baraik, SOS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. P.K. Biswas, STRIDE, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. S.K.Yadav, SOA, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. Shachi Shah, Director SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. Nandini Sinha Kapoor, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. Shubhangi Vaidya, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Prof. B. Rupini, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Dr. Sadananda Sahoo, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Dr. Sushmitha Baskar, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Dr. V. Venkat Ramanan, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Dr. Deeksha Dave, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.
Dr. Y.S.C. Khuman, SOITS, IGNOU, New Delhi.

PROGRAMME COORDINATORS
Prof. Shachi Shah, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU
Dr. V. Venkatramanan, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU
Dr. Deeksha Dave, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU

COURSE COORDINATOR
Prof. Shachi Shah, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU

BLOCK PREPARATION TEAM

Prof. Shachi Shah, School of Interdisciplinary and Transdisciplinary Studies, IGNOU

Unit Title Contributors

BLOCK 1 - UNDERSTANDING BIODIVERSITY
Unit 1: Concept of Biodiversity Dr. Swati Diwaker, Department
of Environmental Studies, Delhi
University, University of Delhi,
Delhi-

2
Unit 2: Biodiversity Values and Dr. Purabi Saikia,
Ecosystem Services Department of Environmental
Sciences, Central University
of Jharkhand, Brambe, Ranchi,
Jharkhand
Unit 3: Ecosystem Diversity Dr. Shreekar Pant, School of
Biosciences and Biotechnology,
BGSB University, Rajouri, J&K
Unit 4: Inventory and monitoring of Dr. P.P. Nikhil Raj, Centre for
biodiversity Sustainable Future, Amrita
Vishwa Vidya Peetham,
Ettimadai ,Coimbatore
BLOCK 2 - BIODIVERSITY AND HUMAN DIMENSION
Unit 5: Human Impacts on Dr. Ashita Sharma,
Biodiversity Chandigarh University, Mohali,
India
Unit 6: Biodiversity and Climate Prof. Shachi Shah, School
Change Interactions of Interdisciplinary and
(Adopted from MEV22) Transdisciplinary Studies,
IGNOU, Maidan Garhi, New
Delhi
Unit 7: Extinction of Biodiversity Dr. B. Sasi Devi, Scientist
B, Water Laboratory, Central
Pollution Control Board,
Delhi-32
Unit 8: Biodiversity Prospecting Dr. Pratibha, JSS, Academy of
and Indigenous Knowledge Technical Education, Noida,
System Uttar Pradesh
BLOCK 3 - CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
Unit 9: Introduction to Conservation Dr. Pratibha, JSS, Academy of
Biology Technical Education, Noida,
Uttar Pradesh
Unit 10: Conservation through Dr. Asha Upadhyaya, Assistant
Protected Areas Regional Director, Jammu
Regional Center, IGNOU,
Unit 11: in-situ and ex-situ Dr. Pratibha, JSS, Academy of
conservation Technical Education, Noida,
Uttar Pradesh
Unit 12 Social Approaches to Dr. Tapati Das, Department of
Conservation Ecology and Environmental
Science, Assam University,
BLOCK 4 – BIODIVERSITY LEGISLATION, CONVENTIONS AND
MANAGEMENT
Unit 13 International biodiversity Dr. Pratibha, JSS, Academy of
laws and policies Technical Education, Noida,
Uttar Pradesh
Unit 14 National Biodiversity Laws Dr. Pratibha, JSS, Academy of
and Legislation Technical Education, Noida,
Uttar Pradesh
Unit 15 Biodiversity Management Dr. Pratibha, JSS, Academy of
through Ecosystem Approach Technical Education, Noida,
Uttar Pradesh
Unit 16 Sustainable Harvesting of Dr. Lalit Upadyaya
Biodiversity Sher-E-Kashmir University
of Agricultural Sciences and
Technology, Jammu. 3
CONTENT EDITOR
Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary
Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi.

FORMAT EDITOR AND LANGUAGE EDITOR

Prof. Shachi Shah, Environmental Studies, School of Interdisciplinary and Trans-disciplinary
Studies, IGNOU, New Delhi

PPRINT PRODUCTION
Mr. Rajive Girdhar Assistant Registrar Mr. Hemant Prida
MPDD, IGNOU, New Delhi SO, IGNOU, New Delhi

October, 2022
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 2022
ISBN:
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means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
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4
MEVE-14 BIODIVERSITY CONSERVATION AND
MANAGEMENT
Dear learner,

Welcome to the course MEVE-14 Biodiversity Conservation and Management!

Biodiversity is an umbrella term to refer to all the living organisms present

in an area. The term “biodiversity” was coined in late 1988 by E. O. Wilson.
Biodiversity or Biological diversity, both these terms have been used
synonymously in the scientific parlance. The term includes all life forms present
on the earth starting from plants, animals, microorganisms, bacteria, virus,
aquatic organisms and even coral reefs. Biodiversity denotes the species richness
as well as species evenness. Genetic, organism and ecological diversity are all
forms of biodiversity at different scale with different components. Biodiversity
is considered as a repository of resources. It is used to manufacture the food,
medicine, industrial products, etc. But biodiversity is constantly depleting with
an increased demand of rapid population growth. A large number of plants and
ani¬mal species have already become extinct and many are endan¬gered and
threatened.

Human development and encroachment to the natural and wild habitat have
led to the extinction of biodiversity due to the exhaustive agriculture& clearing
of forests, mining for energy demands, transportation development and
unregulated recreation. This loss has negative consequences on the delivery of
ecosystem services and further on human wellbeing thus, protection of these
species rich habitats should be the primary response.

The conservation of species within their natural habitats is called In-situ

conservation. This way of conserving biodiversity is the most appropriate
method for biodiversity conservation. The high biodiversity area are
conserved in the form of sanctuaries/ National Park/ biosphere reserve etc. The
conservation of biological diversity outside of their natural habitats is called
Ex-situ conservation. Conservation of genetic resources, as well as wild or
cultivated species included in this type.

The course covers the basic concept of biodiversity, its value, ecosystem
diversity and services, inventory and monitoring of biodiversity. The drivers
of biodiversity loss, extinction of biodiversity and biodiversity prospecting
and indigenous knowledge system is covered in the second block. The
third block introduces conservation biology, protected areas, in-situ and ex-
Situ Conservation and various social approaches to conservation. Various
International and National biodiversity laws and policies, ecosystem approach
for biodiversity management and sustainable harvesting is being discussed in
Block 4.

We hope that after studying this course, you will acquire an understanding of
Biodiversity and conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity.

Wishing you success in this endeavour!

5
6
MEVE -014

BLOCK 1
UNDERSTANDING BIODIVERSITY
Unit 1: Concept of Biodiversity

Unit 2: Biodiversity Values and Ecosystem Services

Unit 3: Ecosystem Diversity Major ecosystems of the world

Unit 4: Inventory and Monitoring of Biodiversity

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BLOCK 1 - UNDERSTANDING BIODIVERSITY
Biodiversity is the variety of life including plants, animals, and microorganisms
on Earth i.e., the sum total of all genetic, organismal, and ecological variations
in terms of composition and function observed within and between species
and the ecosystems that coexist at a given time and place. The United Nations
Convention on Biodiversity defined it as ‘the variations and variability among
living organisms including flora, fauna, and microorganisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the
ecological complexes of which they are part, that also includes the diversity
within species, between species, and of ecosystems’ (CBD, 2006). This block
covers the following units.

“Unit 1 Concept of Biodiversity” covers the biodiversity concept and definition,

composition and types of biodiversity; genetic diversity, species/ organismal
diversity, ecological/ ecosystem diversity, landscape/ pattern diversity, measures
of biodiversity, alpha, beta and gamma diversities – indices of diversity and
evenness.

“Unit 2 Biodiversity Values and Ecosystem Services” discuss the biodiversity

values, instrumental/utilitarian value and their categories, direct use value;
indirect/ non-consumptive use value, monetizing the value of biodiversity;
intrinsic value; ethical and aesthetic values, biodiversity and ecosystem services.

“Unit 3 Ecosystem Diversity” covers the major ecosystems of the world

- tropical forests, grassland, inland wetlands, costal ecosystem including
mangroves, arctic and alpine system, boreal forest, temperate forest systems,
arid and semi-arid land, open oceans, agroecosystem and urban biodiversity.

“Unit 4 Inventory and Monitoring of Biodiversity” explain population estimation

and analysis, biodiversity estimation, species diversity and its measurements,
local, regional, national and global biodiversity estimates, periodic monitoring
and inventory database management.

we hope that after studying this block, you will acquire an understanding of
biodiversity and ecosystem services.

Wishing you success in this endeavour!

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UNIT 1 CONCEPT OF BIODIVERSITY
Structure
1.0 Introduction
1.1 Objectives
1.2 Concept and definition
1.3 Scope and constraints of Biodiversity Science
1.4 Composition and Types of Biodiversity
1.4.1 Genetic Diversity
1.4.2 Species/Organismal Diversity
1.4.3 Ecological/Ecosystem Diversity
1.4.4 Landscape/Pattern Diversity

1.5 Measures of Biodiversity

1.5.1 Indices of Biodiversity and Evenness
1.5.2 Alpha, Beta and Gamma Diversities

1.6 Let us sum up

1.7 Key Words
1.8 References and Suggested Further Readings
1.9 Terminal Questions
1.10 Answer to Check your Progress exercise

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity affects us in almost every walk of life. Biodiversity provides
us with food in the form of cereals, grains, fruits, vegetables, meat, milk
and eggs. Apart from the edible things, we get an assortment of materials
like gum, resin, rubber, fibres, blubber, colours and dyes, hide, perfumes,
pesticides, wax, lubricants, timber, paper which make our lives easier. Many
medicines and drugs are either direct plant products, derived from plant
products or synthetically produced compounds which mimic the actions of
plant produced/derived chemicals. Coal, petroleum and natural gas, all are
products of biodiversity. Biodiversity not only provides us with such materials
(provisioning services), it also serves a lot of other regulatory functions like
regulation of natural cycles (carbon cycle, water cycle, nitrogen cycle etc.),
water purification, disease regulation. It also has protective functions such
as protection of soil from erosion, protection against floods and tsunamis by
reducing their impact. Biodiversity also has an aesthetic as well as social and
cultural value to us. In this unit, you will be

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1.1 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
●● Understand the Meaning and concept of biodiversity
●● Identify the scope and constraints of Biodiversity Science
●● Describe the Composition and Types of Biodiversity
●● Describe measures of biodiversity

1.2 BIODIVERSITY - CONCEPT AND

DEFINITION
Biodiversity is an umbrella term to refer to all the living organisms present in
an area. The terms biological diversity and biodiversity are used synonymously,
with their roots in 1980s. Biological diversity was used by Thomas E. Lovejoy
to refer to the number of species, whereas Norse and McManus utilized it
to refer to genetic and ecological diversity. The term Biodiversity has some
ambiguous origins. The credit is however shared among W.G Rosen (In person,
1985), L. Tangley (in a table in a scientific paper, 1985) and E.O Wilson (In a
book title, 1986).

United nation’s Convention on biological diversity (CBD) a milestone

conference that took place in 1992 defines biodiversity as “the variability among
living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine, and
other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part;
this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems”
(CBD, 1992).

1.3 SCOPE AND CONSTRAINTS OF

BIODIVERSITY SCIENCE
Biodiversity science is much more than just identification and classification
of species. As a science it is an amalgamation of various branches of science
like Microbiology, Biotechnology, Bioinformatics, Biochemistry, Taxonomy,
Physiology, Biophysics etc. Biodiversity science is indispensable if we want
to conserve the present flora and fauna of the world. Many direct and indirect
benefits arise from biodiversity and to use those resources sustainably we need
to preserve the current life forms as best as we can.
Various limitations in this field are as follows:

●● Vastness of the biodiversity and Area to be explored: The number of species

that are still left to be discovered as well as the area, both terrestrial as well
as marine is gargantuan.
●● Lack of taxonomists/ specialists: The world faces a shortage of experts
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that can find and identify new species as well as update the taxonomic
status of different species. The lack of awareness about the importance of
biodiversity among the masses and government is also one of the reasons for
the poor condition of Biodiversity and conservation studies and research.
●● Disturbance and extinction: The accelerated rate of biodiversity extinction
due to anthropogenic reasons like industrialisation, habitat loss, biological
invasion etc. have made it almost impossible to keep up with the current
rate of extinction.
●● Lack of resources in terms of manpower, fundings etc.

1.4 COMPOSITION AND TYPES OF

BIODIVERSITY
There are three hierarchical levels of biodiversity in which it can be studied:
Genetic diversity, Species diversity and Ecosystem or Community diversity.

1.4.1 Genetic diversity:

The genetic information of all the living species is contained in their genetic
material either in the form of DNA or RNA. This genetic variability contained
in the genetic material facilitates adaptations in an organism and constitutes
the genetic diversity of a species. The more the genetic variability, the more a
species is likely to adapt and survive natural selection and other environmental
pressures. Lesser the genetic variability, more are the chances of a species to be
vulnerable to threats like fungal, parasitic and insect infestations and diseases.
Example of the threats arising due to reduced genetic variability includes the
case of Gros Michel Banana which was one of the prime varieties grown in
commercial plantations till 1960s, and was attacked by a fungal disease called
as Panama disease caused by the Fusarium oxysporum which nearly wiped out
the variety. As these plantations were essentially propagated by using cuttings
and suckers, there was minimal genetic variability among them which led to the
devastation of huge number of plantations of Gros Michel. Cavendish bananas
(Musa acuminate) which are attacked by a disease called Black Sigatoka caused
by the fungus Pseudocercospora fijiensis face the same fate as Gros Michel
presently.

The number of genes identified in the living organisms varies a lot from 182 in
Carsonella ruddii (a bacterium), 4000 in E. coli, 31,000 in freshwater crustacean
Daphnia pulex, 25000 in domestic dog (Canis familiaris) to 32,000- 50,000 in
Oryza sativa. Humans have around 20,000 to 25,000 genes although a recent
study speculates the figure to be 46,831. The variations in the genetic makeup
of species result in different phenotypes or morphological forms found in a
species. Different breeds of domestic dogs result due to these variations even
though they all belong to the same species.

Many molecular techniques are available to identify and manipulate genetic

diversity. PCR (Polymeric Chain Reaction) is one such tool that allows us to
make multiple copies of the desired segment of DNA, which can be further be
used in other techniques. BLAST (basic local alignment search tool) is a tool that
uses amplified DNA from PCR and compares primary biological sequences such 11
as amino acids of proteins or nucleotides of DNA/RNA. Other techniques like
RFLP (restriction fragment length polymorphism), AFLP (amplified fragment
length polymorphism), RAPD (randomly amplified polymorphic DNA) are
also effective for studying and estimating genetic diversity. These tools and
techniques can be used to trace back the evolutionary history (Phylogeny) of a
species and its relatedness to other groups of organisms.

1.4.2 Species Diversity:

What is a species? Many researchers have tried to explain this basic term of
biology using different concepts. Over 20 different concepts are available
that try to define the term, such as morphological species concept, ecological
species concept, phylogenetic species concept etc. However, currently the most
accepted concept is the biological species concept (Mayr, 1942). According to
the biological species concept ‘‘groups of actually or potentially interbreeding
natural populations which are reproductively isolated from other such groups”.

Estimation of number of species on earth has been taken up by many scientists,

who have tried to come up with a number as close to the actual figure. But there
is little consensus among them. One of the classical study taken up by Robert
M. May in 1988 mentioned about the global number of species to be around 5
to 50 million. The major hindrance arising in the estimation of species present
on earth is due to the number of unknown species whose prediction becomes
excessively difficult. It is impossible to reach every nook and corner of the world
and inventorying every single species, so certain patterns are extrapolated to
estimate the number of species that inhabit the earth. An example of this is that
the general assumption is that the ratio of fungi to vascular plants is of 6:1. And
if there are ~270,000 species of vascular plants the number of species of fungi
would be around 1.6 million. Similarly, there are roughly 50,000 species of
tropical trees. Assuming a ratio of 5:1 of host beetles to trees, beetles represent
40% canopy arthropods and that the canopy has twice the number of species
on ground, a figure of 30 million species of arthropods in the tropics was
reached (Mora et al, 2011). Such ratio estimates have been criticised heavily
but they do give a vague idea of the biological diversity. Other methods include
extrapolation of discovery records using computer modelling.

Other studies have given numbers up to 100 million for the upper limit. The
latest estimates of the number of species present on earth by Mora et al. in 2011
(both documented and undocumented) predicted that approximately 8.7 million
(± 1.3 Million) species of eukaryotes reside on earth including ~2.2 million
marine organisms (±0.18 million). The number of recorded species till now
also varies from study to study, the general consensus is of ~1.7 million species
(Table: 1). Insects form the majority of this figure, with a little over a million
species described so far. Insects also outweigh other taxa in terms of the number
of individuals. The variety of species living in an area constitute the species
diversity of that region. Species diversity has different geographical distribution
patterns. Ecosystems like tropical rainforests and corals are considered to be one
of the most species diverse ecosystems. Whereas ecosystems like alpine tundra
and boreal forests are comparatively less diverse. The general distribution
patterns that are observed for species diversity predicts an increase in species
12 diversity from poles towards equator. Also, a spatial movement from sea-level
to higher altitudes results in a decrease of species diversity.

1.4.3 Ecosystem Diversity: The number of ecosystems present in a region

constitutes its ecosystem diversity. Earth harbours a wide variety of ecosystems
which can be divided into terrestrial and aquatic. Aquatic ecosystems can be
further be categorised into marine, freshwater and wetlands. Various types of
terrestrial ecosystems are forest, grassland, desert, wetland, and tundra. Larger
ecological systems are composed of biomes, which are fundamental units
categorised on the base of vegetation and climatic parameters. Ecosystems
like grasslands, rainforests, deserts and other ecosystems including aquatic
ecosystems can be found a region, and make it ecosystem diverse.

The more ecosystem diverse a region is, the more species diversity can be
expected to be found there.

Biomes are large geographical area categorised mainly on the base of vegetation
and climatic conditions. The various biomes harbour different kinds of diversity.
The major terrestrial biomes are as follows:

Tropical rainforests: These forests are located on or near the equator, where
the atmosphere remains humid with small or no dry season. They receive high
rainfall and generally have acidic, nutrient poor soil. The decomposition rate is
rapid, the nutrients released are also swiftly taken up by vegetation. Vegetation
stratification is common and the canopy can be so dense that almost no direct
sunlight reaches the ground. The biodiversity and productivity of these areas
are very high. South America, Central America, Africa, South East Asia are the
major parts of the world that harbour this kind of vegetation.

Tropical seasonal forests: These comprise of monsoon forests and many other
forest communities with semi evergreen or deciduous leaf habit. In comparison
to Tropical rainforests have a pronounced dry phase during which the most of
the trees partially or wholly shed their leaves. These forests are majorly found
in India, South America, Central America South East Asia, Africa, Northern
Australia and West Indies. These areas receive a large amount of rain although
most this precipitation occurs in short periods.

Tropical thornlands and broadleaf woodlands: These occur in tropics as

well. Broadleaf woodlands occur towards drier climatic conditions. Cerrado of
Brazil is a representative forest of the tropical broadleaf woodland where the
canopy varies from closed to open, with or without scattered trees. Leaves on
trees and scrub are large in size, branches are markedly twisted and the barks
are thick and fire resistant. Cerrado occurs in the transition zone of Tropical
seasonal and tropical thornwoods.

Tropical Savannas and grasslands: Savannas are tropical grasslands with

scattered shrubs or trees. The most dominant vegetation is of grasses like
Panicum, Andropogon, Pennisetum and Imperata. Trees (mostly Acacia spp.)
are scattered sparsely in the landscape. Savannas are most dominantly found
in Africa, which has given rise to the most prolific diversity of grazers and
browsers. Apart from Africa, tropical grasslands are found in Australia, South
America and Southern Asia. Species richness is far lower in savannas as
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compared to tropical rainforests. Loamy sand and summer rains less than 50
cm favours the sustenance of savanna. Frequent fires are common feature of
tropical grasslands.

Temperate rainforests: These are forests found at higher latitudes than the
tropics, with winter rainfall and develop in colder climatic conditions. Species
richness is low as compared to tropical rainforests. Sequoia, Pinus, Abies, Larix
and Calocedrus are some of the tree species found here. Trees easily acquire
longevity of 500 years. A belt of mixed coniferous rainforests along the pacific
coast of North America is a typical example.

Temperate Forests: Temperate forests are divided into temperate evergreen

forests and temperate deciduous forests. Temperate evergreen forest have trees
with relatively small and broad leaves are found in the less humid, maritime
climates in California, the Mediterranean region and southern Australia,
whereas needle shaped evergreen forests (Conifers) are found in large areas of
continental climates. The mixed forests of Sierra Nevada with Pine, Fir, Incense
Cedar, and Sierra Redwood are also representative of temperate evergreen
forests. In India, high altitude areas in Himalaya have abundant temperate
evergreen forests. Temperate deciduous forests are mostly confined to northern
hemisphere. The temperature may vary from -30° C to 38° C, without clear-
cut wet and dry seasons. Annual precipitation is between 600-2000 mm with
moderately humid continental temperate climate with a prominent winter
(Although not prolonged). Tree height is usually around 35 meters. Canopy is
relatively open as compared to temperate coniferous forests. Growth period is
4 to 6 months which starts with snow melt in March-April and ends in autumn.
Acorns and beech nuts are common. Bears, gray fox, gray squirrels are some of
the animals found in these forests.

Temperate grassland: These occur in areas receiving intermediate rainfall

between deserts and forests. Long cold winters and hot summers is characteristic
of these areas. The prairies of North America and steppes of Eurasia are the
typical examples of this biome. They are also found in Africa (Velds) and
Argentina (Pampas). Mammals of these regions are either large running types
like, Zebra, Bisons, Wild Horse, and Pronghorns or small burrowing type such
as Prairie dogs and Ground squirrel. Big Bluestem (Andropogon gerardii),
Wheat grass (Agropyron smithii) and Buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides) are
some of the grasses found in this biome.

Desert: Deserts are mainly located in the subtropics, and receive very less
annual precipitation. The amount of precipitation received can be used to classify
deserts into different categories like hyper arid, arid and semi-arid. These areas
can get extremely hot, especially during summers. Biodiversity is poor and
vegetation is sparse with distinctive low shrubs and xerophytic adaptations.
Soil type is mostly sandy with or without salt crust. Sahara, Arabian peninsula,
west coast of South America, parts of Australia are typical examples of desert.
Thar in the western region of India is the only desert in India.

Taiga (Boreal forest): Extensive cover of coniferous trees is found in these

areas. Trees like evergreen spruce, firs and pines dominate the landscape.
These are found in areas unfavourable for the growth of broadleaf deciduous or
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evergreen temperate forests. Summers are too short and winters, too long here.
Species richness is generally low. Shrubs and under canopy trees are scarce.
However, mosses and lichens may cover the entire ground surface. Taiga covers
Eurasia to the northern parts of North America.

Tundra: Tundra does not have climatic conditions that favour tree growth.
The vegetation is mainly of lichens, mosses, grasses and dwarf shrubs that
grow mostly during the summers when the permafrost thaws. Plants generally
do not exceed the height of 10 cm because of low temperature, low sunlight,
permafrost, strong wings, and low evaporation rate. Reindeer, Muskox, Caribou,
Polar bears and Lemmings are prominent mammals

1.4.4 Landscape Diversity: Landscape, in ecology, is a unit with geographical

limits and having climatic and geo-morphological characteristics. A landscape
may cover one or more than one community and ecosystem. Diversity of
biotic and abiotic system, each characterized by a specific geo-diversity and
biodiversity and incorporates anthropogenic interactions as important structural
and functional component.

Global patterns of biodiversity distribution:

Biodiversity is unevenly distributed across the different biogeographic

regions with certain places being more biodiversity rich. Tropical forests
stretching on or near the equator account for only about 7 percent of earth’s
geographical area but contain around 70 percent of species documented till
now. These biodiversity rich areas are called as biodiversity hotspots. These
hotspots have a high rate of endemism and are under a high degree of threat of
habitat destruction. Two gradients of biodiversity distribution are observed:
Latitudinal and Altitudinal. As we move from equator towards poles,
biodiversity decreases. This pattern is seen not only in terrestrial ecosystems
but freshwater and marine ecosystems as well (Figure: 5). Northern hemisphere
generally shows a steeper gradient than southern hemisphere. The amount and
duration of sunlight, temperature, precipitation, humidity, seasonal variability
and other environmental factors are the reasons for this kind of distribution.
Altitudinal gradient is also affected by these factors and results in decreased
biodiversity as we move towards higher elevations.

The above mentioned patterns and gradients of biodiversity at the global

level can be explained based on a number of hypotheses. Evolutionary time
hypothesis states that as more time was available for diversification of older
communities, they show higher degree of species diversity as compared
to newer communities. Another proposition according to Climate stability
hypothesis is that more diverse niches are created and sustained in stable
climatic condition zones and hence lead to more species diversity. Spatial
heterogeneity hypothesis explains these patterns on the basis that availability
of more diverse and complex environment on a spatial scale favours and
supports a wider range of species diversity due to less competition and greater
availability of resources. The amount of energy flowing through the food web
determines the diversity in a community is yet another explanation provided
by the Productivity hypothesis.
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1.5 MEASURES OF BIODIVERSITY
Conservation and management of biodiversity first requires to have an accurate
estimate of the total abundance and distribution of species in an ecosystem.
There are multiple methods of estimating biodiversity of a region, more
important of which are briefly mentioned below.

Genetic diversity is measured basically from the gene pool of a particular

species. To estimate the genetic diversity of an organism (Whole Genome
Sequencing) is carried out. This includes mapping of chromosomal as well as
mitochondrial DNA sequencing for animals and DNA from chloroplast in case
of plants. Genbank is a repository which maintains a database of nucleotide
sequences and their protein translations. Human genome project was one such
ambitious project which was initiated in 1990 and aimed at sequencing the
entire euchromatic human genome. The project was declared to be complete in
2003.

Species diversity can be estimated on count of two main parameters i.e.

species richness and relative abundance. Species richness is a simple count of
different species occupying a particular area. Relative abundance of a particular
species is the proportion of the total number of species found in an area.
Relative abundance gives an estimate of evenness or dominance of a species.
An increased evenness gives more stability to an ecosystem and makes it more
species diverse. On the contrary increased dominance of one or a few species
makes the ecosystem fragile and prone to collapse. Many research studies have
established that more species rich systems exhibit an increase in productivity,
nutrient cycling, and resistance towards disturbance or invasion as compared to
systems with lesser species richness (Hughes and Stachowicz, 2004).

A Rank abundance curve (Whittaker plot) is a graph depicting the relative

abundance of species in an area. Species are plotted on x axis arranged from
most to least abundant and on y axis their relative abundance is plotted (generally
in a log10 format). It can also be used to show species diversity and abundance.
Species richness and evenness can be easily visualized in a Whittaker plot. A
steeper slope on a Whittaker plot shows high dominance, whereas a shallower
slope depicts high evenness. Preston Plot is a histogram that depicts logarithm
bins of abundance on x axis and numbers of species in each abundance bin.

1.5.1 Biodiversity Indices

For better understanding of the distribution of species, ecosystem health and
other such phenomenon we need to estimate the diversity of the area and
to estimate it we use different indices. A biodiversity index is a quantitative
tool which helps us measure the distribution of various species present in a
community and their richness, evenness and dominance. Many such indices
have been devised so far, some of which are as follows:
1. Shannon index relies on the assumption that the individuals are sampled
randomly from an infinitely large community and that all the species are
represented in the sample. The equation for calculating Shannon index is
16 as follows:
H’= - ∑ pi ln pi

Where pi is the proportion of individuals found in the ith species.

The value of H’ generally ranges between 1.5 and 3.5 and rarely goes over 4.
Only when the number of species in the sample are huge, high values of H’ are
obtained.
2. Simpson’s index gives us the probability of drawing any two individuals at
random from an infinitely large community belonging to the same species.
The formula for Simpson’s index is as follows
D = ∑ pi2

Where pi= proportion of individual in ith species.

As the value of D increases, diversity decreases therefore Simpson’s index can

be simplified by expressing it as 1-D or 1/D. Simpson’s index is more sensitive
towards finding out the most abundant species rather than to species richness.
3. Simpson’s measure of evenness: A simple derivation of the Simpson’s
diversity index can provide the value of evenness by simply dividing the
value of Simpson’s index by the total number of species in the sample,
given by the formula:

S= Total number of species in the sample.

The value of Simpson’s measure of evenness ranges from 0-1.

4. Berger Parker Index (d): It is a simple dominance measure which
expresses the proportional abundance of the most dominant (Abundant)
species. It is calculated by the following equation:
d = Nmax/N

where, Nmax is the number of individuals of the most abundant species.

One major flaw that estimates of species diversity have is that they considers
all taxa to be theoretically of equal significance, which is not always the case.
Organisms have different ecological roles, some may have more ecological
importance than compared to others.

1.5.2 Alpha, Beta and Gamma Diversities:

Ecosystem diversity can be observed at three different levels: Alpha (α)
diversity, beta (β) diversity and gamma (γ) diversity. Alpha diversity is the
diversity of a particular site and includes all the species of organisms in that
area. Beta diversity is a comparison of two ecosystems and gives the number
of species unique to the ecosystems being compared. Alpha diversity includes
the diversity within the ecosystem and beta diversity includes the diversity
between ecosystems. Gamma diversity gives the overall diversity of a large
17
area which may include many ecosystems. Beta diversity can be calculated
as β = γ/α. Although Beta diversity can also be calculated as absolute species
turnover (where presence absence data is used for two subunits) which is given
by the following formula:

βA = (S1 – c) + (S2 – c)

Where, S1 is number of species in community 1, S2 is the number of species

in community 2 and c stands for the number of species common to both
communities.
Consider the following example: In a comparison of two ecosystems of Grassland and
Wetland, five species are found (A, B, C, D and E). The presence of the species is
shown with a + sign, whereas the absence is shown with a – sign.

Species Grassland Ecosystem Wetland Ecosystem Pond ecosystem

A + - -

B + - -

C + + -

D + + +

E - + +

Here the alpha diversity of grassland ecosystem is given by counting the

number of species in each ecosystem (4 in grassland, 3 in wetland and 2 in case
of pond ecosystem) whereas Beta diversity is the number of uncommon species
between any two ecosystems (For example, in a comparison between grassland
and wetland ecosystem, the number of species which are not common to both
the ecosystems = 3). Gamma diversity is the total number of species in an area
which may include all these three ecosystems (=5)

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of unit
1. What is biodiversity and what are the different levels of biodiversity?

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
2. What are the measures of biodiversity ?

......................................................................................................................
18
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......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

1.6 LET US SUM UP

Biodiversity is the variability of all the living organisms inhabiting an area,
and it includes the genetic, species and ecosystem variability. Genetic diversity
includes the variability of genetic information carried by an individual or a
species from a given area. Species diversity includes the number of species
residing in an area at a particular time. Ecosystem diversity is the diversity of
different ecosystems present in an area and can be measured as alpha, beta or
gamma diversity. Various measures of diversity have been devised of which
the most important ones are the biodiversity indices like Shannon index and
Simpson index.

1.7 KEYWORDS
• Biodiversity: The variety and variability among the life forms
including plants, animals, and microorganisms.
• Species: According to the biological species concept ‘‘groups of
actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations which are
reproductively isolated from other such groups”.
• Alpha (α) diversity: Alpha diversity is the diversity of a particular site
and includes all the species of organisms in that area.
• Beta (β) diversity: Beta diversity is a comparison of two ecosystems
and gives the number of species unique to the ecosystems being
compared.
• Gamma diversity: Gamma diversity gives the overall diversity of a
large area which may include many ecosystems

1.8 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

READING
Barthlott, W., & Winiger, M. (2001). Biodiversity: A challenge for development
research and policy. Berlin: Springer.

Condamine, F. L., Sperling, F. A., Wahlberg, N., Rasplus, J. Y., & Kergoat, G.
J. (2012). What causes latitudinal gradients in species diversity? Evolutionary
processes and ecological constraints on swallowtail biodiversity. Ecology
Letters, 15(3), 267-277

Gaston, K. J. (2000). Global patterns in biodiversity. Nature,405(6783), 220-

227. doi:10.1038/35012228

Hughes, A. R., Hanley, T. C., Schenck, F. R., & Hays, C. G. (2016).

19
Genetic diversity of seagrass seeds influences seedling morphology and
biomass. Ecology, 97(12), 3538-3546.

Magurran, A. E. (2004). Measuring biological diversity. Malden, MA:

Blackwell.

Mayr, E. (1942). Systematics and the origin of species from the viewpoint of a
zoologist. New York: Columbia Univ. Pr.

Mora, C., Tittensor, D. P., Adl, S., Simpson, A. G., & Worm, B. (2011). How
many species are there on Earth and in the ocean?. PLoS biology, 9(8), e1001127.

Singh, J. S., Singh, S. P., & Gupta, S. R. (2015). Ecology Environmental Science
and Conservation (2nd ed.). Delhi: S. Chand and Co.

Tangley, L. (1985). A New Plan to Conserve the Earths Biota: Spurred by

congressional concern, federal officials have drafted a US government strategy
to preserve biological diversity in the Third World. BioScience, 35(6), 334-341.
doi:10.1093/bioscience/35.6.334

Unit, B. (n.d.). CBD Home. Retrieved June 5, 2019, from https://www.cbd.int/

Whittaker, R. H. (1975). Communities and ecosystems. Macmillan,: New York.

Willyard, C. (2018, June 19). New human gene tally reignites debate. Retrieved
June 10, 2019, from https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-018-05462-w

Wilson, J. B. (2012). Biodiversity theory applied to the real world of ecological

restoration. Applied Vegetation Science,16(1), 5-7. doi:10.1111/avsc.12008
Table 1: Number of documented species in various taxa. (Retrieved July 03, 2019, from
https://nc.iucnredlist.org/redlist/content/attachment_files/2018_2_RL_Stats_Table_1_new_
errata.pdf)

Organism Group Estimated Number of described species

VERTEBRATES
Mammals 5,677
Birds 11,122
Reptiles 10,711
Amphibians 7,866
Fishes 33,900
Subtotal 69,276
INVERTEBRATES
Insects 1,000,000
Molluscs 85,000
Crustaceans 47,000
Corals 2,175
Arachnids 102,248
Velvet Worms 165
20
Horseshoe Crabs 4
Others 68,658
Subtotal 1,305,250
PLANTS
Mosses 16,236
Ferns and Allies 12,000
Gymnosperms 1,052
Flowering Plants 268,000
Green Algae 6,050
Red Algae 7,104
Subtotal 310,442
FUNGI & PROTISTS
Lichens 17,000
Mushrooms 31,496
Brown Algae 3,784
Subtotal 52,280
TOTAL 1,737,248

1.9 TERMINAL QUESTIONS

• Define biodiversity and its significance?
• What is genetic diversity and elaborate its importance?
• What is the difference between alpha, beta and gamma diversity?
• Briefly explain the different biomes found on earth.
• How can diversity of an area be calculated?

1.10 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer must include the following points
• definition and concept of biodiversity (Refer section 1.4)
2. Your answer must include the following points
• Different levels of biodiversity (Refer section 1.5)

21
UNIT 2 BIODIVERSITY VALUES AND
ECOSYSTEM SERVICES
Structure
2.1 Introduction
2.1.1 Genetic diversity
2.1.2 Species diversity
2.1.3 Community or ecosystem diversity

2.2 Objectives
2.3 Values of Biodiversity

2.3.1 Instrumental or utilitarian values

2.3.1.1 Direct use-values/ Consumptive
2.3.1.2 Indirect use-values/ Non-consumptive
2.3.2 Intrinsic or inherent values
2.3.2.1 Ethical values
2.3.2.2 Option values
2.3.2.3 Recreation and Aesthetic values
2.3.2.4 Religious values
2.3.2.5 Socio-cultural values

2.4 Monetizing the values of Biodiversity

2.5 Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (ESs)
2.5.1 Provisioning ESs
2.5.2 Regulating ESs
2.5.3 Supporting ESs
2.5.4 Cultural ESs

2.6 Conservation Initiatives

2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Keywords
2.9 References and Further Reading
2.10 Keys to Check Your Progress

2.1 INTRODUCTION
Biodiversity or biological diversity is the combination of two words ‘bio’
meaning living organisms and ‘diversity’ meaning variations. The term
biodiversity was coined by Walter G. Rosen in the National Forum on
Biodiversity held in Washington, DC in September 1986 which refers to the
genetic, species, and habitat diversity that is evaluated at different scales within
22
the global biosphere, including between individuals, populations, species,
communities, and ecosystems (Sarkar, 2007). In other words, it is the variety of
life including plants, animals, and microorganisms on Earth i.e., the sum total of
all genetic, organismal, and ecological variations in terms of composition and
function observed within and between species and the ecosystems that coexist
at a given time and place (Opoku, 2019; Wilson, 1988). The United Nations
Convention on Biodiversity defined it as ‘the variations and variability among
living organisms including flora, fauna, and microorganisms from all sources
including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems, and the
ecological complexes of which they are part, that also includes the diversity
within species, between species, and of ecosystems’ (CBD, 2006). The sum of a
region's genes, species, and ecosystems varies widely over the world rather than
being spread uniformly (Schulze et al., 2019). It also varies at both altitudinal and
latitudinal gradients, always higher in tropical climates as compared to the other
climatic zones and depends on mainly altitude, soil, geography, topography,
temperature, precipitation, humidity, and biotic interactions (Tito et al., 2020;
Martinez-Camilo et al., 2018). Climate and the amount of available space are
the two major abiotic drivers of taxonomic diversity dynamics in a given area
(Escarguel et al., 2011). A global increase in temperature associated with a
lowering of the latitudinal gradient of temperature (IPCC, 2007) will necessarily
lead to a decrease in global diversity through geographic homogenization of
species assemblages (Escarguel et al., 2011). Habitat fragmentation due to the
increasing anthropogenic pressure exerted at all latitudes is a major cause of a
decrease in local diversity in the majority of terrestrial and marine ecosystems
(Rosenzweig, 1995). Besides, the biosphere may be currently entering its sixth
major extinction crisis with the ongoing global warming, local demographic, and
agricultural pressures (Pimm et al., 1995). The five most notable drivers behind
biodiversity loss are habitat destruction, overexploitation, climate change,
invasive species, and chains of extinction (Sonwa et al., 2017). Infectious
diseases like COVID-19 can originate and spread as a result of biodiversity loss
(Johnson et al., 2013) that may result in health problems due to a lack of food or
nutritional diversity (James et al., 1997), while enhancing biodiversity provides
immediate health advantages, such as reducing air pollution through the use of
green roofs (Rowe, 2011) and thereby lowering the prevalence of respiratory
and cardiovascular ailments (Brunekreef and Holgate, 2002). Genetic diversity,
species diversity, and community or ecosystem diversity are the three different
interrelated and distinct levels of biodiversity (Sarkar, 2007). These levels of
biodiversity are interrelated and distinct enough to be studied separately to
understand the interactions that support life on earth (Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: Various Levels of Biodiversity and Perspectives of Community or Ecosystem

Diversity. 23
2.1.1 Genetic diversity
A key source of biodiversity is genetic diversity which is the magnitude of genetic
variability within a population (Hughes et al., 2008) or the genetic makeup of
the variation of organisms and species on Earth (Elliott, 2002). Genetic diversity
is the variation of genes among species and populations as well as within those
populations that separate distinct breeds or races from one another (UN-FAO,
n.d.). Some species have as many as 400,000 genes, e.g., human beings have
~25,000 genes, while rice has >56,000 (National Geographic Society, 2022). In
dynamic ecosystems, genetic variability is crucial for population survival and
often rises with environmental variability since alterations in environmental
variables affect genetic diversity within populations (Lovejoy and Hannah,
2005). Even species with significant capacity for gene flow are affected by
environmental influences in their dynamics (Freeland et al., 2010). Failure
to retain genetic variability restricts the ability of a population to adapt to a
changing environmental condition, making it vulnerable to the likelihood of
extinction (Szczecińska et al., 2016).

2.1.2 Species diversity

Species diversity has two primary components, i.e., species richness (the
number of species in a community) and species composition (the identity of
the species present in a community) which has a major influence on ecosystem
functioning and stability (Cleland, 2011). Typically, it is the patterns of species
richness over various geographical extents (local, regional, continental, and
global) or over various time periods (seasons, years, centuries, to millennia)
(Chiarucci et al., 2011). Species play essential roles in ecosystems and species
diversity is essential for economic, biological, social, and cultural reasons,
therefore local and global species losses could threaten the stability of the
ecosystem (McCann, 2000). The community and ecosystem processes became
more stable as species diversity improved (Tilman, 1996). Globally, around
1.75 million species have been discovered so far, including 950,000 insect
species, 270,000 plant species, 19,000 fish species, 9,000 bird species, and
4,000 mammal species (National Geographic Society, 2022). The diversity
of various groups of animals and plants, the numbers of species evaluated by
IUCN Red-List 2021, and the number of threatened species are given in Table
2.1. The number of species in a particular area (species richness) and the degree
to which the relative abundances of species are similar (species evenness or
equitability) are the two factors that affect species diversity (Magurran and
Gill, 2011). Commonly used methods to determine species diversity include
various mathematical indices known as diversity indices (the Shannon-Weiner
diversity index (Magurran, 1988), Simpson’s index of dominance (Simpson,
1949), Pielou’s index of species evenness (Pielou, 1966), and Margalef’s index
of species richness (Magurran, 1988)) being the most widely used (Hamilton,
2004) (Table 2.2).

24
Table 2.2: Diversity of various groups of animals and plants, numbers of species
evaluated by IUCN Red-List 2021, and number of threatened species (Source:
https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/summary-statistics)
Biodiversity Estimated Number Number of Sources
Number of of species threatened
described evaluated species2 by
species1 by 2021 2021 (IUCN
(IUCN Red Red List
List version version 2021-
2021-3) 3)
VERTEBRATES

Mammals 6,596 5,968 1,333 ASM Mammal

(excluding Diversity
domesticated Database, 2022
one)
Birds 11,162 11,162 1,445 HBW and
BirdLife
International,
2022
Reptiles 11,733 10,148 1,839 Uetz et al.,
2022
Amphibians 8,478 7,296 2,488 American
Museum of
Natural History,
2022
Fishes 36,272 22,581 3,332 Frick et al.,
2022
Subtotal 74,241 57,155 10,437

INVERTEBRATES

Insects 1,053,578 12,100 2,270 Roskov et al.,

2022
Molluscs 110,732 9,019 2,385 MolluscaBase,
2022
Crustaceans 80,122 3,189 743 Roskov et al.,
2022
Corals 5,610 848 232 WoRMS
Editorial Board,
2021
Arachnids 110,615 441 251 Roskov et al.,
2022
Velvet Worms 230 11 9 Oliveira et al.,
2021
Horseshoe 4 4 2 Roskov et al.,
Crabs 2022
Others 157,543 902 150 Roskov et al.,
2022
25
Subtotal 1,518,434 26,514 6,042

PLANTS

Green Algae 12,090 16 0 Guiry and

Guiry, 2021
Brown Algae 4,381 15 6 Guiry and
Guiry, 2021
Red Algae 7,445 58 9 Guiry and
Guiry, 2021
Bryophytes 21,925 282 165

Pteridophytes 11,800 739 281

Gymnosperms 1,113 1,016 403 Christenhusz et

al., 2011
Angiosperms 369,000 56,232 22,477 IUCN, 2022

Subtotal 427,754 58,358 23,341

FUNGI & LICHENS

Lichens 28,000 76 56 Thell et

al., 2012;
Chapman, 2009
Mushrooms, 120,000 474 208 IUCN, 2022
etc.
Subtotal 148,000 550 264

Total 2,168,429 142,577 40,084

Notes:

1. The number of described species in this table should be used with caution
as these are not always up to date for all taxonomic groups.

2. Threatened species are those listed as Critically Endangered (CR),

Endangered (EN) or Vulnerable (VU).

Table 2.2: Different most widely used diversity indices.

Diversity indices Mathematical equation References

Shannon-Weiner Magurran, 1988
diversity index
(H’)

26
Simpson’s index of Simpson, 1949
dominance (CD)

where pi = ni/N

ni = IVI of individual species

N = IVI of all species

Pielou’s evenness Pielou, 1966
index (E)

where H’ = Shannon-Wiener diversity

index (S = Total number of
species)
Margalef’s Magurran, 1988
index of species
richness (Dmg)
where S=Total no. of species

N=Total no. of individuals

2.1.3 Community or Ecosystem diversity

Diversity of the biological communities in which different species exist is
referred to as community diversity or ecosystem diversity. Diverse ecosystems
are able to withstand environmental stress, which leads to increased productivity
(Chandrakar, 2012). The scale or perspectives of community or ecosystem
diversity assessment may range from within a single site or habitat (refers
to alpha (α) diversity) to the difference between two or more sites (beta (β)
diversity) (Whittaker, 1960), which can be combined together to offer gamma
(γ) diversity i.e., the diversity of the entire landscape or geographic regions.

2.2 OBJECTIVES
• To get an idea about biodiversity and its levels
• To determine the consumptive and intrinsic values of biodiversity
• To determine the ecosystem services (ESs) values
• To get an idea about the monetary benefits of biodiversity

2.3 VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

The concept ‘value’ is most frequently used in a financial sense and it is
confusing to account for non-monetary ‘values’ like the aesthetic worth
of a landscape or the historical or even emotional importance of a location
(James, 2015). The value of biodiversity and the products and services it offers
are indicators of how ready a society is to make compromises in order to
protect these natural resources (Pascual and Muradian, 2010). Nature and its
component biodiversity have instrumental value only and should be valued like
27
any other commodities as per economists’ viewpoints, while as per ecologists’
viewpoints, the elements of nature have ‘inherent’ or ‘intrinsic’ value, and are
therefore deserving of preservation and protection for their own sake (Golliher,
1999). Biodiversity delivers tangible benefits that are of monetary value, such
as crops and many other non-monetary values, such as pure air perceived by
the beneficiaries (Small et al., 2017). Moreover, biodiversity has often served
both non-consumptive use like recreation and consumptive use like food and
also the indirect use like pollination (Pascual and Muradin, 2010). Biodiversity
directly contributes to human well-being in terms of the provision of foods,
fuels, and fibres, and indirectly in terms of the provision of ecosystem services
(ESs) (Binder and Polasky, 2013). Different types of benefits or values gathered
from the biodiversity with examples are listed in Table 2.3.
Table 2.3: Various types and sub-types of biodiversity values with examples.

Type of Sub-type of values Major uses with examples

values
Instrumental Direct or • Food: Plants: crops, legumes,
or utilitarian consumptive use- fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, etc.;
values values Animals: Fish, meat, milk products,
honey, etc.; Microorganisms:
alcohol, bakery, card, cheese, etc.
• Fuel: Fossil fuels, bioenergy crops,
biomass, fuelwood, etc.
• Fibre: Cotton, jute, bast fibre, wood
fibre, grass fibre, etc.
• Drugs and medicines: (Plants:
Ocimum sanctum, Azedirachta
indica, Tinospora cordifolia, etc.;
Animals: skins of tiger, the blood of
snakes, the horn of the rhino, teeth
of elephants, etc.; Microorganisms:
antibiotics, etc.)
Instrumental Indirect or non- • Ecosystem services: Erosion control,
or utilitarian consumptive use- disaster risk reduction, pollution
values values control, climate regulation, air,
water, and soil quality maintenance,
water supply, pollination, pest and
disease control, nutrient cycling, etc.
• Ecotourism: Places of natural
heritage, national parks, biosphere
reserves, wildlife sanctuaries,
natural forests, etc.
• Research and Education:
Experimental plants and animals
• Crop and plant breeding programs:
Wild varieties of plant and animals
28
Intrinsic or - • Ethical: Moral responsibilities to let
inherent others live
values
• Option: Undiscovered potential of
biodiversity for various products
and services
• Recreation and Aesthetics:
Ornamental plants, fishes,
uses of biodiversity goods for
ornamentations (jewellery, etc.)
and natural heritage sites for mental
satisfaction and leisure
• Religious: (Plants: Ocimum sanctum
(Tulsi), Aegle mermelos (Bael), etc.;
Animals: Owl, Snake, etc.)
• Social and cultural: Customary
uses like mango leaves in marriage,
mango twig and ghee in Yagya, etc.
2.3.1 Instrumental or utilitarian values
Instrumental or utilitarian values include both direct and indirect uses of
biodiversity that address the economic benefits accessed by human beings
for their own sake from nature (Bullock, 2017). Sometimes, these values are
related to monetary valuation and non-monetary benefits associated with many
other ecosystem services (Hiron et al., 2018). It can be further divided into
consumptive and non-consumptive use values as mentioned below-

2.3.1.1 Direct or Consumptive Use Values

The products of biodiversity harvested and consumed directly by locals such as
food, fibres, fuels, medicines, etc. are considered under consumptive use value
(Verma, 2016). It can be broadly categorized into foods, drugs and medicines,
fibres, woods, other non-wood products, and fuels (TEEB, 2010).
2.3.1.2 Indirect or Non-consumptive Use Values

Non-consumptive values also known as non-extractive use values or functional

values (Dixon and Pagiola 1998), include all the services and functions of
nature through which human beings and other living beings are benefited
indirectly including scientific research, recreational activities such as bird
watching (Hanley and Perrings, 2019), water purification, protection of natural
resources, regulation of climate, waste decomposition, nutrient cycling,
ecotourism, reproductive activities, and feeding activities of commercial fishes
(Alho, 2008).

2.3.2 Intrinsic or Inherent Values

The intrinsic value of biodiversity can be defined as the values of each living
being within itself as it exists (Sandler, 2012) and it has a variety of philosophical,
29
religious, cultural, and ethical origins. It can be understood that every species
being the entity of earth is valuable although it is not useful (Vucetich et al.,
2015). Intrinsic values are indigenous in origin at any particular habitat and
time and it is the result of a continuous evolutionary process (Alho, 2008).
The global indigenous tribes have recognized the value of biodiversity and
have given it an important place in their myth, culture, and traditions (Gray,
1999). The recognition of traditionally practised integral human-environment
relationships and the inherent connections between biological and cultural
diversity is now being reclaimed by local peoples around the world (Golliher,
1999). Acknowledging the intrinsic value of biodiversity rises from recognizing
all the species of conservation concern that offer little benefit to human welfare
which have been well recognized by society and have some sociological and
cultural evidence (Vucetich et al., 2015). The degree to which an entity's
intrinsic value is attributed to it may be judged by looking at the legal and
social repercussions of breaking rules or regulations (Alcamo et al., 2005). In
other words, intrinsic value refers to the sense of worth that exists irrespective
of human valuations and shows the value of an ecosystem regardless of how
others perceive it (O’Neill, 1993).

2.3.2.1 Ethical Values

Biodiversity has ethical values as every organism has the right to live, it teaches
us the lesson to have compassion and care for other organisms. Ethical values
depend on the understanding of humanity and come from ethics and the moral
principles to judge right and wrong (Pojman and Fieser, 2011). Our ethical
understanding of biodiversity is still in the early stages and it needs to be
advanced (Bosworth et al., 2011).

2.3.2.2 Option Values

Biodiversity is a universal good (Government of Ireland, 2008). The future
possibility to use biodiversity for the benefit of humankind is called option
values. For instance, different species of plants, animals, and microorganisms
might contain valuable compounds which may have the potential to cure
dangerous diseases like cancer (Spellman, 2015).

2.3.2.3 Recreation and Aesthetic Values

Aesthetics are generally defined as the enjoyment and pleasure felt through the
observation of environmental scenery, characteristics of the observed object,
beauty, and rarity (Swaffield and McWilliam, 2013). The aesthetic value of
biodiversity means the pleasure and emotion that brings a positive response
through visualization and observing the beauty of nature (Tribot et al., 2018).
It activates positive energy in our lives through music, literature, photography,
tourism, paintings, emotions, and feeling (Saini et al., 2011). It also brings a
positive social motivation for the conservation of nature and biodiversity by
man through laws and policies, protected area networks, sacred grooves, and
tribal efforts (Tribot et al., 2018). The increasing use of the natural area for
outdoor recreation will ensure its ecological integrity in the future (Zaslowsky,
1995). Natural area preservation and restoration contribute to aesthetic appeal
30 and passive recreational usage (City of Boulder Open Space Department, 1995).
2.3.2.4 Religious Values
Biodiversity is a part of the religious and cultural sentiments of the people
around the world, especially the tribes (Saini et al., 2011). Many tribal
communities worship nature, particular plants and animals as per the religious
taboo and preserve it in a relict form known as sacred groves (Malhotra et
al., 2001). Local communities safeguard it because of their adherence to their
religious principles and long-standing customs (Khumbongmayum et al.,
2004). Religion can provide emotionally compelling beliefs that can be used to
implement adaptive solutions for resource management and biodiversity usage
(Berkes, 2013). For instance, the use of flowers, bael Patta (leaves of Aegle
marmelos), and tulsi (Omimum sanctum) in puja and Yagya in Hindu religious
rituals provide the basis for their conservation. Conservation ethics and
behaviour in association with religion strengthen biodiversity conservation and
prevents resource depletion ensuring a symbiotic relationship with sustainable
development (Negi, 2012).

2.3.2.5 Socio-cultural Values

The cultural implications make it easier to establish a connection between
biodiversity and human health (MEA, 2005). Cultural pathways positively
link human and natural spaces to create opportunities for cultural goods and
services (Lovell et al., 2014). Numerous plants and animals have long symbolic
meanings, and they are depicted on flags, in folktales, and in religious texts
(Kellert and Wilson, 1993). Humans appreciate and care about biodiversity,
because the loss of biodiversity may have an impact on cultural values, which
will have a considerable negative impact on human well-being by raising
anxiety, irritation, and stress (Clark et al., 2014).
Check Your Progress 1
Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.
b) Check your answers with those given at the end of unit
1. What do you mean by biodiversity and what are the different levels of
biodiversity?

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......................................................................................................................
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2. What are the major types of biodiversity values?

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31
2.4 MONETIZING THE VALUES OF
BIODIVERSITY
The monetary value of biodiversity includes both use and non-use values, i.e.,
the direct value of using it for entertainment options, or as foods, woods, non-
woods, drugs, medicines, and so on, as well as the indirect value of using it for
various regulating services such as carbon sequestration, climate moderation,
nutrient cycling, and so on (Small et al., 2017). Monetizing biodiversity helps in
evaluating the effect of changes occurring in ESs for the sustenance of mankind
(Wincler, 2006). It helps in knowing the consequences due to economic
activities and their further reaction to the ecosystem functioning (Cordier et
al., 2014). The importance of biodiversity can be understood, but not easily
valued, because many ecosystem goods and services occur simultaneously, and
are often very difficult to estimate (Sullivan, 1997). The monetary valuation
of biodiversity influences the concept of biodiversity ownership and property
(Brondizio et al., 2010). It refers to an asset's value, which is determined by
its function in meeting human requirements through spiritual enlightenment,
aesthetic enjoyment, or the provision of certain marketable items (Barbier
et al., 2009). Through payments, valuation plays a vital role in developing
markets for the protection of biodiversity and ESs (Engel et al., 2008). Such a
market development process necessitates the demonstration and appropriation
of values, as well as the sharing of conservation benefits (Kontoleon and
Pascual, 2007). Besides, the value of biodiversity is calculated by considering
the components of the ecosystem i.e., ecosystem products, services, and other
benefits, place of marketing with restoration and preservation facilities, and
different direct and indirect monitoring techniques (Cordier et al., 2014). The
complexity of ecosystem services, the provision of multiple services at once, the
effects of high uncertainty, ignorance, and scaling up estimated values of ESs,
the presence of ecological thresholds and non-linearities, the lack of methods
to incorporate the idea of the resilience of socio-ecological systems, and the
dynamic behaviour of ecosystems are among the most significant challenges
for valuation of the goods and services provided by biodiversity (IPCC, n.d.).
Small-scale measures for biodiversity conservation with sensitive planning are
an important pathway for achieving conservation with sustainable development
(Kowarik et al., 2020) (Figure 2.2).
development.

Figure 2.2: Contributions of biodiversity conservation towards economic growth and

sustainable
32
2.5 BIODIVERSITY AND ECOSYSTEM
SERVICES (ESS)
Ecosystems are important not only for maintaining the global carbon cycle and
climate change adaptation but also for a wide range of ESs that are necessary
for human well-being and the accomplishment of the Millennium Development
Goals (MEA, 2005; Malhi et al., 2020). ESs are the conditions and processes
through which natural ecosystems and their component biodiversity contribute
to the survival of life on Earth and the fulfilment of human needs (Daily,
1997). Humankind derives substantial benefits not only from the products of
biodiversity but also from services of ecosystems, such as water purification,
erosion control, and pollination (National Research Council (US) Committee
on Noneconomic and Economic Value of Biodiversity, 1999). The basic ESs
provided by natural ecosystems are primary productivity, biogeochemical
cycling, waste decomposition, soil formation and erosion control, climate
extremes moderation, flood control, pollution mitigation, biological control of
insect pests, water, air, and soil quality protection and maintenance, and crop
pollination (Sullivan, 1997; Daily, 1997). Global climate change and change in
atmospheric composition are likely to have an impact on most of these goods
and services, with considerable impacts on socioeconomic systems (Winnett,
1998). Biodiversity is extremely complex and dynamic, and supports many
ESs that are often not easily visible and plays an important role in regulating
the atmospheric conditions, hydrological cycle, and recycling nutrients
(Kunhikannan, 2017). It also contributes to climate change mitigation and
adaptation through the provisioning of ESs (Seddon et al., 2020). Ecosystems
and biodiversity may be generally regarded as elements of our natural capital,
and the flow of ESs is the interest that society receives from that capital (Costanza
and Daly, 1992). The goods and services provided by biodiversity are of great
value to human health, livelihoods, and well-being (Wei et al., 2021). Some of
the ESs, like food, are necessary for human existence, while others are highly
desirable services for human enjoyment, like recreation (Small et al., 2017).
A healthy ecosystem provides us various ESs including fertile soil for better
crop productivity to fulfil food security, clean water, food, timber, regulate O2
and CO2 concentration in the atmosphere, moderate the climate, reduce the
spread of diseases, protect against erosion, flood, and draught, and any other
natural disasters (TEEB, 2010). The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment by the
United Nations (2005) divided ESs into four main categories: provisioning,
regulating, supporting, and cultural services (Alcamo et al., 2005) (Figure
2.3). Provisioning services included food, pharmaceutical products, building
material, etc., while regulating services included climate regulation, disaster
risk reduction, and population maintenance of different species. On the other
hand, supporting services included nutrient cycling, primary production, erosion
control, etc. and cultural services included spiritual experience, recreation,
aesthetics, etc. (MEA, 2005). Depending on the timeframe and direct influence
on people, some ESs, like erosion control, can be categorised as both supporting
and regulating (TEEB, 2010).

33
Figure 2.3: Various types of ecosystem services provided by biodiversity
(MEA, 2005).

2.5.1 Provisioning ESs

Biodiversity provides various provisioning services including food, fibre, fuel,
water, drugs and medicines, woods, and other goods (TEEB, 2010; MEA,
2005). Many provisioning services are traded in markets known as productive
use of biodiversity in the form of raw materials of industries (e.g., Bamboos
in the paper industry and woods in the plywood industry) and many rural
households in developing countries, directly depend on provisioning services
for their livelihoods (e.g., fuelwood, wild edible plants, fruits, vegetables,
herbal medicines, etc.) (UN-FAO, n.d.).

2.5.2 Regulating Services

Regulating services are often invisible but when they are damaged, the resulting
losses can be substantial and difficult to restore (UN-FAO, n.d.). These are the
advantages derived from ecological processes and biodiversity that control
climate, diseases, waste, various other disasters, and the quality of the soil,
water, and air (MEA, 2005). Additionally, ecosystems provide regulating
functions such as carbon sequestration and storage, limiting the occurrence of
severe events, wastewater treatment, controlling river flow, biological control,
or pollinating crops (TEEB, 2010).

2.5.3 Supporting Services

Services that are necessary for all other ESs to be produced including soil
formation, erosion control, photosynthesis, nutrient cycling, etc. are referred
to as supporting services (MEA, 2005). Supporting services have an indirect
or sluggish impact on people, whereas changes to the other ESs have a more
direct and instant impact on people. Humans, for instance, do not directly
rely on the services of soil formation, but alterations to these would have an
indirect effect on humans due to their impact on the provisioning services of
34 food supply (Alcamo et al., 2005). Similarly, ecosystems offer habitat for plants
and animals, and also help in maintaining the diversity that underpins the other
ecosystem services (TEEB, 2010). Another important supporting service of
natural ecosystems is the preservation of genetic variation, which serves as a
basis for locally well-adapted cultivars and a gene pool for the development of
commercial crops and livestock (UN-FAO, n.d.).

2.5.4 Cultural services

Cultural services refer to non-material advantages provided by ecosystems
including ecotourism, and spiritual, and ethical values (MEA, 2005). These are
the intangible advantages that humans gain from ecosystems, such as mental
improvement, introspection, leisure, and aesthetic pleasures (Alcamo et al.,
2005). Numerous cultural manifestations result from interactions between
people and the environment (Church et al., 2014). Cultural services are common
across and within other ESs like regulating and provisioning ESs (Scholte et al.,
2015). For example, Ocimum sanctum (Tulsi) provides both a cultural service
through religious uses and a provisioning service in terms of medicine (from
traditional to the modern allopathic system of medicines).

Check Your Progress 2

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of unit

1. What do you mean by ecosystem services and what are the different types
of ecosystem services provided by biodiversity?

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......................................................................................................................
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2. Write a short note on monetizing biodiversity values.

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2.6 CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

Conserving natural terrestrial, freshwater, and marine ecosystems and their
constituent species and restoration of damaged and degraded ecosystems
including their genetic and biological diversity are important for the sustainable
development of the society and nation’s economy (Sandifer et al., 2015). There
are an increasing number of regional, national, and international awareness-
raising and policy activities aimed at protecting biodiversity as a result of
the threat of species extinction due to habitat loss and degradation, global
climate change, and human population pressure (Kullberg and Moilanen, 35
2014). Regarding this, various initiatives had been taken by IUCN in 1994
which proved to be essential for the development of different tools and
equipment for the conservation of biodiversity and other natural resources on
both national and international grounds (Lamoreux et al., 2003). In an effort
to stop the further loss of biodiversity, the United Nations (2002) designated
2010 as the International Year of Biodiversity. Despite significant attempts to
stop biodiversity loss, there is little evidence that this trend is being reversed
as it continues to diminish (Butchart et al., 2010). On December 29, 1993,
the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) came into effect, with the
primary goals of conserving biodiversity, its sustainable uses, and fair and
equitable sharing of the benefits (CBD, 2012). About 87% of CBD signatories
have produced National Biodiversity Strategies and Action Plans, providing
frameworks for addressing biodiversity loss on a national level (Rands et al.,
2010). Despite the repeated implementation of international conservation
conventions, such as the UN Decade of Biodiversity (2011-2020), the CBD
(1992), and several other biodiversity conservation initiatives with negligible
success, biodiversity continues to decline (Pe’er et al., 2017; Kleijn et al., 2011).
The United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity, developed the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets, a 10-year strategic plan for 2011–2020 that recognises
the importance of the link between biodiversity and bio-economy (Mehta et
al., 2020). The development of a post-2020 global biodiversity framework
to replace the 2011-2020 Strategic Plan for Biodiversity (including the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets) was the main goal of the 15th Conference of Parties (COP
15) for the Convention on Biological Diversity, which was held in Kunming,
China in October 2021.

2.7 LET US SUM UP

In this chapter, we have discussed biodiversity in general and its values
in particular. The maintenance of life on Earth depends critically on the
conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity. Different ecological,
socioeconomic, and cultural viewpoints may be used to analyse the goods and
benefits that people directly or indirectly obtain from biodiversity. Sustainable
utilisation of different biological resources either for research, commercial,
or personal use with strict policy regulations and strategies helps to resolve
the issues related to biodiversity loss. A broadened understanding of various
dimensions of biodiversity and its components is necessary for its sustainable
management. Contemporary patterns of economic growth, globalization, and
modernization are the major reasons behind biodiversity loss and its over-
exploitation. The protection of biodiversity often turns common places into
distinct places. Sustainable and effective conservation of biodiversity is possible
through community participation in natural resource management and enabling
policy frameworks. Understanding the importance of biodiversity can enhance
a manager's capacity to resolve disputes and comprehend the viewpoints of
those engaged in decision-making.

2.8 KEYWORDS
• Biodiversity: The variety and variability among the life forms
including plants, animals, and microorganisms.
36
• Biodiversity Values: It is about the consumptive (provisioning
services), non-consumptive (regulatory services), and non-monetary
(intrinsic values like ethical, spiritual, aesthetic, recreational, social,
and religious) values of biodiversity.
• Ecosystem Services: It is all about the goods and services provided by
one healthy ecosystem including provisioning, regulatory, supporting,
and cultural services.

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2.10 KEYS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer must include the following points
• Well known definition of biodiversity
• Different levels of biodiversity
• Different perspective of community and ecosystem diversity
2. Your answer must include the following points
• Utilitarian values including both consumptive and non-consumptive
values
• Inherent values including ethical, option, recreation and aesthetic,
religious, and socio-cultural values

Check Your Progress 2

1. Your answer must include the following points
• Concepts of ESs
• Different types of ESs including provisioning, regulatory, cultural, and
supporting services
2. Your answer must include the following points
• General perception of monetizing the values of biodiversity
• Criteria of valuation
• Challenges of valuation

44
UNIT 3 ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
Structure
3.1 Objectives
3.2 Introduction
3.3 Tropical Forests
3.4 Temperate Forests
3.5 Boreal Forests
3.6 Grasslands
3.7 Inland Wetlands
3.8 Open Oceans
3.9 Arid and semi-arid land
3.10 Arctic and Alpine ecosystems
3.11 Agro-ecosystems
3.12 Plantation Forests
3.13 Let Us Sum Up
3.14 Keywords
3.15 Terminal Questions
3.16 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises
3.17 Answers to Terminal Questions
3.18 Some Useful Books

3.1 INTRODUCTION
An ecosystem is a geographical area in which plants, animals, and other
species, as well as climate and topography, work together to create a bubble
of life. The ecosystem refers to how all of these different organisms coexist
in close quarters and interact with one another as well as the abiotic elements
of the environment. Weather, earth, sun, soil, climate, and atmosphere are
examples of abiotic habitats. The biosphere is the world's largest ecosystem,
encompassing all ecosystems. Separate ecosystems have emerged as a result of
differences in physiographic, climate, natural vegetation, soil, and water bodies.
There are various ecosystems operating on a global and micro scale around the
planet. Ecosystems might be large, with hundreds of different creatures and
plants coexisting in perfect harmony, or they can be small. Ecosystems in very
harsh environments, such as the North and South Poles, are generally simple
since only a few types of organisms can survive the freezing temperatures
and terrible living conditions. Some organisms can be found in a variety of
environments around the world, interacting with other or similar creatures in
45
various ways. Due to the difference in topography, geography, climate and
species composition, different types of ecosystems prevail on earth. Major
ecosystems are discussed in this unit.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this Unit we shall be able to:
• Learn about the major ecosystems
• State the distribution of major ecosystems
• Explain the importance of each ecosystem
• Differentiate among the ecosystems

3.3 TROPICAL FORESTS

Tropical forests are found between the Cancer and Capricorn lines, which are
both 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator. These forests are classified
into two types: evergreen and deciduous. Tropical Evergreen or tropical rain
forests are found near the equator, are hot and humid throughout the year, get
up to 2000 mm of rain per year, and have a uniformly high relative humidity.
The Amazon Basin of Latin America is home to 57% of tropical rainforests,
and Brazil is home to one-third of the world's tropical rainforests. These forests
are important biodiversity hotspots on the world. There are 2,500 tree species
in the Amazon rainforest alone. In Peru, such woods encompass 60% of the
land area, while only 10% of the population lives there. So it is with Brazil's
Amazon Basin, which is rightfully referred to as the world's greatest "deserts"
(due to its extremely low population density - one person per square mile). The
limited settlement is due to dense vegetation, a severe tropical environment,
and poor soil quality in general.Agriculture, logging, migrant resettlement,
industrial fuel, hydro-electric development, and other factors all contribute to
the destruction of tropical rain forests. Tropical deciduous forests are the other
type of tropical forest. Southeast Asia, Sri Lanka, the Malaysian Peninsula, the
Indonesian Archipelago, Borneo, Sarawak, and Papua New Guinea, as well as
the Pacific Islands, are home to these forests.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISE 1

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.

Tick mark on the correct answer for the statement given below.
1. Ecosystem includes
a) Plants
b) Animals
c) Abiotic components
d) Biotic and abiotic components
46
3.3 TEMPERATE FORESTS
A temperate forest is one that is situated in the temperate zone, halfway between
the tropical and boreal zones. It is the world's second largest biome, containing
25% of the planet's forest area. These forests can be found at latitudes ranging
from 25 to 50 degrees in both hemispheres. Temperate forests experience a wide
range of temperatures that correspond to the seasons. Summers are hot, with
highs of 86 degrees Fahrenheit, while winters are bitterly cold, with lows of -22
degrees Fahrenheit. Temperate forests receive a lot of rain, typically between
20 and 60 inches each year. Rain and snow are the two types of precipitation.
Temperate forests are able to host a diverse range of plant life and flora due
to ample rainfall and rich soil humus. The vegetation in this area is divided
into numerous strata, ranging from lichens and mosses on the ground to huge
tree species such as oak and hickory that rise above the forest floor. Beavers,
black and brown bears, deer, foxes, raccoons, skunks, rabbits, and a variety of
bird species thrive in these forests. Deciduous, coniferous, and Broad-leaved
Evergreen forests are the three types of temperate forests. The Eastern United
States, Canada, Europe, China, and Japan are home to deciduous forests on
the southern edge of the Boreal forests. The Eastern United States, Europe,
Western Turkey, Eastern Iran, Western China, and Japan are all home to these
forests, which are mostly located between 30 and 50 degrees north latitude.
Warm summers and frigid winters (temperatures as low as -30°C) are the norm
for temperate deciduous woods. The most common trees are maples, beech,
hickories, and oaks. All of tree leaves fall off in the winter months in temperate
deciduous woods, which have four different seasons. Photosynthesis decreases
as temperatures drop and daylight hours shorten in the fall. As a result, when
warmer temperatures and longer hours of daylight return in the spring, new
leaves arise from the buds. The highland forests are covered in temperate
coniferous forests (also known as cloud forests because they receive most
of their precipitation from the mist or fog that comes up from the lowlands).
High-elevation tropical, subtropical, and temperate zones of North America,
Europe, and Asia are home to some of these montane forests and grasslands.
Abies, pinus, pseudotsuga, and Thuja are all important trees. Fir, oak, ash,
maple, birch, beech, poplar, and elm are among the most common trees found
in broad-leaved evergreen forests. Olive, cork, oak, and stone pine are widely
spaced hardwood evergreen trees prevalent in the Mediterranean region.

3.4 BOREAL FORESTS

Boreal forests receive less rain than other forests and are home to evergreen
trees that remain green throughout the year. This is due to their needles, which
require less water than typical tree leaves. Only the Northern Hemisphere
has boreal forests, which can be found in the high latitudes of North America
and Eurasia, from Scandinavia to eastern Siberia. Extreme cold prevails, soil
remains beneath the surface, and the frost-free season lasts 50-100 days. This
type of forest covers roughly 20% of the world's total forest area. Plant richness
is significantly lower than in temperate forests, with a few number of coniferous
species dominating the tree population. The biodiversity of the fauna is also
lower than in temperate forests, although it supports a significant number of
nesting birds during the summer.Spruces, firs, and larches are among the trees 47
found. The forest floor is intensively shadowed by relatively small trees that
do not surpass 30 metres in height. There is a lot of fire. In Canada, Alaska,
and Russia, enormous swaths of boreal forest cover vast swaths of land. Boreal
woods also serve as a significant carbon sink. They absorb carbon dioxide,
a major contributor to global warming and climate change, as do all forests,
eliminating it from the atmosphere and contributing to the overall health of the
earth.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISE 2

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Fill in the blanks with appropriate words.
a) A temperate forest is one that is situated in the temperate zone, halfway
between the ........and.........zones.
b) Temperate forests receive a lot of rain, typically between.........to.......
inches annually.
c) ...........forests serve as a significant carbon sink.

3.5 GRASSLANDS
Grassland is a type of environment dominated by grasses and other herbaceous
blooming plants, with a few trees and bushes thrown in for good measure.
Grasslands are an intermediate stage in ecological succession that encompass a
portion of the land at all altitudes and latitudes when climatic and soil conditions
prevent tree growth. Grasslands cover over a quarter of the earth's surface. The
types of plants that thrive here are mostly determined by the climate and soil
conditions. Grasslands are found in locations where there isn't enough consistent
rainfall to support forest growth, but not less to constitute a desert. During the
monsoon, the low rainfall limits the growth of many trees and shrubs, but it
is sufficient to maintain the growth of grass cover. Grasslands cover around a
quarter of the Earth's surface. Grasslands can be found in nature or as a result
of human activity. 'Anthropogenic Grasslands' are grasslands that have been
developed and sustained by human activity. Natural Grasslands are those that
form naturally.

Grasslands are known by various names in different parts of the world

Country Name
Australia Down
Canada Prairies
Mexico Pampas
South Africa Veldt
Brazil Campos
Asia Steppes
Tropical Grasslands are found between the Tropics of Cancer and Capricorn,
near the equator. The majority of Tropical Grasslands are found between
48
Tropical Rain Forests and Tropical Deserts in the interior parts of continents.
Savannahs are another name for tropical grasslands. The tropical grasslands
feature a tropical continental climate with alternate wet and dry seasons. The
Grasslands are warm all year, with average monthly temperatures of 64° F or
higher. The average yearly rainfall is between 30 and 50 inches. During the dry
season, less than 4 inches of rain is obtained for at least five months of the year.
The low sun period is related with the dry season. Bedrock and edaphic factors
influence soil composition. However, because laterization is the most common
soil-forming process, poor fertility oxisols are to be expected.

Temperate Grasslands are found north of the Tropic of Cancer and south of the
Tropic of Capricorn, in the mid-latitudes. They are found in the transition zone
between deserts and temperate forests. Summers in temperate grasslands are
hot and humid, with an average temperature of 18° C, and winters are chilly
and dry, with an average temperature of 10° C. These areas get between 10
and 20 inches of rain each year on average. Much of it falls as snow, which
serves as a moisture reservoir for the start of the growth season. Because of the
high evaporation rate, just a small amount of rain reaches the soil. Trees are
uncommon in the Temperate Grasslands due to a lack of moisture, as they have
longer life cycles and require a longer growing season than Grasses. Because
grasses dry out in the winter, the appearance of grasslands in the winter is often
brown. In these places, calcification is the most common soil-forming process.
The dark brown mollisols generated under the Temperate Grasslands are
characterised by mild leaching, high organic content, and a high concentration
of calcium carbonate in the B horizon. When this procedure is used on a calcium-
rich loess (silt deposit), the Chernozems, the world's most productive soils, are
developed (black soil). Animal diversity in the Temperate Grassland is quite
limited, especially when compared to the Tropical Grasslands. North American
Bison, Pronghorn Antelope, Pocket Gopher, Ground Squirrels, Prairie Dog,
Coyote, Badger, and Black-Footed Ferret are among the creatures.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISE 3

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Match the words in column A with appropriate pairs in column B
Column A Column B
Australia Steppes
Mexico Campos
Asia Down
Brazil Veldt
South Africa Pampas

3.6 INLAND WETLANDS

Rivers, streams, springs, oases, seasonal streams, ponds, and lakes are examples of
fresh running waterways. Marshes are one of the four basic forms of inland wetlands.
Herbaceous plant species predominate over woody plant species in marshes. Marshes 49
form a transition between the aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems along the borders
of lakes and streams. Grasses, rushes, and reeds are frequently dominant. If there are
any woody plants, they are mostly low-growing shrubs. A forested wetland is known
as a swamp. Swamps are known for their slow-moving or stagnant waters. They are
frequently linked to nearby rivers or lakes. Swamp water can be freshwater, brackish
water, or seawater. A mire is a wetland that is devoid of trees and is dominated by
peat-forming plants and may be a bog or a fen. A bog is a peat-accumulating marsh.
It's a dome-shaped landform that rises above the surrounding environment, with
precipitation providing the majority of its water. A carbon sink is created by the
gradual accumulation of dead plant material in bogs. A fen, on the other hand, is
a wetland that receives water from both groundwater and precipitation. It's on an
incline, flat, or dip.

3.7 COASTAL ECOSYSTEMS

Coastal ecosystems are one of the world's ecosystems. The Earth, as we all
know, contains two sorts of ecosystems: a land environment and a water
ecosystem. This ecology on the beach is a form of land ecosystem. The coastal
ecology is a land ecosystem that is next to the marine ecosystem. Coastal
ecosystems are defined as a unit of both biotic and abiotic components that are
found along the coast, interact with one another, and impact one another while
forming an energy flow. The interplay between these components creates a
biotic framework as well as the material cycle, in addition to generating energy.
This coastal habitat, like other ecosystems, contains a variety of biotic and
abiotic components. Algae, mangroves, marine anemones, shrimp, crabs, fish,
and other coastal plants and animals are examples of biotic components found
in coastal habitats. Sand, land, temperature, air, humidity, rocks, and sunlight
are some of the abiotic components that the coastal environment possesses. The
bulk of the world's coastal ecosystems have these abiotic components. This is
because we can easily find components in the area surrounding the coast. Tides
have a significant impact on coastal ecosystems. The daily cycle of sea water
is represented by these tides. As a result, the only flora and animals that may
live in the coastal zone are those that have adapted by adhering themselves to
the hard ground in order to avoid being carried away by the waves. The Coastal
Ecosystem is a one-of-a-kind ecosystem that includes land, seawater, and air.
The coastal ecosystem is made up of a number of different units. These units
are only owned by coastal ecosystems and not the other ecosystems. One of the
most important units of coastal ecosystems are the Mangroves.

"Mangroves represent a characteristic littoral (near the sea shore) forest

ecosystem, and they are mostly evergreen forests that grow in sheltered low
lying coasts, estuaries, mudflats, tidal creeks backwaters (coastal waters held
back on land), marshes, and lagoons of tropical and subtropical regions,"
according to one of its oft-quoted definitions. Mangroves are 'halophyte'
plants, meaning they can survive in a salty environment. Temperature, salinity,
dissolved oxygen, tide, and wind speed all have a part in mangrove ecosystem
growth. Mangrove species are classified as 'front','mid', or 'back' mangroves
depending on their ability to tolerate salinity. Mangroves have evolved special
adaptations to help them survive and thrive in a harsh environment. Their
strategic intertidal location, on the other hand, provides habitat for a wide
range of plant and animal species, making the mangrove ecosystem extremely
50
productive. The mangrove environment is found in 112 tropical and sub-
tropical countries, and it requires a temperature of at least 24°C to survive.
Sundarbans is the world's biggest mangrove forest, spanning portions of
India and Bangladesh. Mangroves may be found in all of India's coastal states
and islands. Mangroves cover roughly 304 square kilometres of coastline in
Maharashtra, covering 52 creeks and the beach. Mangroves are ecologically
important because they provide home for a wide variety of land and marine
creatures. Because mangroves are at the intersection of terrestrial and marine
habitats, they have a greater diversity of organisms. Mangroves have a high
salt tolerance, hence some species that require this environment thrive there.
To cope with salt water immersion, mangroves have a "complex salt filtering
system" and a "complicated root system." They've also evolved to cope with the
low oxygen levels seen in damp mud. To filter saline water through their roots,
they need a lot of sunlight. As a result, mangroves can only be found in tropical
and subtropical coastal seas. There are around 80 different species of mangrove
trees discovered. Mangrove trees have a vital function in shoreline stabilisation
and reinforcement. In this way, they safeguard these coastlands from erosion
caused by the frequent activity of waves and tides. They operate as a protective
barrier against storms. This power of mangrove forests has saved precious
property and many lives from destruction all across the world. Mangrove plants
have a number of adaptations that enable them to thrive in tough conditions.
Mangroves are vital to the coastal environments in which they live. They act
as a physical barrier between marine and terrestrial communities. They shield
beaches from storms, waves, and flooding.

3.8 OPEN OCEANS

The Ocean is biotic ecosystems that exists in the ocean and helps marine life
thrive. The ocean is separated into three strata. The photic zone is the ocean
layer through which sunlight can pass, allowing photosynthesis to take place.
The aphotic zone is located underneath the photic zone, where photosynthesis
is not possible. The muddy bottom of the ocean is referred to as the benthic
zone, just as it is in lakes. The ocean biome is home to a diverse range of aquatic
species, from whales to little fish. It's also a place where experience breeds
and thrives in the water, with full support from the surrounding community. It
has several zones where marine life develops, grows, and thrives. The Pacific,
Atlantic, Arctic, Indian, and Southern Oceans are the five oceans that make up
the Marine Biome. The Ocean Biome is colder at the poles for natural causes,
but it becomes warmer near the Equator when the sun shines directly on the sea,
raising the temperature. Any change in climatic circumstances has a significant
impact on marine life. Waves and currents cause typhoons and hurricanes,
which have a major impact on marine organisms and ecosystems. The annual
precipitation averages over 100 inches. Because the raindrops are large and
the Biome is made up of water, most of the world's rain falls on the ocean.
Some animals have evolved to cope with the unpredictable nature of seasonal
calamities. When calamity occurs or is expected to happen in the near future,
they want to migrate to safer regions. Seagrasses, algae, and seaweeds are the
most common plants found in the Ocean Biome. Seaweeds are mature plants
and algae, which are the purest form in the tiny dimension. Aquatic plants,
primarily seagrasses and macroalgae, provide food and shelter to a variety of
51
creatures. The Marine Biome is home to a variety of water species that feed on
the Biome's flora and small animals. Animals can find refuge in the vegetation.
Crustaceans, whales, sea anemones, mollusks, microbes, and fungi are some of
the animals that live in the Biome.
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISE 4
Note a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1 Write True or False in front of the statements given below.
a) A mire is a wetland that is devoid of trees and is dominated by pet-
forming plants.
b) Tides do not have a significant impact on coastal ecosystems.
c) Mangroves are ecologically important because they provide home for
a wide variety of land and marine creatures.
d) The photic zone is the ocean layer through which sunlight can pass,
allowing photosynthesis to take place.
e) The mangrove environment is found in 212 tropical and sub-tropical
countries, and it requires a temperature of at least 54 ° C to survive.

3.9 ARID AND SEMI-ARID LAND

Arid regions are defined by their lack of precipitation, which is often less
than 10 inches (25 cm) per year. Rainfall in semi-arid areas ranges from 10 to
20 inches (25 to 50 cm) per year. Despite the fact that the rocks and tectonic
elements that underpin dry regions are similar to those found elsewhere, the
landscape is distinct. Erosion is the most important force in altering the ground
surface because there is minimal vegetation and often loose surface material.
Erosions are common in these areas, and water is a major cause of erosion in
arid areas. Streams may only be active during and immediately after a heavy
rain, but flowing water during a flash flood can transport massive volumes
of material. Badland, pediments, bajadas, and playas are arid and semi-arid
landforms formed by the mechanical disintegration of rocks and the action
of water. Arid zones and scorching deserts cover roughly 1/3 of the world's
geographical surface. Arid and semi-arid biomes cover over 41% of the world's
land area and provide critical ecosystem services (such as food, fibre, biofuel,
and biodiversity) to a rapidly rising global population.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISE 5

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.
b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Compare the blank spaces in the following statements with appropriate
words.
Arid zones and scorching..............cover roughly....of the world’s
geographical surface. Arid and semi-arid biomes cover over......of the
world’s land area and provide critical ecosystem services such as..........
52 ............... ................and biodiversity to a rapidly rising global population.
3.10 ARCTIC AND ALPINE ECOSYSTEMS
The low lying treeless plains of the tundra, which range from moist meadows
to dry fields, cover large portions of the Arctic in North America and northern
Asia. Of course, alpine locations are non-contagious and subject to a range of
regional climate constraints. Despite this, there are many similarities between
the arctic and alpine environments. The treeless character of both tundra
settings is often attributed to cool summers, and the mean annual temperature
provides an indication of the existence of permafrost throughout the arctic and
is increasingly recognised in alpine ecosystems as well. The arctic receives
essentially little sun radiation for up to six months of the year, but the alpine
receives regular diurnal and seasonal regimes appropriate to their latitudes.
Although the arctic is not particularly windy, the alpines have maximum and
high mean wind speeds. Temperature appears to be the key limiting factor in
arctic and alpine ecosystem productivity, with net output in the same range as
in deserts.

3.11 AGRO-ECOSYSTEMS
The interacting elements of environmental and biological characteristics
of a farm and the surrounding area are described as agroecosystems. An
agroecosystem is defined as a region that is touched by agricultural activity,
such as changes in the complexity of species assemblages and energy flows, as
well as the net nutrient balance, and is not limited to the immediate location of
agricultural activity (e.g. the farm). Agroecosystems are complex and difficult
to maintain, and as a result, they are frequently the most disturbed of the
planet's ecosystems. In comparison to a natural environment like a forest, an
agroecosystem has a lower diversity of animal and plant species. Only one
to four major crop species and six to ten major pest species are found in a
typical agroecosystem. Both intentional and spontaneous diversity characterise
agroecosystems. Planned diversity refers to the spatial and temporal
arrangement of domesticated plants and animals that farmers intentionally put
in the system, as well as the addition of beneficial organisms. Weedy plants,
herbivores, predators, bacteria, and other creatures that survive after the system
has been converted to agriculture or colonise it from the surrounding landscape
are examples of unplanned variety. Both types of diversity have a significant
impact on agroecosystem production, stability, pest control, soil processes, and
organism mobility between agriculture and natural habitats in the agricultural
landscape. An agroecosystem is heavily managed by humans and subjected to
abrupt changes such as ploughing, intercultivation, and pesticide treatment.
These strategies are crucial in pest management because they have a significant
impact on pest populations. Due to a lack of diversity in plant and insect species,
as well as rapid weather and human-induced changes, agroecosystems can be
more vulnerable to pest damage and catastrophic outbreaks. An agroecosystem,
on the other hand, is a complex of food chains and food webs that combine to
form a stable unit.

3.12 PLANTATION FORESTS

Plantation forests span roughly 140 million hectares in the world, accounting 53
for around 7% of total forest cover. In terms of delivering a sustainable volume
of timber and fibre, cultivated forests are usually more productive than natural
forests. Around 40% of industrial wood is produced on plantations. Both the
area of plantations and their contribution to global wood output are expected to
grow in the near future.

CHECK YOUR PROGRESS EXERCISE 6

Note: a) Use the space below for your answer.

b) Compare your answer with those given at the end of the unit.
1. Write a short note on the following ecosystems:
a) Agroecosystem

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
b) Arctic and alpine ecosystems

......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................
......................................................................................................................

3.13 LET US SUM UP

An ecosystem is a geographical area in which plants, animals, and other
species, as well as weather and topography, work together to create a bubble
of life.Ecosystems might be large, with hundreds of different creatures and
plants coexisting in perfect harmony, or they can be small.Due to the difference
in topography, geography, climate and species composition, several major
ecosystems prevail on earth. Major ecosystems are;

Tropical forests are found between the Cancer and Capricorn lines, which are
both 23.5 degrees north and south of the equator.These forests are classified
into two types: evergreen and deciduous.Tropical Evergreen or tropical rain
forests are found near the equator, are hot and humid throughout the year, get
up to 2000 mm of rain per year, and have a uniformly high relative humidity.
Tropical deciduous forests are the other type of tropical forest. Southeast Asia,
Sri Lanka, the Malaysian Peninsula, the Indonesian Archipelago, Borneo,
Sarawak, and Papua New Guinea, as well as the Pacific Islands, are home to
tropical rainforests.

A temperate forest is one that is situated in the temperate zone, halfway

between the tropical and boreal zones. It is the world's second largest biome,
containing 25% of the planet's forest area.Temperate woods receive a lot of
rain, typically between 20 and 60 inches each year. Rain and snow are the two
54
types of precipitation.Temperate forests are able to host a diverse range of plant
life and flora due to ample rainfall and rich soil humus.Deciduous, coniferous,
and Broad-leaved Evergreen forests are the three types of temperate forests.

Boreal forests receive less rain than other forests and are home to evergreen
trees that remain green throughout the year.This type of forest covers roughly
20% of the world's total forest area. Plant richness is significantly lower than
in temperate forests, with a few number of coniferous species dominating the
tree population.

Grassland is a type of environment dominated by grasses and other herbaceous

blooming plants, with a few trees and bushes thrown in for good measure.
Grasslands are found in locations where there isn't enough consistent rainfall to
support forest growth, but not less to constitute a desert.

Rivers, streams, springs, oases, seasonal streams, ponds, and lakes are examples
of fresh running waterways. Marshes are one of the four basic forms of inland
wetlands.A forested wetland is known as a swamp. Swamps are known for their
slow-moving or stagnant waters. They are frequently linked to nearby rivers or
lakes. Swamp water can be freshwater, brackish water, or seawater. A mire is
a wetland that is devoid of trees and is dominated by peat-forming plants and
may be a bog or a fen.

Coastal ecosystems are one of the world's ecosystems.Coastal ecosystems are

defined as a unit of both biotic and abiotic components that are found along
the coast, interact with one another, and impact one another while forming
an energy flow. The interplay between these components creates a biotic
framework as well as the material cycle, in addition to generating energy.Algae,
mangroves, marine anemones, shrimp, crabs, fish, and other coastal plants and
animals are examples of biotic components found in coastal habitats. Sand,
land, temperature, air, humidity, rocks, and sunlight are some of the abiotic
components that the coastal environment possesses.Mangroves are 'halophyte'
plants, meaning they can survive in a salty environment. Temperature, salinity,
dissolved oxygen, tide, and wind speed all have a part in mangrove ecosystem
growth.Mangroves have evolved special adaptations to help them survive
and thrive in a harsh environment.Mangroves have a high salt tolerance,
hence some species that require this environment thrive there. To cope with
salt water immersion, mangroves have a "complex salt filtering system" and a
"complicated root system."

The Ocean is biotic ecosystems that exists in the ocean and helps marine life
thrive.The ocean biome is home to a diverse range of aquatic species, from
whales to little fish. Any change in climatic circumstances has a significant
impact on marine life. Waves and currents cause typhoons and hurricanes,
which have a major impact on marine organisms and ecosystems. The annual
precipitation averages over 100 inches.Seagrasses, algae, and seaweeds are the
most common plants found in the Ocean Biome.

Arid regions are defined by their lack of precipitation, which is often less than 10
inches (25 cm) per year. Rainfall in semi-arid areas ranges from 10 to 20 inches
(25 to 50 cm) per year.Erosion is the most important force in altering the ground
55
surface because there is minimal vegetation and often loose surface material.
Arid and semi-arid biomes cover over 41% of the world's land area and provide
critical ecosystem services (such as food, fibre, biofuel, and biodiversity) to a
rapidly rising global population.

The low lying treeless plains of the tundra, which range from moist meadows
to dry fields, cover large portions of the Arctic in North America and northern
Asia. Of course, alpine locations are non-contagious and subject to a range of
regional climate constraints.Temperature appears to be the key limiting factor
in arctic and alpine ecosystem productivity, with net output in the same range
as in deserts.

The interacting elements of environmental and biological characteristics of a

farm and the surrounding area are described as agroecosystems.Agroecosystems
are complex and difficult to maintain, and as a result, they are frequently the most
disturbed of the planet's ecosystems. In comparison to a natural environment
like a forest, an agroecosystem has a lower diversity of animal and plant species.
Only one to four major crop species and six to ten major pest species are found
in a typical agroecosystem.

Plantation forests span roughly 140 million hectares in the world, accounting
for around 7% of total forest cover.Around 40% of industrial wood is produced
on plantations. Both the area of plantations and their contribution to global
wood output are expected to grow in the near future.

3.14 KEYWORDS
Ecosystem: An ecosystem is a geographical area in which plants, animals, and
other species, as well as weather and topography, work together to create a
bubble of life.

Anthropogenic Grasslands: Grasslands that have been developed and

sustained by human activity.

Savannah: Another name for tropical grasslands.

Chernozems:A fertile black soil rich in humus.

Mire: A wetland that is devoid of trees and is dominated by peat-forming plants.

Bog: A bog is a peat-accumulating marsh.

Fen: A wetland that receives water from both groundwater and precipitation.

Littoral: Near the sea shore

Halophyte: Plant that can tolerate salty environments.

Photic zone: Ocean layer through which sunlight can pass, allowing
photosynthesis to take place

Aphotic zone: located underneath the photic zone, where photosynthesis is not
56 possible.
3.15 TERMINAL QUESTIONS
a) What is an Ecosystem?
b) Differentiate between Tropical Evergreen and Tropical Deciduous forests?
c) What are Natural and Anthropogenic grasslands?
d) What are Halophytes?
e) What is a Mire?

3.16 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
Check Your Progress Exercise 1

1) D

Check Your Progress Exercise 2

1. A) Temperate and boreal
B) 20;60
C) Boreal ecosystems
Check Your Progress Exercise 3
Column A Column B
Australia Down
Mexico Pampas
Asia Steppes
Brazil Campos
South Africa Veldt

Check Your Progress Exercise 4

1. A) True
B) False
C) True
D) True
E) False
Check Your Progress Exercise 5
1. Deserts; 1/3; 41%; food, fibre, biofuel

Check Your Progress Exercise 6

1. a) An agroecosystem is defined as a region that is touched by agricultural
activity, such as changes in the complexity of species assemblages and
energy flows, as well as the net nutrient balance, and is not limited to the
immediate location of agricultural activity.
57
b) The arctic receives essentially little sun radiation for up to six months
of the year, but the alpine receives regular diurnal and seasonal regimes
appropriate to their latitudes.

3.17 ANSWERS TO TERMINAL QUESTIONS

a) An ecosystem is a geographical area in which plants, animals, and other
species, as well as climate and topography, work together to create a bubble
of life.
b) Anthropogenic Grasslands are grasslands that have been developed and
sustained by human activity. Natural Grasslands are those that form
naturally.
c) Salt tolerating plants are known as Halophytes.
d) Mire is a wetland that is devoid of trees and is dominated by peat-forming
plants and may be a bog or a fen.

3.18 SOME USEFUL BOOKS

• Sharma, P.D. 2018. Ecology and Environment, Rastogi Publications.
• Odum, E. 2005 (Edition). Fundamentals of Ecology, Cengage Learning
India
• Rana, S.V.S. 2013. Essentials OF Ecology and Environmental Science,
Fifth Edition 5th Edition.

58
UNIT 4 INVENTORY AND MOITORING
OF BIODIVERSITY
Structure
4.0 Introduction
4.1 Objectives
4.2 Biodiversity Estimation
4.2.1 Estimation of Species diversity
4.2.1.1 Why estimating relative abundance of species is
important
4.2.1.2 Species richness and species diversity
4.2.2 Estimation of ecosystem diversity
4.2.3 Estimation of genetic diversity

4.3 Population estimation and analysis

4.3.1 The major ways of collecting data to estimate a population
4.3.1.1 Collection of distribution and occurrence data
4.3.1.2 Population estimation to regularly monitor species under
conservation threat (collection of fitness data)

4.3.2 Methods to collect population data

4.3.2.1 Quadrat sampling
4.3.2.2 Point count
4.3.2.3 Line Transect
4.3.2.4 Visual encounter survey
4.3.2.5 Capture-mark-recapture
4.3.2.6 Genetic analysis

4.3.3 Analyses of population data

4.3.3.1 Species occurrence and distribution
4.3.3.2 Species abundance

4.4 Species diversity & its measurements

4.4.1 Measuring species richness
4.4.2 Measuring species diversity
4.5 Local regional, national and global biodiversity estimates
4.5.1 International biodiversity monitoring
4.5.2
4.5.3
4.6 Periodic monitoring 59
4.6.1
4.6.2
4.7 Inventory database management etc.
4.7.1 Approaches to inventory
4.7.1.1 All Biota Taxonomic Inventory (ABTI)
4.7.1.2 Database Management
4.7.1.3 Geographic Information System (GIS) and Image processing
4.7.2 Statistical analyses

4.8 Let Us Sum Up

4.9 Key words
4.10 References and Suggested Further Readings
4.11 Answers to Check Your Progress

4.0 INTRODUCTION
Biological Diversity and why it needs conservation and management
The term Biodiversity was first used by the renowned scientist and naturalist Dr.
E O Wilson in 1988 though the concept was already in use during the 19th century.
The United Nations Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit (1992) defined biodiversity as
“The variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia,
terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes
of which they are part; this includes diversity within species, between species
and of ecosystems (CBD Art. 2).

Significance of biodiversity

Human beings, who are part of biodiversity, are completely dependent on the
other organisms, which cohabit the planet earth. The basic requirement to
survive, i.e., food, comes either directly from plants or is derived from other
photosynthetic organisms or livestock which need a plant based feed. In everyday
human life, there are many other essential requirements, which are derived
from the biodiversity around us. There are numerous other ecological services
like climate regulation, water cycle, prevention from natural calamities, etc.;
also economic, cultural and aesthetic values are derived from the biodiversity.
The interdependence and mutual benefit associated with every component of
biodiversity make it essential to conserve biological diversity. This can be
achieved by constant monitoring, scientific documentation, analyzing and
conserving biodiversity in a sustainable way.

4.1 OBJECTIVE
After studying this unit you will be able to:
• Describe estimation of Species diversity, genetic diversity and
ecosystem diversity;

60 • List major ways of collecting data to estimate a population.

4.2 BIODIVERSITY ESTIMATION
The commonest way of estimating biodiversity is often at the species level.
Many higher levels (eg. genus, family, order) are also considered when it is
not possible to identify specimens at the species level. Phylogenetics, or the
evolutionary relationship among many life forms starting from gene, is also
considered especially to estimate biodiversity in Paleontology. Phylogenetics is
being increasingly popular in biodiversity estimation because:
i) one does not need to collect an entire specimen for identification
purpose; a small sample to get the genetic information is sufficient,
ii) sample can be collected from far/scat/feather/skin which is helpful to
sample elusive species otherwise hard to detect,
iii) since identification is done at genetic level, it is often more confirmatory
and also effective to distinguish between morphologically similar
species.

Phylogenetic diversity measure (PD) is expressed as a phylogenetic tree

where the branches represent different species and the sum of length for all
the branches is the length that connects all the taxa on the tree. Many recent
biodiversity monitoring programs on macrofauna (i.e., bird, reptile, amphibian
etc.) and flora (big tree, shrub, herb) rely on PD. However PD has been most
useful to monitor the diversity of microbes.

4.2.1 Estimation of species diversity:

4.2.1.1 Why estimating relative abundance of species is important: Species
is the basis of any natural community. However, not all the species are equally
distributed in a community of any sampling unit. Typically any sampling will
have majority of the common species with few rare ones. Hence it is important
to estimate the population based on the relative abundance of the available
species. Relative abundance of species in a community, may vary based on
other factors like the time of sampling, season, efficiency of the sampler and
sampling method, etc.. There is also bias associated with under or over sampling.
To avoid all these estimation errors, many corrective measures/applications
have been developed. One such method is to plot the relative abundance data
(ranked) against number of individuals recorded. Usually a rank-abundance
plot shows a declining pattern indicating the “long tail of rarer species”.

Species which are habitat-specific, are having restricted geographic range

and low population density, are considered as the most vulnerable. Usually
estimating these rare species gets more attention since they are more vulnerable
to any conservation threat (eg. habitat fragmentation, climate change, hunting
etc.). However the diversity of the so-called common species also need to be
estimated since a sudden calamity can make them vulnerable.

4.2.1.2 Species richness and species diversity: While monitoring biodiversity,

estimation of the number of species or the species richness of an area, is crucial.
However, there are chances of missing a particular species even when it is
present in the sampling area and thus there are chances of not recording the exact
61
number of species present. For this reason species richness is usually estimated
based on samples. With the increasing sampling efforts the chances of recording
common species declines. To avoid this sampling bias, a plot is made with the
number of species and the number of samples. It is often referred as collector’s
curve or ‘species accumulation curve’ that indicates when the sampling has to
be stopped. The accumulation curve shows the increased number of species
those are commonly found in an area. This particular pattern is because of the α
diversity or the local diversity of that habitat or community. The gradual decline
in the curve is because of the reduction in the commonly found species. The
curve again gets a steep increase if the sampling continues and species diversity
in a different habitat is estimated. The diversity between these two different
habitats is often referred by β diversity and the total richness of both the habitats
combined is known as γ diversity or regional diversity. A smoothed version
of an accumulation curve is known as rarefaction curve. Rarefaction curves are
specifically useful when species richness is estimated among communities and
the sampling effort may not be equal to monitor all the communities.
While estimating species diversity, both species richness and species evenness
(how evenly species occur among sampling areas) are considered. The
commonly used diversity estimators are Shannon diversity, Simpson diversity
and Fisher’s α. However, which among these measures can be used to estimate
biodiversity depends on the research/management question.
4.2.2 Estimation of ecosystem diversity:
Ecosystem diversity is the diversity of ecosystems in a given area. A region
with different types of habitats has the probability of having more numbers and
diversities of species. India supports a diverse range of ecosystems because of
different climatic and topographic conditions. The ecosystems can be grossly
classified as forests, grasslands, wetlands, riparian, coastal, agrarian, desert
and marine. Ecosystem diversity is estimated with the help of Geographical
Information System. Satellite imagery, aerial photography data collected
through remote sensing technology are fundamentals of understanding the
diversity of ecosystems in an area.
4.2.3 Estimation of genetic diversity:
The process of genetic fingerprinting directly measures genetic diversity.
Morphology of genetically diverse organisms usually varies from each other
and thus gives an indirect measure of genetic diversity (e.g. the different
varieties of rice paddy Oryza sativa). Lack of genetic diversity within a
population can make it vulnerable. The Cheetah populations in many parts of
Asia became extinct because of less variability in the gene pool. The opposite
is also observed. Human activity of artificial selection has increased genetic
diversity in domestic crops and livestock.

4.3 POPULATION ESTIMATION AND

ANALYSIS
4.3.1 The major ways of collecting data to estimate a population.
4.3.1.1 Collection of distribution and occurrence data: While estimating
62
the populations of elusive or threatened species, it is important to document
whether the species is at least present in the survey area. So species occurrence
data is preferred rather than the exact number of specimens. The probability
of occurrence of the target population can be calculated from the presence-
absence data, which also helps to estimate the relative abundance of a species.
Occurrence data is also very helpful to assess distribution of a species in an area
over the years.

4.3.1.1Collection of abundance and density data: Estimation of the population

size by counting the individuals in a particular unit, and thus collecting the
relative abundance and density data, is important because in long term that
helps to identify the population size and its relation with the associated habitat.
Thus it also helps to understand the changes in the habitat. Data is collected by
sampling specific units in a target area. Sampling methods vary according to the
habitat and the focal population.

4.3.1.2 Population estimation to regularly monitor species under

conservation threat (collection of fitness data): Species, which are rare or
critically endangered, need to be monitored at each life stage (juvenile, sub-
adult, adult, reproductive) on a regular basis. Also data are collected on the
fecundity and mortality rates. This helps to understand the exact reason behind
any changes in the population. Such monitoring is also useful to remove a
species from the threatened category if the population shows stable increase. As
an example, to monitor the population of a threatened bird species, data need
to be collected on the number of male and female birds, density of nests in an
area, clutch size or number of eggs, rate of survival at hatchling, fledgling and
reproductive stages.

4.3.2 Methods to collect population data:

The methods to collect data on population attributes greatly vary among

different taxa. Sometimes more than one sampling methods are required to
sample a population in a particular area. The methods also vary according to
biogeographic and climatic properties of the study site, research question etc.
Few commonly used methods to sample populations, are discussed here.

4.3.2.1 Quadrat sampling: Sampling plots with identical measurements are

laid in the study area in a random or systematic manner. The target species
is searched on foot or from any vehicle within these plots. Quadrats can be
of various shapes. Most common are square or rectangular. Circular quadrats
are also useful since they have minimum bias related to the ‘edge effect’ i.e.,
whether a specimen is inside or outside a quadrat. The optimum number of
quadrats necessary to sample a population is decided based on the rarefaction
curve, which reaches a plateau if enough samplings are done. Quadrat sampling
is widely used to sample vegetation. It is ineffective to sample animals which
are highly mobile or vibration sensitive.

4.3.2.2 Point count: In this method the observer stands at a specific point and
counts the specimens within the circle of a certain radius. Usually the radius
is determined based on the maximum distance, which can be sampled by the
observer. While conducting many point count samplings in an area, the radius
63
for all should be the same to compare the data. Point count is widely used to
sample bird populations. The numbers of birds seen or heard within a circle are
recorded in this method.

4.3.2.3 Line transect: In this method the observer searches for the focal
organisms along straight lines or transect lines either selected randomly or laid
in a systematic manner for repeated surveys. For the observations which are not
on the transect line, the perpendicular distance is measured. Line transect method
is useful in calculating population density when it follows the assumptions that
a) No specimen on the transect line is missed, b) specimens do not move before
they are sighted; in case of movement, the first detection is considered; utmost
care is taken to avoid replicative observation, c) the sighting angle and the
exact distance of any sighting away from the transect line, is calculated, d)
each sighting is independent. In case of animals, which are hard to detect, signs
like fecal matter, movement tracks, scratch marks are considered. Other signs
include nests or burrows. Burrow openings have been used to sample rodent
populations in India. Line transect method is widely used in sampling bird and
mammal populations.

4.3.2.4 Visual encounter survey: Visual Encounter Survey (VES) is a time-

bound sampling technique to systematically search for the target species in an
area or habitat for a prescribed time period. Reasonable number of organisms
can be found while searching selectively in specific microhabitats. There are
differences of opinion among domain experts on how VES may be effectively
conducted. The major shortcomings of this approach are under-sampling due to
unfamiliarity with the behavior and habitat preference of the target population.
However, the advantage of ‘yielding more animals and species per effort than
randomized sampling approaches’, makes it an effective method for sampling
elusive taxa (Vonesh et al., 2009). VES is useful for sampling terrestrial
amphibians and reptiles.

4.3.2.5 Capture-mark-recapture: Capture-mark-recapture (CMR)is the most

authentic way to measure population size and growth rate of individuals. In this
method specimens are captured from a natural population, marked, and released
in the place of capture. If the process is followed subsequently, quantitative data
on the life history attributes of a population can be obtained. Also, in case of
recapture, information on site fidelity, age and growth rate can be recorded.
Different methods like usage of pitfall trap, drift fence, mist net, etc. are used
to capture animals. Waterproof paint, scale clipping, banding, neck collar etc.
are the non-invasive ways of marking an animal while the invasive methods
include insertion of Passive Integrated Transponders (PIT), wing tags, ear tags
etc. In many cases natural marks found in animals like leopards, tigers are
considered as the basis of a CMR study since these marks are unique for each
individual. There are many considerations in any CMR study among which
the most important are a) necessary capture permit obtained from the authority
(usually the state/central wildlife office) since most of the wild species in India
are protected under the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 which prohibits catching
them, b) the marking method does not cause pain or disturb the individual’s
health, movement or behavior. CMR is widely used to monitor fish, amphibians,
reptiles, birds and mammals.
64
4.3.2.6 Genetic analysis: Tissue samples are collected from scats, hair, shed
skins, blood sample, fin clips or any other body parts of animals, which are
hard to detect or cannot be captured for longer time for the marking process.
These samples are properly preserved in a medium like 70% ethanol and later
analyzed for DNA. Genetic analyses are becoming increasingly popular in
population estimation due to fewer hazards and more authenticity.

4.3.3 Analyses of population data:

4.3.3.1 Species occurrence and distribution: The probability of detecting an

individual may vary among study areas, climatic conditions, observer skill etc.
The increasingly popular statistical method to solve this problem is Occupancy
Modeling, which can be used by the statistical software like PRESENCE (https://
www.mbr-pwrc.usgs.gov/software/presence.html). Analyzing occurrence
data, without intensive data collection, can provide important information on
distribution of the target population.

4.3.3.2 Species abundance: Absolute number of individuals recorded through

a sampling helps to obtain data on relative abundance or density of a population
in an area. Various parametric tests like t-test, chi-square, Analysis of Variance
(ANOVA) etc. are done when the data is i) normally distributed and ii) variance is
homogeneous. Non-parametric tests like Mann-Whitney U test, Kruskal-Wallis
H test, etc. are done when the data violates these assumptions. Generalized
Linear Models are used when the distribution is not correctly known. The
commonly used software, are PAST (https://folk.uio.no/ohammer/past/), R
(https://www.r-project.org/), SPSS (https://www.ibm.com/in-en/analytics/spss-
statistics-software) etc.

It is suggested that the statistical analyses are planned ahead of collecting data
and analyses are performed with mock data, to have a better idea. Usually
in any analysis there are two types of variables- a) independent or predictor
variables and b) dependent or outcome variables. It is important to check
that the chosen variables are not correlated. Depending on the nature of these
variables (numerical, categorical or ordinal) especially the dependent variable,
simple statistical tests can be decided. A test hypothesis about the population is
made in the beginning of any analysis, which can be rejected if test results are
significant. This is known as Null hypothesis. The confidence level of accepting
or rejecting a null hypothesis is usually expressed as ‘α’ which denotes the
probability of Type I error (reject a null hypothesis when it is true). The level
of α is mostly set at 0.05 i.e., one can be 95% confident (1- 0.05=0.95) not to
make a Type I error.

4.4 SPECIES DIVERSITY & ITS

MEASUREMENTS
Two major aspects are kept in mind while measuring species diversity in an
area - i) species richness or the number of species and ii) relative abundance/
density/evenness – measures to know how the species are distributed. The
data collected from a population represents a ‘sample’ of the entire population.
Statistical models and indices have been developed to analyze the sample data
and estimate the health of the target population. There are several software 65
and program like EcoSim (http://www.garyentsminger.com/ecosim/index.
htm), EstimateS (http://viceroy.eeb.uconn.edu/estimates/) to analyze species
diversity data.

4.4.1 Measuring species richness: Since it is impossible to ensure all

the samples under an inventory are equal and there is a probable chance of
increasing number of species with more sampling effort, an application called
Rarefaction curve (Sanders 1968) was invented. Rarefaction curve is created
after repeated re-samplings of individuals in a random manner and the number
of the species is expressed here as the total number of samples or individuals
(Colwell et al. 2004). The Rarefaction curve is a plot with the number of
samples and the cumulative number of species. The graph raises along with the
increasing number of species collected but after a while it reaches a plateau,
indicating the presence of common species and no further need of sampling.
This way, plotting a rarefaction curve while documenting species diversity, is
crucial.

There are various richness estimators like Chao 1 and 2, Jackknife (1st and 2nd
order), ACE (Abundance based Coverage Estimator) that help in estimating
the number of species present in a population. Few richness estimators are
explained below.

a) Chao-1 (Chao, 1984) is

where, number of species observed (Sobs) is calculated from the number of

singletons (a, species with record of a single individual) and doubletons (b,
species with record of two individuals)

b) ACE-1 (Chao and Lee 1992) or the bias corrected form of ACE (Abundance-
based Coverage Estimator) is

When,

fi = number of classes that have exactly i elements in the sample

c) 1st order Jackknife (Zahl 1977) is

2nd order Jackknife (Heltshe and Forrester 1983) is

66
Where, f = number of clusters where the samplings are made, f1 = number of
clusters with j one-cluster species, S1 = number of one-cluster species, S2 =
number of two-cluster species

4.4.2 Measuring species diversity: Relative abundance can be defined as

the quantitative information indicating how rare or common are species in
an observed sample. Homogeneity of abundances indicates how evenly the
species are distributed. Dominance indices are used to know if any species is
predominantly present in one particular area. This is often useful to document
the distribution of exotic species. Diversity indices are estimators, which
combine species richness and evenness. Commonly used diversity estimators
are Shannon’s diversity index, Simpson’s diversity index, Fisher’s α diversity
index, etc.

If species i is the proportion pi of the total individuals in a community of S

species,
a) Shannon diversity (Shannon 1948) is

b) Simpson diversity (Simpson 1949) is

c) Fisher’s α (Fisher et al., 1943, Magurran 1988) derived from a log-series

distribution, , is a general model for
relative abundance where the sequence of expressions are the number of species
with 1, 2, 3, ….n individuals and α is the index of the diversity of species.

Often data on presence or absence of a species gives useful information on

species diversity and helps to understand how it is distributed among various
sampling units. Many similarity coefficients help in this regard. One example
is Morisita index, which is expressed as C_qN where N communities are
compared depending on the species information that is shared by a maximum
of q communities (Chao et al. 2008).

4.5 LOCAL REGIONAL, NATIONAL AND

GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY ESTIMATES
4.5.1 International biodiversity monitoring

The Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) was in effect since December

1993. Currently it is the sole authority of all the contracting parties who are
obliged to develop their own National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plans
(NBSAPs) to monitor local and regional biodiversity. The CBD 2011-2020
includes 20 Aichi Biodiversity Targets, which can be fulfilled with the help
of specific indicators. There are different kinds of indicators but usually the 67
SMART criteria are fundamental in selecting the good ones. These are –

1) Sensitive and specific to quickly detect fine changes in the environmental

conditions,

2) Measurable in terms of quantitative results,

3) Achievable considering the available resources and cost-effectiveness in

implication

4) Relevant to NBSAP objectives and several other authorized policies, and

5) Time-bound i.e., obtain results within a specific time period.

4.5.2 Biodiversity monitoring programs are usually decided internationally

and the implementation of those takes place in national levels. The NBSAPs
adopted by India can be summarized in the following points.

By 2020,
• Most part of the country especially the younger generation is aware of
the importance of biodiversity and necessary measures to conserve it
in sustainable way
• Biodiversity conservation becomes integrated with the policies
involving state and national planning processes and poverty alleviation
• Habitat fragmentation, degradation and loss should be taken care of in
terms of human and environmental well being
• Identify and manage the propagation of invasive alien species
• Sustainable methods are adopted in forestry, agriculture and fisheries
departments
• Effective conservation measures are taken for the terrestrial and
marine ecosystems especially those are important for species and
ecosystem services, following the management protocol to preserve
protected areas and areas of other importance and integrate them into
the landscape and seascape covering over 20% of the geographical
area of the country
• The genetic diversity of livestock and cash crops, are maintained and
strategies undertaken to prevent the genetic erosion
• Ecosystem services, especially those linked to human well-beings,
livelihood and resources, are preserved and the needs of the poorer
and more vulnerable section of the society are prioritized
• An updated and participatory national biodiversity action plan is part
of different levels of the governing bodies
• Follow the CBD obligations and preserve traditional knowledge of
communities, strengthen PBR
• Utilization of the available resources to effectively implement all the
strategic action plans for biodiversity conservation and adopt plans for
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resource mobilization
• By 2015, the access to genetic resources are assured and the benefits
of using them, are shared in a fair and equitable way as per the Nagoya
Protocol. These are included in the national legislations.

4.5.3 To implement all these action plans, biodiversity monitoring is regularly

done in regional, state and local levels. Various stakeholders, starting from
ministries, national and state biodiversity boards, forest departments and
village eco development committees, supervise the activities. Legal measures
like acts, rules and notifications issued by the government of India, are crucial
to protect India’s biodiversity. Any biodiversity monitoring in the country must
abide by these legal frameworks. Few major legislations are the Indian Forest
Act (1927), the Indian Patents Act (1970) and amendment (2005), the Wildlife
(Protection)Act(1972), the Biological Diversity Act(2002), the Scheduled
Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers Rights to Forest Act(2006), the
National Green Tribunal Act(2010).

The Biological Diversity Act, 2002: After India became the signatory at the
CBD, the Biological Diversity Act, 2002 was enacted ‘for the conservation of
biological diversity, sustainable use of its components and fair and equitable
sharing of the benefits arising out of the use of biological resources’. In 2004
the notifications for the Biodiversity Rules came in effect. The Act had the
provision to work at the national, state and local levels. The State Biodiversity
Board and the National Biodiversity Authority or NBA (established in 2003 at
Chennai) were formed to monitor the activities under this act. Strict regulations
were made to control the transfer of not only the biological resources but also
traditional knowledge, for research, commercial use or any other purpose.
The NBA is entitled to monitor these activities, give approvals after thorough
scrutiny, and if needed take suitable actions at the national level and also at
the international level on the basis of intellectual property rights. Biodiversity
Management Committees (BMC) were formed at the local levels (Panchayat).
BMCs were responsible authorities to regularly document and preserve
biological diversity, maintain People’s Biodiversity Register (PBR) to record
the traditional knowledge of local people in biodiversity conservation, and
oblige to the regulations of the higher authorities.

4.6 PERIODIC MONITORING

Periodic biodiversity monitoring is often used to evaluate changes in the
circumstances while observing the biodiversity for research or management.
To meet this purpose, similar data are collected over time, at times over many
consecutive years and these repeated observations are critically analyzed to
address research questions or to evaluate efficacy of management programs.
Such systematic monitoring is crucial, not only for updated biodiversity
documentation, but also to forecast trends and understand how various factors
including human interferences, interact with the local biodiversity. Biodiversity
monitoring schemes are often made at international levels but the local or
national bodies, governmental and non-governmental, are usually the key
stakeholders to implement those.
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Study design in periodic biodiversity monitoring
i) Stakeholder involvement: It is important to involve different stakeholders
to repetitively monitor biodiversity of an area over a time period. Few
major stakeholders involved in such monitoring are discussed here.
a) Participatory biodiversity monitoring involving local people, has
long been a practice among many concerned authorities. This has
many benefits including the immense traditional knowledge of the
indigenous communities; livelihood options for the local people
and thus reduction in any exploitation of the biodiversity; additional
protection to the local biodiversity; and monitoring in a sustainable
and cost-effective way.
b) Citizen science or participation of general public in the ongoing
research is becoming increasingly popular. This involves easy ways
of data collection and deposition, mostly aided by many web-based
applications like ‘ebird’. This is a convenient way to monitor the
biodiversity over a large span of area with meager or zero investment.
c) Scientists/experts in the related fields like taxonomy, ecology,
remote sensing must be involved in the process of periodic monitoring
so that possible biases are avoided and the monitoring processes get
critical evaluation and valuable inputs.
d) Private sectors are increasingly promoting or supporting monitoring
practices and are often encouraged by many Government departments.
Such programs are known as Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR),
Public-Private-Partnership (PPP) etc.
ii) Fix monitoring objectives.
iii) Look for existing data and indicators on which the project can be built.
iv) Prioritize suitable indicators. Emphasize on the SMART criteria. Choose
methodology based on similar studies. Suitable methodology may consider
sample size and variability in results (Coe 2008). Refer the standard methods
applicable for estimating different taxa. Apply necessary modifications
after considering the current condition.
v) Collect, analyze and interpret data in regular intervals and archive the raw
data for future use. Acquisition of data can be in three ways-
a) Systematically collected over time, following scientific methods like
remote sensing (satellite imagery, aerial photography etc) and field
observations at fixed plots or locations
b) Opportunistically collected data like camera trap data or human
interference records, during routine survey/monitoring especially in
protected areas
c) Third-party data provided by national or international organizations
like the International Union for Conservation of Nature and natural
resources (IUCN)
vi) Publish/communicate results of the monitoring.
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vii) Critically evaluate sampling methods and consider/propose modifications
for future replicate studies.

4.7 INVENTORY DATABASE MANAGEMENT

Biodiversity inventory is the process of scientifically documenting particular
taxa in a geographical unit. The documentation process involves thorough
survey of the area for the target taxa; record systematics, biogeography and
taxonomic details of the taxa; collection of voucher specimens when required, or
procurement of photo vouchers or genetic sample; deposit and make catalogues
of the findings in authorized repository like natural history museum or gene
bank; and communicate the study results through peer-reviewed publications.
The inventories are then referred to identify i) new species, threatened or
harmful species requiring conservation/study attention and ii) distribution
range of particular species. These may be the basis of many crucial studies
including the effects due to climate change. Biodiversity inventories are also
the foundation of evolution, phylogenetics, ecological studies and conservation
management decisions.

4.7.1 Approaches to inventory

Historically biodiversity inventories have been more taxon-specific. These
inventories emphasize on biogeography or systematics of species on which
little information is already available. Inventory data are often compromised
of basic ecological information. Usually they are skewed towards taxa which
were easy to sample. To overcome the limitations associated with inventories,
several new approaches have been in effect.
4.7.1.1 All Biota Taxonomic Inventory (ABTI)
Analyses of inventory data need involvement of various disciplines like taxonomy,
systematics, biogeography, statistics, ecology, management, economics etc.
Identification and cataloging of specimens are the most crucial part of any inventory.
These require long time and involvement of taxonomists/ subject experts. The
support tools often used in the inventories include Geographic Information System,
Image Processing and statistical equations/models. These are discussed below.

4.7.1.2 Database management: Primary data are those which are first collected
in the field and then archived in databases, either manually or with the help of
freely downloadable software like Biota (http://viceroy.eeb.uconn.edu/biota).
It is crucial to archive the inventory data in a proper way so that it is easily
accessible for any future reference/research/management program. There are
several databases, which are meticulously updated and open to everybody. Few
such internet-based databases can be found at the International Working Group
on Taxonomic Databases website (http://bgbm3.bgbm.fu-berlin.de/TDWG/
acc/Software.htm). The IUCN ‘Red list’ (https://www.iucnredlist.org/) is the
main source for data on world’s species from the conservation point of view.
The categories of species in ‘Red list’ vary from ‘critically endangered’ to ‘least
concern’. A similar database on the threatened ecosystems, is available (https://
iucnrle.org/). Global Invasive Species Database (GISD) provides information
on world’s alien invasive species, which are harmful for the native biodiversity
(http://www.iucngisd.org/gisd/).
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4.7.1.3 Geographic Information System (GIS) and Image processing: GIS
is necessary to get the habitat data/map of the place of inventory. Most widely
used software for this purpose in institutes/companies/organizations, is ArcGIS,
which is a paid product of Esri. There are also open source GIS software like
QGIS. There are several image processing and visualization software, which
add to the GIS maps or presentations. These software or packages, which
process the remotely sensed data like Landsat and aerial photographs, are freely
available in programs like ‘Python’ or ‘R’ and can be used in various computer
operating systems.

4.7.2 Statistical analyses: The commonest univariate statistical tests to

analyze species occurrence data and its variation over time, space and other
environmental variables, are Chi-square, Regression, Student’s t-test and
ANOVA. The common multivariate analyses are Principal Component Analysis
(PCA), Correspondence Analysis (CA) etc. But choosing an appropriate method
or using appropriate software depends on the research question asked in the
beginning.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: a) Use the space given below for your answers.

b) Check your answers with those given at the end of unit
1 Discuss the major ways of collecting data to estimate a population?

......................................................................................................................
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2. What is biodiversity inventory? Describe various approaches to inventory
of biodiversity ?

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4.8 LET US SUM UP

In this unit we have studies about the estimation of species diversity and
discussed why estimating relative abundance of species is important. The
estimation of ecosystem diversity, estimation of genetic diversity and methods
of population estimation and analysis are being discussed.

4.9 KEY WORDS

Species Diversity: Biodiversity at the species level, often combining aspects of
species richness, their relative abundance, and their dissimilarity.
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Species Richness: The number of species within a given sample, community,
or area

Phylogenetic Diversity : (PD) is expressed as a phylogenetic tree where the

branches represent different species and the sum of length for all the branches
is the length that connects all the taxa on the tree.

4.10 REFERENCES AND SUGGESTED

FURTHER READINGS
Bonney R., Shirk JL, Phillips TB, Wiggins A, Ballard HL, Miller-Rushing AJ
and Parrish JK. 2014. Next steps for citizen science. Science 343: 1436-143.

Boone JH, Mahan CG, and Kim KC. 2005. Biodiversity Inventory: Approaches,
Analysis, and Synthesis. Technical Report NPS/NER/NRTR--2005/015.
National Park Service. Philadelphia, PA.

Buckland ST, Anderson DR, Burnham KP, Laake JL, Borchers DL, and
Thomas L. 2001. Introduction to Distance Sampling: Estimating Abundance of
Biological Populations. London: Oxford University Press.

CBD. 2011. Recommendation adopted by the Subsidiary Body on Scientific,

Technical and Technological Advice at its fifteenth meeting XV/1. Indicator
framework for the Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020 and the Aichi
Biodiversity Targets. UNEP/CBD, Montreal.

CBD, Report of the Ad Hoc Technical Expert Group on Indicators for the
Strategic Plan for Biodiversity 2011-2020,Convention on Biological Diversity,
Geneva, Switzerland, 2015, p. 49; https:// www.cbd.int/doc/meetings/ind/id-
ahteg-2015-01/official/id-ahteg- 2015-01-03-en.pdf

Chao A, Jost L, Chiang SC, Jiang YH and Chazdon R. 2008. A Two-stage

probabilistic approach to multiple-community similarity indices, Biometrics
64, 1178-1186.

Chao A and Lee S-M. 1992. Estimating the number of classes via sample
coverage, Journal of American Statistical Association 87(417), 210-217.

Chao A. 1984. Non-parametric estimation of the number of classes in a

population, Scand . J. Stat. 11, 265-270.

Coe R. 2008. Designing ecological and biodiversity sampling strategies.

Working paper no. 66, World Agroforestry Centre, Nairobi.

Colwell RK. 2004. Estimates: Statistical estimation of species richness and

shared species from samples. Version 5. User’s Guide and application published
at: http://viceroy.eeb.uconn.edu/estimates

Colwell RK. 2009. Biodiversity: concepts, patterns, and measurement. P. 257-

263 in Levin SA (Ed.). The Princeton Guide to Ecology. Princeton Univ. Press,
Princeton, NJ.
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Danielsen F, Jensen PM, Burgess ND ….and Young R. 2014. Multicountry
assessment of tropical resource monitoring by local communities. Bioscience
64: 236–251.

Debinski DM and Humphrey PS. 1997. An integrated approach to biological

diversity assessment. Natural Areas Journal 17(4): 355-65.

Feinsinger P. 2001. Designing field studies for biodiversity conservation. Island

Press, Washington, DC.

Faith DP. 2013. Biodiversity and evolutionary history: useful extensions of

the PD phylogenetic diversity assessment framework. Ann N Y Acad Sci 1289:
69–89.

Garbach K, Milder JC …..& DeClerck FAJ. 2014. Biodiversity and ecosystem

services in agroecosystems. Encyclopedia of agriculture and food systems 2,
21-40. doi:10.1016/B978-0-444-52512-3.00013-9

Hill D, Fasham M, Tucker G, Shewry M & Shaw P (Eds.). 2005. Handbook

of biodiversity methods and monitoring: Survey, evaluation and monitoring.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.

Hone J. 1991. Analysis of animal survey data. In: Margules CR and Austin
MP (Eds). Nature Conservation: Cost Effective Biological Surveys and Data
Analysis. 42-46. CSIRO, Australia.

Magurran A. 1988. Ecological diversity and its measurement, New Jersey,

Princeton. University Press.

Magurran AE, Baillie SR, Buckland ST,….and Watt AD. 2010. Long-term
datasets in biodiversity research and monitoring. Trends in Ecology and
Evolution 25: 574–582.

Monitoring Matters. Website offering many useful scientific references

on participatory biodiversity monitoring for download. http://www.
monitoringmatters.org/publications.htm

Onial M, Jasmine B, Singh Y,…and Mathur VB. 2018. Updating India’s

National Biodiversity Action Plan: The process and way forward. Current
Science 115(3): 422-427.

Pirk CWW, De Miranda JR, Kramer M,…. and Dooremalen CV. 2013. Statistical
guidelines for Apis mellifera research. In Dietemann V, Ellis JD and Neumann
P (Eds) The Coloss Beebook, Volume I: standard methods for Apis mellifera
research. Journal of Apicultural Research 52(4): http://dx.doi.org/10.3896/
IBRA.1.52.4.13

Sanders HL. 1968. Marine benthic diversity: a comparative study. American

Naturalist 102:243-82.

Shannon CE. 1948. A mathematical theory of communications, Bell Syst. Techn.

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J27, 379-423, 623-656.

Simpson EH. 1949. Measurement of diversity, Nature 163, 688.

USGS/DOI (U. S. Geological Survey, Department of Interior). 2001. BioBlitz:

A tool for biodiversity exploration, education, and investigation. Bio-Blitz
Home Page, USGS <http://www.im.nbs.gov/blitz.html(6/5/01).

Vonesh JR, Joseph C, Mitchell K, Howell K. and Crawford AJ. 2010. Rapid
assessments of amphibian diversity, pp. 263- 281. In Dodd Jr., C. K. (Ed.),
Amphibian ecology and conservation: A handbook of techniques, Oxford
University Press.

Werner FA. and Gallo-Orsi, U. 2016. Biodiversity Monitoring for Natural

Resource Management. An Introductory Manual. GIZ, Eschborn and Bonn,
Germany.

Zahl S. 1977. Jackknifing an index of diversity, Ecology 58, 907-913.

Zar JH. 1999. Biostatistical Analysis, Pearson Education, New Jersey.

4.11 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1
1. Your answer must include the following points
• Ways of collecting data to estimate a population (Refer section 4.3.1)
2. Your answer must include the following points
• Approaches to biodiversity inventory (Refer section 4.7)

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