English Grammar

The Sentence

In our written communication, we generally use words in groups; as,

Little cat sat in a corner.

A group of words like this, which makes complete sense, is called a Sentence.

Sentences are made of two parts: the subject and the predicate.
The subject is the person or thing that performs some action or we describe
something about that person or thing.
The predicate, on the other hand, is that action or description about that person or
thing.
Complete sentences need both the subject and the predicate.

The Clause

Sentences can be broken down into clauses. For example:

The boy is going to the school, and he is going to eat there.
This is a complete sentence composed of two clauses. There are mainly two types
of clauses: independent clauses and subordinate clauses.
Independent clauses act as complete sentences, while subordinate clauses cannot
stand alone and need another clause to complete their meaning. For example:
Independent clause: “The boy went to the school.”/ " He has a chain of gold.
Subordinate clause: “After the boy went to the school…” / " ...which is made of
gold."
He has a chain which is made of gold.

The Phrase
A group of two or more grammatically linked words that do not have subject and
predicate is a phrase. For example:
The girl is at home, and tomorrow she is going to the amusement park.
You can see that “the amusement park” is a phrase located in the second clause of
the complete sentence above.

Parts of Speech

Words are divided into different kinds or classes, called Parts of Speech according
to their use. The function the word serves in a sentence is what makes it whatever
part of speech it is.
For example, the word “run” can be used as more than one part of speech:
Sammy hit a home run. (run is a noun, direct object of hit)
You mustn’t run near the swimming pool. (run is a verb, part of the verb
phrase must (not) run)
The parts of speech are eight in number:

1. Adjective
2. Adverb
3. Conjunction
4. Interjection
5. Noun
6. Preposition
7. Pronoun
8. Verb

These eight categories can be expanded e.g. by Article and Numeral. In the
following tables we concentrate on the eight main categories.

Parts of
Examples
Speech
Look! He is sitting on an old chair and
Adjective
is snoring loudly.
Look! He is sitting on an old chair and
Adverb
is snoring loudly.
Look! He is sitting on an old chair and is snoring
Conjunction
loudly.
Look! He is sitting on an old chair and is snoring
Interjection
loudly.
Look! He is sitting on an old chair and is snoring
Noun
loudly.
Look! He is sitting on an old chair and is snoring
Preposition
loudly.
Look! He is sitting on an old chair and is snoring
Pronoun
loudly.
Look! He is sitting on an old chair and is
Verb
snoring loudly.
Parts of
Explanation
Speech
describes a noun or a pronouns (how something
Adjective
or someone is)
describes a verb, an adjective or an adverb (how
Adverb
someone does something)
Conjunction joins words or phrases
Interjection expresses a feeling
Noun names a person or a thing
expresses a connection between persons or
Preposition
things
Pronoun can substitute a noun
Verb expresses an action or a state
NOUN – Nouns are naming words. We cannot talk about anything until we have
given it a name. It is a word used as the name of a person, place and thing.
The rose smells sweet.
Akbar was a great king.
His courage won him honour.
PRONOUN – A pronoun is a word that is used instead of a noun.
Ali is absent, because he is ill.
The books are where you left them.
VERBS – The verb is the motor that runs the sentence. A verb enables us to say
something about a noun. It is used to express an action or state.
Karachi is a big city.
The girl wrote a letter to her cousin.
ADJECTIVE – An adjective is a word that describes a noun. It is used to add
something to the meaning of a noun.
Ahmad is tall boy.
There are fifty boys in the class.
ADVERB – An adverb adds something to the meaning of a verb, an adjective, or
another adverb.
The horse runs swiftly.
She pronounced the word quite correctly.
PREPOSITION – A preposition is a word that comes in front of a noun or a pronoun
and shows a connection between that noun or pronoun and some other word in the
sentence.
There is a cow in the garden.
A fair little girl sat under a tree.
CONJUNCTION – A conjunction joins words and groups of words.
I ran fast, but missed the train.
Two and two make four.
INTERJECTION — An interjection is a word or phrase thrown into a sentence to
express an emotion, for example:
Hurrah! we have won the game.
Oh! she fell from stairs.
The Noun
A noun is a word used to describe a person, place, thing, event, idea, and so on.
Nouns represent one of the main elements of sentences, along with verbs,
adjectives, prepositions and articles.
Nouns usually function as subjects or objects within sentences, although they can
also act as adjectives and adverbs.
Here is a list with the different types of nouns:
1. Proper nouns
Used to describe a unique person or thing, proper nouns always start with a capital
letter. Examples include Maria, Pakistan, and Manchester United.
2. Common nouns
Common nouns are used to describe persons or things in general. Examples
include girl, country, and team
3. Concrete nouns
Nouns that can be perceived through the five senses are called concrete nouns.
Examples include ball, rainbow and melody.
4. Abstract nouns
Nouns that cannot be perceived through the five senses are called abstract nouns.
Examples include love, courage, and childhood.
5. Countable nouns

Countable nouns can be counted. They also have both a singular and a plural form.
Examples include toys, children and books.
6. Non-countable nouns
These nouns (usually) cannot be counted, and they don’t have a plural form.
Examples include sympathy, laughter and oxygen.
7. Collective nouns
Collective nouns are used to describe groups of things. Examples include flock,
committee and murder.
The Pronoun
Pronouns are used to replace nouns within sentences, making them less repetitive
and mechanic. For example, saying “Maria didn’t go to school because Maria was
sick” does not sound very good. Instead, if we say “Maria didn’t go to school
because she was sick” it will make the sentence flow better.
There are several types of pronouns, below we will find the most common ones:
1. Subjective personal pronouns. As the name implies, subjective pronouns act
as subjects within sentences. They are: I, you, he, she, we, they, and it.
Example: I am going to the bank while he is going to the market.
2. Objective personal pronouns. These pronouns act as the object of verbs
within sentences. They are: me, you, him, her, us, them and it.
Example: The ball was going to hit me in the face.
3. Possessive personal pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate
possession, and they are placed after the object in question (as opposed to
possessive adjectives like my and your, which are placed before the object). They
are: mine, yours, his, hers, ours, theirs and its.
Example of possessive adjective: This is my car.
Example of possessive pronoun: This car is mine.
4. Reflexive pronouns. This special class of pronouns is used when the object is
the same as the subject on the sentence. They are myself, yourself, himself, herself,
ourselves, themselves and itself.
Example: I managed to cut myself in the kitchen.
5. Interrogative pronouns. These pronouns are used to ask questions. They
are what, which, who, whom and whose.
Example: What are the odds?
6. Demonstrative pronouns. These pronouns are used to indicate a noun and
distinguish it from other entities. Notice that demonstrative pronouns replace the
noun (while demonstrative determiners modify them). They are: this, that,
Example of a demonstrative determiner: This house is ugly.
Example of a demonstrative pronoun: This is the right one.
7. Indefinite pronouns. As the name implies, indefinite pronouns do not refer to a
specific thing, place or person. There are many of them, including anyone,
anywhere, everyone, none, someone and so on.
Example: Everyone is going to the party.
The Verbs
Verbs are the most important component of any sentence. These words talk about
the action or the state of any noun or subject. This means that verbs show what the
subject is doing or what is the state or situation of the subject.

He ran to the store. - Here the verb ran describes the action of the subject ‘he’

She is a creative person. - Here there is no action being done. Instead the auxiliary
verb ‘is’ shows the state of the subject ‘she’ as being ‘creative’.

English has three kinds of Verbs: transitive, intransitive, and incomplete.

1. Transitive Verbs:
Transitive means "pass over". So, a transitive verb is a verb which passes over to an
object on which, or for which some action is performed. as:
The farmer grows potatoes. Elena sang ballads.
The receiver is called the direct object. It answers the question “What?” or “Whom?
after the verb. Grows what? Potatoes. Sang what? Ballads.
Here "grows" and "sang" are transitive verbs which pass over to objects "potatoes"
and "Ballads" respectively.
2. Intransitive Verbs
A verb is intransitive when the action stays with the verb. It does not pass over to
any object:
Corn grows. Elvis sang.
Adding a prepositional phrase to modify the verb does not change the fact that the
action remains with the subject:
Corn grows in the fields. Elvis sang all over the world.
Both transitive and intransitive verbs are action verbs.
3. Incomplete Verbs
There are three types of incomplete verbs:
i. Being verbs – also called linking or copulative verbs
to be, seem, become, taste, smell, sound, feel
TIP: Some of these verbs can also be used transitively. If in doubt, substitute a form
of to be for the verb. If the sentence still makes sense, the verb is being used as a
copulative verb:
He feels depressed. He is depressed.
He feels the wall. He is the wall.
ii. Auxiliary verbs – also called helping verbs
be, have, shall, will, do, and may.
He could have gone earlier.
iii. Semi-auxiliary verbs
must, can, ought, dare, need.
You must not go. You dare not go.
Verb Tense
Modern English has six tenses, each of which has a corresponding continuous tense.
The first three tenses, present, past, and future, present few problems. Only third
person singular in the present tense differs in form:
Present tense of regular (weak) verbs:
Today I walk. Today he walks.
Yesterday I walked.
Tomorrow I shall/will walk.
The dwindling class of irregular (strong) verbs must be learned individually.
Today I go. Today he goes.
Yesterday I went.
Tomorrow I shall/will go.
The other three tenses, perfect, past perfect, and future perfect, are formed
with the helping verbs have, has, and had.
Perfect: used to express an event that has just finished, and to describe an event
which, although in the past, has effects that continue into the present.
Queen Elizabeth has reigned for 56 years.
Past perfect: used to express an event that took place before another action, also
in the past.
I had driven all the way to Oklahoma when I realized my mistake.
Future perfect: used to express an event that will have taken place at some time
in the future.
As of February 26, I shall have been in this job six years.
Verbs Voice
English verbs are said to have two voices: active and passive.
Active Voice: The subject of the sentence performs the action:
His son catches fly balls. Creative children often dream in class.
Note: Verbs in the active voice may be either transitive or intransitive.
Passive Voice: The subject receives the action:
The ball was caught by the first baseman.
The duty is performed by the new recruits.
The dough was beaten by the mixer.
The mailman was bitten by the dog.
Only transitive verbs can be used in the passive voice. What would be the direct
object of the verb in the active voice becomes the subject of the verb in the passive
voice:
Active voice: The dog bit the mailman. “bit” is a transitive verb. The
receiver/direct object is “mailman.”
Passive voice: The mailman was bitten by the dog. “bit” is now in the passive
voice. The “receiver” has become the subject of the verb.
A passive verb in either present or past tense will always have two parts: some form
of the verb to be (am, is, are, was, were), and a past participle (verb form ending in
-ed, -en, or any form used with have when forming a perfect tense).
NOTE: The mere presence of the verb to be does not indicate that a verb is in the
passive voice. The test of a verb in the passive voice is the two-part question:
Is the subject performing the action of the verb or is the subject receiving the action
of the verb?
If the subject is receiving the action, then the verb is in passive voice.
Sometimes the passive voice is the best way to express a thought.
The Adjective
An adjective is a word that describes a noun. There are two kinds: attributive and
predicative.
An adjective is used attributively when it stands next to a noun and describes it:
The black cat climbed a tree.
NOTE: The verb participle forms can be used as adjectives:
The man felt a paralyzing fear. Flavored oatmeal tastes better than plain
oatmeal.
The usual place of the adjective in English is in front of the noun. You can have a
whole string of adjectives if you like: The tall thin evil-looking cowboy roped
the short, fat, inoffensive calf.
Sometimes, for rhetorical or poetic effect, the adjective can come after the noun:
Sarah Plain and Tall (book title)
This is the forest primeval.
An adjective is used predicatively when a verb separates it from the noun or
pronoun it describes:
The umpire was wrong.
The crowd was furious.
She seems tired today.
This soup tastes bad.
The dog’s coat feels smooth.
The verbs that can be completed by predicate adjectives are called being
verbs or copulative verbs. They include all the forms of to be and sensing verbs
like seem, feel, and taste.
Adjective Classifications
qualitative: good, bad, happy, blue, French
possessive: my, thy, his, her, its, our, your, their
relative and interrogative: which, what, whatever, etc.
numeral: one, two, second, single, etc.
indefinite: some, any, much, few, every, etc.
demonstrative: this, that, the, a (an), such
NOTE: the demonstrative adjectives the and a (an) are so important in English that
they have a special name: articles. They are discussed separately (i.e. coming
soon).
The Adverbs
Adverbs are used to describe or modify a verb, adjective, clause, or another
adverb. Basically, they modify everything except nouns and pronouns (which are
modified by adjectives).
Example of an adverb modifying a verb:
He was running fast. (fast modifies running)
Example of an adverb modifying an adjective:
She took a very small piece of the cake. (very modifies small)
Example of an adverb modifying a sentence:
Strangely, the man left the room. (strangely modifies the whole sentence)
Usually adverbs answer to the questions “When?” (adverbs of time), “Where?”
(adverbs of place), and “How?” (adverbs of manner).
Adverbs can also be used to connect clauses and sentences (in this case they are
called conjunctive adverbs). For example:
It was dark. Therefore, we needed the torch. (therefore connects the two sentences)
The Preposition
Prepositions are used to link nouns and pronouns to other words within a
sentence. The words linked to are called objects.
Usually prepositions show a spatial or temporal relationship between the noun and
the object, like in the example below:
The cat is under the table.
Cat is the noun. Under is the preposition. Table is the object.
Here is a list with the most common prepositions: about, above, after, among,
around, along, at, before, behind, beneath, beside, between, by, down, from, in,
into, like, near, of, off, on, out, over, through, to, up, upon, under, and with.
Notice that you can also have a prepositional phrase, which is formed by the
preposition and its object. A preposition phrase can function as adverb, adjective or
noun. For example:
The dog was running under the rain.
The prepositional phrase “under the rain” acts as an adverb, specifying where the
dog was running.
The Conjunction

A conjunction joins words and groups of words.

There are two classes of conjunction: co-
ordinate orcoordinating and subordinateor subordinating.
Co-ordinate conjunctions: and, but, either…or, neither…nor.
Subordinate conjunctions: that, as, after, before, since, when, where, unless, if.
Mother and Father are driving me to New Orleans. (and is a coordinate conjunction
joining words of equal significance in the sentence.
I painted the walls but Jack painted the woodwork. (but is a coordinate conjunction
joining clauses of equal significance in the sentence. Either clause could stand alone
as a sentence.)
Since you can’t get away, we’ll go without you.
(Since is a subordinate conjunction joining a less important thought to a more
important thought. The main clause, we’ll go without you, can stand alone as a
complete thought. The subordinate clause, Since you can’t get away, is an
incomplete thought. It is dependent upon the main clause for meaning.)
NOTE: The relative pronouns who, whom, which, and that are used in the same way
that subordinate conjunctions are. The difference is that the relative pronouns serve
three purposes at once:
1) they stand for a noun in the main clause
2) they connect the clauses
3) they serve as a subject or object word in the subordinate clause:
He is the man who invented the hula hoop. (who stands for man and is the subject
of invented)
Charles is the boy whom the other children tease. (whom stands for boy and is the
object of tease)
Give me the piece of string that is waxed. (that stands for string and is the subject
of is waxed)
There goes the horse which won the Derby. (which refers to horse and is the
subject of won)
The possessive adjective whose can also be used to join clauses:
That’s the bird whose plumage I admire. (Whose refers to bird and describes
plumage)
The Interjection

Interjection comes from a Latin word that means “throw between.” It’s a word or
phrase that is thrown into a sentence to express an emotion:
Goodness, how you’ve grown!
Darn, I forgot my lunch!
Alas, will he never return?
Strictly speaking, an interjection is not a part of speech. It serves no grammatical
function but is rather “a noisy utterance like the cry of an animal” (F.J. Rahtz).
Interjections express feeling or emotion, not thought and have been called “the
miserable refuge of the speechless.”